TEN YEARS OF THE REIGN OF THE CITIZEN KING.
Besides the affairs of the Duchesse de Berri, of Louis Napoleon,
of Fieschi and his infernal machine, and difficulties attending
on the marriage of the Duke of Orleans, the first ten years of
Louis Philippe's reign were full of vicissitudes. France after a
revolution is always an "unquiet sea that cannot rest, whose waters
cast up mire and dirt." Frenchmen do not accept the inevitable
as Americans have learned to do, through the working of their
institutions.
One of the early troubles of Louis Philippe was the peremptory
demand of President Jackson for five million dollars,--a claim
for French spoliations in 1797. This amount had been acknowledged
by the Government of Louis Philippe to be due, but the Chambers
were not willing to ratify the agreement. In the course of the
negotiations the secretary of General Jackson, having occasion to
translate to him a French despatch, read, "The French Government
_demands_--" "Demands!" cried the general, with a volley of rough
language; "if the French Government dares to _demand_ anything
of the United States, it will not get it."
It was long before he could be made to understand the true meaning
of the French word _demande_, and his own demands were backed with
threats and couched in terms more forcible than diplomatic. The
money was paid after the draft of the United States for the first
instalment had been protested, and France has not yet forgotten that
when she was still in the troubled waters of a recent revolution,
she was roughly treated by the nation which she had befriended at
its birth.
The greatest military success in Louis Philippe's reign was the
capture of Constantine in Algeria. So late as 1810 Algerine corsairs
were a terror in the Mediterranean, and captured M. Arago, who was
employed on a scientific expedition.[1] In 1835, France resolved
to undertake a crusade against these pirates, which might free the
commerce of the Mediterranean. The enterprise was not popular in
France. It would cost money, and it seemed to present no material
advantages. It was argued that its benefits would accrue only to
the dynasty of Louis Philippe, that Algeria would be a good
training-school for the army, and that the main duty of the army
in future might be to repress republicanism.
[Footnote 1: About the same time they took prisoner a cousin of
my father, John Warner Wormeley, of Virginia. He was sold into
slavery; but when tidings of his condition reached his friends,
he was ransomed by my grandfather.]
In 1834, a young Arab chief called Abdul Kader, the son of a Marabout
of great sanctity, had risen into notice. Abdul Kader was a man
who realized the picture of Saladin drawn by Sir Walter Scott in
the "Talisman." Brave, honorable, chivalrous, and patriotic, his
enemies admired him, his followers adored him. When he made his
first treaty with the French, he answered some doubts that were
expressed concerning his sincerity by saying gravely: "My word
is sacred; I have visited the tomb of the Prophet."
Constantine, the mountain fortress of Oran, was held, not by Abdul
Kader, but by Ahmed Bey, the representative of the sultan's suzerainty
in the Barbary States. The first attack upon it failed. The weather
and the elements fought against the French in this expedition.
General Changarnier distinguished himself in their retreat, and
the Duc de Nemours showed endurance and bravery.
From the moment of that repulse, popular enthusiasm was aroused.
A cry rang through France that Constantine must be taken. It was
captured two years later, after a siege in which two French
commanders-in-chief and many generals were killed. Walls fell,
and mines exploded; the place at last was carried by assault. At
one moment, when even French soldiers wavered, a legion of foreign
dare-devils (chiefly Irishmen and Englishmen) were roused by an English
hurrah from the man who became afterwards Marshal Saint-Arnaud. With
echoing cheers they followed him up the breach, the army followed
after them, and the city was won.
Louis Philippe had been raised to power by four great men,--Lafayette,
Laffitte, Talleyrand, and Thiers. Of these, Laffitte and Lafayette
retained little influence in his councils, and both died early
in his reign. In 1838 died Talleyrand,--the prince of the old
diplomatists. The king and his sister, Madame Adélaïde, visited
him upon his death-bed. Talleyrand, supported by his secretary,
sat up to receive the king. He was wrapped in a warm dressing-gown,
with the white curls he had always cherished, flowing over his
shoulders, while the king sat near him, dressed in his claret-colored
coat, brown wig, and varnished boots. Some one who was present
whispered that it was an interview between the last of the _ancienne
noblesse_ and the first citizen _bourgeois_. Rut the old courtier
was touched by the intended kindness, and when the king was about
to go away, he said, half rising: "Sire, this honor to my house
will be gratefully remembered in the annals of my family."
Deep and true was the grief felt for the loss of Talleyrand in
his own household; many and bitter have been the things said of
his character and his career. He himself summed up his life in some
words written shortly before his death, which read like another
verse in the Book of Ecclesiastes:--
"Eighty-three years have rolled away! How many cares, how many
anxieties! How many hatreds have I inspired, how many exasperating
complications have I known! And all this with no other result than
great moral and physical exhaustion, and a deep feeling of
discouragement as to what may happen in the future,--disgust, too,
as I think over the past."
A writer in "Temple Bar" (probably Dr. Jevons) speaks of Prince
Talleyrand thus:--
"On his private life it would be unfair to pass judgment without
taking into consideration the turbulence and lawlessness, the immorality
and corruption both social and political, which characterized the
stormy epoch in which he was called to play a very prominent part.
If he did not pass through it blameless, he was less guilty than
many others; if his hands were not pure, at least they were not
blood-stained; and it is possible that, as Bourienne, who knew
him well, says: 'History will speak as favorably of him as his
contemporaries have spoken ill.'"
The summer of 1840 seemed peaceful and serene, when a storm burst
suddenly out of a cloudless sky. It was a new phase of that Eastern
Question which unhappily was not settled in the days of the Crusades,
but has survived to be a disturbing element in the nineteenth century.
Two men were engaged in a fierce struggle in the East, and, as usual,
they drew the Powers of the West and North into their quarrel.
Sultan Mahmoud, who had come to the throne in 1808, had done his
best to destroy the power of his pashas. He hated such powerful and
insubordinate nobles, and after the destruction of the Mamelukes
in 1811, he placed Egypt under the rule of the bold Macedonian
soldier, Mehemet Ali, not as a pasha, but as viceroy. In course
of time, as the dominions of Sultan Mahmoud became more and more
disorganized by misgovernment and insurrection, Mehemet Ali sent
his adopted son, Ibrahim Pasha, with an army into Syria. Ibrahim
conquered that province and governed it far better than the Turks
had done, when he was stopped by a Russian army (1832), which,
under pretence of assisting the sultan, interfered in the quarrel.
An arrangement was effected by what is called the treaty of
Unkiar-Thelessi. Ibrahim was to retain the pashalik of Syria for
his life, and Russia stipulated that no vessels of war should be
allowed to pass the Dardanelles or Hellespont without the consent
of the sultan.
Mehemet Ali, who was anxious above all things to have his viceroyalty
in Egypt made hereditary, that he might transmit his honors to his
brave son, cast about in every direction to find friends among
European diplomatists. Six years before, he had proposed to England,
France, and Austria a partition of the sultan's empire. "Russia,"
he said, "is half mistress of Turkey already. She has established
a protectorate over half its subjects, who are Greek Christians,
and where she professes to protect, she oppresses instead. If she
seizes Constantinople, there is the end of your European civilization.
I am a Turk, but I propose to you to inaugurate a crusade which
will save Turkey and save Europe. I will raise my standard against
the czar; I will put at your disposal my army, fleet, and treasure;
I will lead the van; and in return I ask only my independence of
the Porte and an acknowledgment of me as an hereditary sovereign."
This proposition was promptly declined. It was renewed, in 1838,
in a modified form, but again England, France, and Austria would
not listen to the viceroy's reasoning. Mehemet Ali became a prey
to despair.
Sultan Mahmoud meantime was no less a victim to resentment and
anxiety. He hated his enforced subservience to Russia, and above
all he hated his great subject and rival, Mehemet Ali. With fury
in his heart he watched how, shred by shred, his great empire was
wrenched away from him,--Greece, Syria, Servia, Algiers, Moldavia,
and Wallachia. Little remained to him but Constantinople and its
surrounding provinces. Russia, all-powerful in the Black Sea, could
at any moment force him to give up to her the key of the Dardanelles.
Among the Turks (the only part of his subjects on whom he could rely)
were many malcontents. Fanatic dervishes predicted his overthrow,
and called him the Giaour Sultan. He had destroyed Turkish customs,
outraged Turkish feelings, and by the massacre o the Janissaries,
in 1826, he had sapped Turkish strength. He now began in his own
person to set at nought the precepts of the Koran. All day he worked
with frenzy, and at night he indulged himself in frightful orgies,
till, dead drunk, he desisted from his madness, and was carried
by his slaves to his bed.[1]
[Footnote 1: Louis Blanc, Dix Ans.]
In the early months of 1839 Mahmoud made quiet preparations to
thrust Ibrahim Pasha out of Syria; and in June a great battle was
fought between the Egyptians and the Turks on the banks of the
Euphrates, in which Ibrahim Pasha, by superior generalship, wholly
defeated the Turkish commander, Hafiz Pasha.
Sultan Mahmoud never heard of this disaster. He died of _delirium
tremens_ the very week that it took place, and his son, Abdul Medjid,
mounted his throne. Ibrahim Pasha immediately after his victory
had made ready to threaten Constantinople, when despatches from
his father arrested him. Mehemet wrote that France had promised
to take the part of Egypt, and to settle all her difficulties by
diplomacy.
Meantime the new sultan, or his vizier, having offended the Capitan
Pasha (or Admiral of the Fleet), that officer thought proper to
carry the ships under his command over to Mehemet Ali.
It was a proud day for the viceroy when the Turkish ships sailed
into the harbor of Alexandria. This defection of the fleet so
discouraged Abdul Medjid that he offered his vassal terms of peace,
by which he consented to Mehemet's hereditary viceroyalty in Egypt,
and Ibrahim Pasha's hereditary possession of the pashalik of Syria.
But the Great Powers would not consent to this dismemberment of the
Turkish Empire. A fierce struggle in diplomacy took place between
France and England, which might have resulted in an open rupture,
had not Louis Philippe and Marshal Soult (then Minister for Foreign
Affairs in France) been both averse to war. The old marshal had
seen more than enough of it, and Louis Philippe felt that peace
alone could strengthen his party,--the _bourgeoisie_. Mehemet Ali,
his rights and his wrongs, seem to have been entirely overlooked
in the tempest of diplomacy.
After some weeks of great excitement the Five Great Powers agreed
among themselves that Mehemet Ali should become the Khedive, or
hereditary viceroy, of Egypt, but that he must give up Syria. To
this he demurred, and the allied troops attacked Ibrahim Pasha.
Admiral Sir Charles Napier bombarded his stronghold, St. Jean d'Acre,
and forced him into submission. The triumph of Lord Palmerston's
policy was complete; as Charles Greville remarked: "Everything
has turned out well for him. He is justified by the success of
his operations, and by the revelations in the French Chambers of
the intentions of M. Thiers; and it must be acknowledged he has
a fair right to plume himself on his diplomacy."
After the death of Talleyrand, only M. Thiers remained of the four
great men who had assisted Louis Philippe to attain supreme power.
M. Thiers was not insensible to the advantage it would be to his
History of the Consulate and Empire, if he could add to it a last
and brilliant chapter describing the restoration to France of the
mortal remains of her great emperor. Therefore in the early part
of 1840, before any disturbance of the _entente cordiale_, he made
a request to the English Government for the body of Napoleon, then
lying beneath a willow-tree at Longwood, on a desolate island that
hardly seemed to be part of the civilized world. Lord Palmerston
responded very cordially, and Louis Philippe's third son, the Prince
de Joinville, in his frigate, the "Belle Poule," attended by other
French war-ships, was despatched upon the errand. Napoleon had died
May 5, 1821. For almost twenty years his body had reposed at St.
Helena. With the Prince de Joinville went Bertrand and Gourgaud,
who had been the Emperor's companions in captivity.
The coffin was raised and opened. The face was perfect. The beard,
which had been shaved before the burial, had apparently a week's
growth. The white satin which had lined the lid of the coffin had
crumbled into dust, and lay like a mist over the body, which was
dressed in a green uniform, with the cocked hat across its knees.
The corpse was transferred to another coffin brought from France, and
was carried over the rough rocks of St. Helena by English soldiers.
All the honors that in that remote island England could give to her
former captive were respectfully offered; and early in December,
1840, news arrived in Paris that the "Belle Poule" had reached
Havre.
This was sooner than her arrival had been looked for, and at once
all Paris was in a scramble of preparation. Laborers and artists
worked night and day. The weather was piercingly cold. Indeed, no
less than three hundred English were said to have died of colds
contracted on the day of the funeral procession.
The body was landed at Courbevoie from a flat-bottomed barge that
had been constructed to bring it up the Seine. Courbevoie is about
two miles from the Arch of Triumph, which is again nearly the same
distance from the Place de la Concorde.
Between each gilded lamp-post, with its double burners, and beneath
long rows of leafless trees, were colossal plaster statues of Victory,
alternating with colossal vases burning incense by day, and inflammable
materials for illumination by night. Thus the procession attending the
body had about five miles to march from the place of disembarkation
to the Invalides, on the left bank of the Seine. The spectators began
to assemble before dawn. All along the route scaffoldings had been
erected, containing rows upon rows of seats. All the trees, bare and
leafless at that season, were filled with freezing _gamins_. All
the wide pavements were occupied. Before long, rows of National
Guards fringed the whole avenue. They were to fall in behind the
procession as it passed, and accompany it to the Invalides.
The arrival of the funeral barge had been retarded while the authorities
hastened the preparations for its reception. When the body of Napoleon
was about to re-land on French soil, "cannon to right of it, cannon
to left of it, volleyed and thundered." The coffin was received
beneath what was called a votive monument,--a column one hundred
feet in height, with an immense gilded globe upon the top, surmounted
by a gilded eagle twenty feet high. Banners and tripods were there
_ad libitum_, and a vast plaster bas-relief cast in the "Belle
Poule's" honor.
The coffin, having been landed, was placed upon a catafalque, the
cannon gave the signal to begin the march, and the procession started.
The public was given to understand that in a sort of funeral casket
blazing with gold and purple, on the top of the catafalque, twenty
feet from the ground, was enclosed the coffin of the Emperor; but
it was not so. The sailors of the "Belle Poule" protested that the
catafalque was too frail, and the height too great. They dared
not, they said, attempt to get the lead-lined coffin up to the
place assigned for it, still less try to get it down again. It was
consequently deposited, for fear of accident, on a low platform
between the wheels.
First came the gendarmes, or mounted police, with glittering brazen
breastplates, waving horse-hair crests, fine horses, and a band
of trumpeters; then the mounted Garde Municipale; then Lancers;
then the Lieutenant-General commanding the National Guard of Paris,
surrounded by his staff, and all officers, of whatever grade, then
on leave in the capital. These were followed by infantry, cavalry,
sappers and miners, Lancers, and Cuirassiers, staff-officers, etc.,
with bands and banners. Then came a carriage containing the chaplain
who had had charge of the body from the time it left St. Helena,
following whom were a crowd of military and naval officers. Next
appeared a led charger, son of a stallion ridden by Napoleon, and
soon after came a bevy of the marshals of France. Then all the
banners of the eighty-six departments, and at last the funeral
catafalque.
As it passed under the Arch of Triumph, erected by Napoleon in
commemoration of his victories, there were hundreds in the crowd
who expected to see the Emperor come to life again.
Strange to say, the universal cry was "Vive l'empereur!" One heard
nowhere "Vive le roi!"
The funeral car was hung with purple gauze embroidered with golden
bees. As I said, the coffin of the Emperor was suffered to repose
upon a gilded buckler supported by four golden caryatides; but it
was, as the sailors would have said, "stowed safely in the hold."
The catafalque was hung all over with wreaths, emblems, and banners.
It had solid gilded wheels, and was drawn by eight horses covered
with green velvet, embroidered with gold bees; each horse was led
by a groom in the Bonaparte livery. At the four corners of the car,
holding the tassels of the pall, rode two marshals, an admiral,
and General Bertrand, who had shared the captivity of the Emperor.
Count Montholon was not suffered to leave his imprisonment for the
occasion, though he also had been a companion of the Emperor at
St. Helena. Around the catafalque marched the five hundred sailors
of the "Belle Poule," headed by their captain, the Prince de
Joinville,--slender, tall, and dark, a very naval-looking man.
He was supposed to be intensely hostile to England, and only to
be kept in check by a strong hand. Then came all the Emperor's
aides-de-camp who were still living, and all the aged veterans in
Paris who had served under him. This was the most touching feature
of the procession. Many tears were shed by the spectators, and a
thrill ran through the hearts of eight hundred thousand people as
the catafalque creaked onward, passing under the arch which celebrated
Napoleon's triumphs, and beneath which at other times no carriage
was allowed to pass. But enthusiasm rose to the highest point at the
sight of the veterans in every kind of faded uniform,--Grenadiers
of the Guard, Chasseurs, Dragoons of the Empress, Red Lancers,
Mamelukes, Poles, and, above all, the Old Guard. "Vive la Vieille
Garde!" shouted the multitude; "Vive les Polonais! Vive l'empereur!"
The funeral was a political blunder. It stirred up the embers of
Napoleonism. Ten years later they blazed into a consuming fire.
The procession passed through the Place de la Concorde, beneath
the shadow of the obelisk of Luxor, which of old had looked on
triumphs and funeral processions in Egypt; then it crossed the
Seine. On the bridge were eight colossal statues, representing
prudence, strength, justice, war, agriculture, art commerce, and
eloquence.
The statues along the Champs Elysées were Victories, each inscribed
with the name of some Napoleonic battle. Great haste had been required
to get them ready. At the last moment Government had had to order
from certain manufactories pairs of wings by the dozen, and bucklers
and spears in the same way. All night the artists had been fixing
these emblems on their statues. A statue of Marshal Ney, which
had been ordered among those of the other marshals, was found to
be, not of colossal, but of life size. It had to be hurriedly cut
into three parts. The deficiency in the torso was concealed by
flags, and the "bravest of the brave" took his place on a par with
his comrades.
On the steps of the Chamber of Deputies was a colossal statue of
Immortality, designed for the top of the Pantheon, but pressed
into service on this occasion, holding forth a gilded crown as if
about to place it on the coffin of the Emperor.
At the gate of the Invalides was another genuine statue, Napoleon
in his imperial robes was holding forth the cordon of the Legion
of Honor. This statue had been executed for the Pillar at Boulogne
commemorative of the Army of England. It was surrounded by plaster
statues of the departments of France, and was approached through a
long line of marshals, statesmen, and the most illustrious of French
kings, among them Louis XIV., who would have been much astonished to
find himself rendering homage to a soldier of barely gentlemanly
birth, born on an island which was not French in his time.
The coffin was borne by sailors into the Chapelle Ardente at the
Invalides. "Sire," said Prince de Joinville to his father, "I present
to you the body of the Emperor Napoleon."
"I receive it in the name of France," replied the king.
Then Marshal Soult put the Emperor's sword into the king's hand.
"General Bertrand," said the king, "I charge you to lay it on the
coffin of the Emperor. General Gourgaud, place the Emperor's hat
also on the coffin."
Then began the appropriate religious ceremonies, and during the
following week the public were admitted to view the coffin as it
lay in state in the Chapelle Ardente. The crowd was very great.
Women fainted daily, and many were almost pressed to death against
the gilded rails.
After all, there was little to see. The coffin was enclosed in a
sort of immense cage to keep it from intrusion, the air was heavy
with incense, and the light was too dimly religious to show anything
with distinctness.
A splendid tomb has since been erected to Napoleon in the Chapel
of the Invalides, where he rests under the care of the war-worn
soldiers of France. Few now can be living who fought under him.
Not a Bonaparte was at his funeral; the only one then upon French
soil was in a prison.
Napoleon sleeps where in his will he prayed that his remains might
rest,--on the banks of the Seine.