NATURAL RESOURCES, AGRICULTURE, GENERAL CONDITIONS
Principal cultivated products--Timber--The three climatic zones--
General agricultural conditions--Waste of forests--Irrigation--Region
of the river Nazas--Canal-making--Cotton and sugar-cane--Profitable
agriculture--Mexican country-houses--Fruit gardens--Food products,
cereals, and fibrous plants--_Pulque_ production--India-rubber and
_guayule_--List of agricultural products and values--Fruit culture and
values--Forestry and land--Colonisation--American land-sharks--
Conditions of labour--Asiatics--Geographical distribution of products--
The States of the Pacific slope--Sonora--Lower California--Sinaloa--
Tepic--Jalisco--Colima--Michoacan--Guerrero--Oaxaca--Chiapas.
With its remarkable variations of climatic zones and great wealth and
variety of vegetation, it might have been supposed that agriculture,
not mining, would have been the great mainstay of Mexico. But the fame
of silver has overshadowed that of corn, wine, and oil, to the
country's detriment, in a certain sense. Agriculture must be the
foundation of greatness, in the long run, of any country, especially of
those which are not manufacturing communities--or even of those as time
goes on, and Mexico is beginning to recognise this fact. The mines are
valuable sources of wealth, but there will come a day when the mines
are worked out, leaving gaping holes in the ground, and the silver and
gold, or copper they contained, dispersed or enriching the private
pockets of aliens. It has been well said that if the capital expended
on mining in Mexico had been applied to the cultivation of the soil the
country would have been four times as rich as at present. Fortunately
those who come to mine often remain to till the ground, as happened in
California and elsewhere. I had almost said "fools who came to scoff
remained to pray!"
In former chapters the differences of the climatic zones have been set
forth; the hot lowlands, the temperate zone, and the cold regions
respectively, with their elevation limits above sea-level. These may be
further described by their main agricultural products as--the
sugar- and rubber-bearing zone, the coffee-bearing zone, and the
cereal-producing zone, the last being the great plateau.
It is to be recollected that, rich and varied as Mexico's vegetable
products are, some of the most useful to mankind were not indigenous,
but were introduced by Europeans. Among these are sugar-cane, oranges,
the cereals, as wheat, &c. (except maize), olives, the grape-vine, and
coffee.
Cotton, of course, was native, and if Europe gave Mexico great benefits
of staple plants, Mexico also gave of hers to Europe, as the
_chocolatl_--our well-known chocolate--the banana, and other fruits.
Beginning with the tropical region, the main natural and cultivated
products are: sugar-cane, rubber, coffee, oranges, bananas, limes,
_cacao_ or chocolate, tobacco, pepper, vanilla, _henequen_ or hemp,
rice, cocoanuts, _ahuacates_ or "alligator-pears," yucca, indigo,
maize, _alfalfa_.
Mahogany and other cabinet woods, and timber for constructional
purposes, abound in the various zones, and some seventy-five kinds are
enumerated, as shown on another page. The enormous _tepehuajes_, or
cypresses, are famous--one near Oaxaca has a trunk of a diameter of 50
feet, 6 feet from the ground.
The temperate zone, into which the former merges insensibly, is less
fertile, less well-watered, but much healthier, and produces matters of
equal value to the foregoing, among them the grape-vine, maize, coffee,
and various of those above enumerated.
Timber for constructional purposes is found freely in this zone,
reaching far up to the higher region of the cold lands. Ranging from
8,000 to 14,000 feet above sea-level, the coniferous forests are one of
the most characteristic features of Mexico.
This third climatic zone, embracing parts of the tableland, is capable
of producing all the varieties of wheat, and does actually produce
some, and the cultivation of this cereal is being extended. The
_maguey_, or agave, is a staple product, yielding the famous _pulque_
beverage, and indeed the lands which produce this intoxicant might well
be, in the national interests, applied to the growing of wheat. The
growing of the grape-vine, potatoes, beans, and other valuable products
are sources of industry upon the plateau. Cotton leads in importance.
As regards the natural conditions of vegetation throughout the country,
it is estimated that there exist some 5,700 square miles of dense
forest, 250,000 square miles of well-timbered land, and about 500,000
square miles of uncultivated land. Mexican authorities state that "the
regions of Oaxaca and Chiapas have no rival, not even Brazil, in the
possibilities of production of excellent grades of coffee, in unlimited
quantities; that the plateau can produce unlimited quantities of wheat,
even to supply foreign markets; that Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and Tepic are
capable of replacing Cuba in the quality and quantity of its tobacco;
and that the northern states could supply food for millions of cattle."
Yet, notwithstanding these conditions, the export trade of produce is
almost _nil_, nor are the general methods of agriculture but backward
as a rule. There are several causes for this--the lack of roads and
railways, the lack of labour; and the general ignorance of the farming
population. All these reasons are officially adduced, and strong
efforts are constantly made by the Government to encourage agricultural
development. Trustworthy information is supplied to the farmers, and
seeds and cuttings of imported plants--olives, vines, fruit-trees,
flax, tobacco, &c.--are gratuitously distributed.
The indiscriminate and wasteful felling of forests is now being
restricted by the authorities to some extent. Great areas have already
been denuded, and it is stated that this has had some undesirable
effect on the rainfall in certain regions. The natives of the more
remote districts--as in the States of Vera Cruz, Guerrero, &c., are
abominably wasteful in timber-cutting, sacrificing whole trees for the
obtaining of a single plank at times. There is a nomadic race of Indian
agriculturists in Guerrero who destroy large areas of forest every
year, burning the trees to plant corn upon spaces which they never use
for two years in succession. These nomadic timber-destroyers are known
as _Tlacoleros_, and they are extremely timid and superstitious in
their dealings with the white men.
Mexico, like other Western American states, is a country whose
agriculture depends much upon artificial irrigation. Whilst much good
work has been carried out in this field, much remains to be done; and
the want of irrigation works is almost as serious a drawback as the
want of labour. The singular topographical formation of Mexico has
robbed it of natural irrigation facilities--steep slopes facing the
oceans and a high riverless plateau war against the retention and
absorption of the rain-waters, and the run-off is consequently
excessively rapid. Nevertheless proper storage of water in reservoirs
during times of heavy rain, especially upon the great plateau, could
accomplish much, and such enterprises should be exceedingly profitable,
for, in certain regions, water is almost "worth its weight in silver."
In another place I have made mention of the irrigation system of the
River Nazas, which may be compared to the Nile on a small scale. The
waters of this river, in times of normal flow, are entirely exhausted
by the numerous irrigation canals which lead therefrom, traversing the
plains for many miles, and conducting water to the large cotton
plantations for which the region is famous. This region is known as "La
Laguna," and its great area and depth of fertile soil are the result of
an ancient lake-basin. So valuable is the water here that not many
years ago feuds were common between the large cotton-growers of the
district, who continually strove to deprive each other of the water in
order to benefit themselves. Blowing-up of diverting dams and weirs
with dynamite even took place, and things reached such a pitch that the
Government were obliged to step in and establish a controlling "River
Nazas Commission," under whose administration a proper regimen of the
waters and irrigation system was enforced. Among the great estates of
this region may be mentioned that of Tlahualilo, with which British
enterprise is connected. The canal belonging to this company is some
fifty miles long, and has a large flowing capacity, and there are
numerous others of less volume. I spent some time in this interesting
region, and so became acquainted with its peculiar conditions. The
Nazas rises in the mountains, and has no outlet to the sea, as
elsewhere described; and, dry in the dry season, its bed becomes a
raging flood in the wet, a spate or wave of water filling it up from
bank to bank, 300 feet wide, in half an hour. This great flood
principally runs to waste in the Parras lagoon, and were its waters
diverted and stored at higher elevations they would be of incalculable
value in the increase of the available cotton-growing area. A project
is on foot at present for a work of this nature, a barrage on the
Nazas.
The name Tlahualilo, a liquid-flowing aboriginal designation, means
"The Devil"! The river gives life to dozens of large cotton-growing
_haciendas_, whose owners have become millionaires, as a rule, thanks
to this miniature Nile of the Nazas. In this region scientific canal
construction has, of late years, been well carried out, but formerly
methods were very primitive. On one occasion I was riding with a
_hacendado_ friend over his estate, when we crossed the bed of a
canal--dry and unused--which wound over the plain. "What is this?" I
asked. In reply he informed me that it had been designed to irrigate a
large tract of land, but the levels were wrong. In earlier times there
were no engineers in the region, and irrigation canals were made by the
primitive method of continually pouring water on the ground, or opening
a little furrow and letting it run, and then following its course with
the construction of the canal! This had been done, but for some reason
an error had been made at the starting-point, and the whole work
rendered useless. In justice to this primitive method of
canal-levelling it must be stated that successful aqueducts were
generally made, although naturally their course was often exceedingly
tortuous and much longer than would have been indicated by the
theodolite and level of the engineer.
In the tropical parts of Mexico water is also of great value at times
for the irrigation of sugar-cane, as important an industry as cotton,
and long lines of canal are constructed for this purpose, but under
greater difficulties, due to the broken nature of the ground.
Conditions of this nature are found in the State of Morelos, on the
Pacific slope, where I stayed for a period, and great tracts of rich
soil are irrigated for cane, and are exceedingly profitable. In the
future a vigorous and scientific development of irrigation will greatly
increase the agricultural wealth of the country in all its sections.
Agriculture on a large scale is very profitable, and the owners of
_haciendas_ are generally men of wealth and position.
A Mexican country house, or _hacienda_, is often a picturesque and
interesting habitation. It is not, however--like such residences in
England--only a dwelling-place and home, but is at the same time a
centre of industry. Surrounding it are great plantations of sugar-cane,
cotton, _maguey_, or other agricultural products which the particular
region may afford, and the great outbuildings comprise the warehouses,
machinery sheds, and indeed the whole plant for the treatment of the
product, whilst, near at hand, are the numerous huts of the _peones_,
or agricultural labourers, to whose work the cultivation of the estate
is due. The house itself is often of quaint aspect, and of some
architectural pretension; Moorish-looking arches and cornices, and
turrets and columns, balconies and verandas, generally of solid masonry
in the wealthy _haciendas_, are set there to defy all time. Indeed,
many of these have already resisted the ravages of centuries, and the
great thickness of the walls arrests the traveller's attention. The
roofs--flat in some cases--are generally covered with red pan-tiles dug
and baked near at hand. Perhaps a small chapel adjoins; aqueducts and
stone channels convey a sparkling stream of water from the canal
communicating with the distant river, and a profuse garden surrounds
the whole.
In this great garden are all Mexico's tropical fruits--pomegranates,
oranges, limes, _chirimoyas_, _ahuacates_, figs, grapes, and a host of
others, and you may wander beneath their grateful shade and take your
fill. Above them, perhaps the tall, slender columns, and graceful,
feathery foliage of the cocoanut palms rear. And over all is the blue
dome of the Mexican sky. It is a peaceful scene, not without something
of allurement.
The interior _menage_ is more primitive than that of European houses,
and often presents a singular whole in its abundance and crudeness
combined. But hospitality ever reigns there, and the foreigner is
always welcome. The production at present of Mexico's staple articles
of agricultural nature is as follows:--
_Cotton_.--Before the time of the Aztecs cotton was cultivated in
Mexico, and cotton-spinning carried out. The quilted cotton armour of
the natives excited the attention of the Conquistadores, and they even
adopted it themselves. Mexico has lands of cotton-producing
adaptability, it is stated, greater than the United States;
nevertheless she imports cotton therefrom in considerable quantities.
The consumption of raw cotton in the country is estimated at more than
100,000 bales annually, of which half is produced in the country,
principally upon the Nazas, the yearly value of whose crop amounts to
some two millions sterling. Other states, however, also produce cotton,
or are capable of large production. The total value for the recent
annual production is given at about 3,400,000 pounds sterling.
_Sugar_.--The sugar-cane was introduced by the Spaniards, and was
cultivated under certain restrictions. At present Mexico is considered
an ideal country, in point of soil, climate, &c., for its cultivation,
and the yield per acre is high, and as far as natural conditions are
concerned the staple is a very sure one. Mexico, of recent years, has
passed the point of supplying her own demands, and now exports sugar to
a considerable value, although a falling-off in the last year or so has
resulted upon disturbed market conditions abroad. The total production
of cane for 1905 is given as 840,000 tons, at a value 2,650,000 pounds
sterling (see page 293).
_Coffee_ was originally brought to Mexico in 1790. Very good quality is
produced in some regions, and the largest output is made from the State
of Vera Cruz. The industry is subject to fluctuations, due to foreign
markets, but Mexican coffee is in growing favour abroad, and the
production for 1905 is given as 20,000 tons, with a value of 1,500,000
pounds sterling.
_Chocolate_.--An indigenous product, whose cultivation is principally
in the hands of the Indians. The output for 1905 was 1,375 tons, at a
value of 160,000 pounds sterling.
_Maize_.--This furnishes the chief article of food for the working
classes, the _tortillas_. Notwithstanding the generally favourable
conditions for its productions, import is still necessary in times of
drought. The value of maize production for 1905 was nearly 9,000,000
pounds sterling.
_Wheat_.--This is grown entirely upon the cold or temperate lands of
the plateau, but irrigation is necessary, and in times of drought
import from the United States is necessary. In 1905 the production was
132,000 tons, valued at 2,215,000 pounds sterling. The value of
_Barley_ produced is about one-fourth of this.
_Beans or Frijoles_.--A staple article of diet among all classes; were
produced in 1905 to the value of nearly 1,000,000 pounds sterling.
_Fibres_.--_Henequen_ or Sisal hemp is one of the principal of Mexico's
agricultural products, and its producers are among the wealthiest
people in the country, especially in Yucatan. For the year 1905 the
production was 50,250 tons, at a value of nearly 3,000,000 pounds
sterling. The _Ixtle_ fibre production gave a value of about 200,000
pounds sterling.
_Pulque_.--This, the national beverage of Mexico's working class, is
made from _maguey_, and the value of its production for 1905 was about
800,000 pounds sterling.
_India-rubber_.--The _Castilloa elastica_ is indigenous to Mexico, and
there are large areas in the tropical part of the country where it is
encountered, and some considerable planting has taken place of recent
years. Some thirty or more companies are engaged in this industry, and
some millions of trees have been planted, and whilst success has
crowned their efforts in many cases, and the industry seems a safe one
under proper conditions, it must be regarded as yet in a preliminary
stage. Moreover, the industry's reputation has had to contend against
frauds which have been perpetrated upon the investing public of America
and Great Britain. The _guayule_ shrub is now a further source of
Mexican rubber. It is a wild shrub occupying the area of the northern
plains, and was unconsidered until recently, but now a thriving
industry has been established through the discovery of its
rubber-bearing property by a German chemist. In this connection I may
say that I sent a sample of the _guayule_ to London from Mexico ten
years ago, believing it to be of value, but my friends failed to
investigate it and so lost a fortune. It is doubtful if Mexico will
ever compete with the Amazonian basin of Peru and Brazil as a
rubber-producing country. The output for 1905, not including _guayule_,
was valued at 44,300 pounds sterling. It came principally from Vera
Cruz and Tabasco.
Other main articles of Mexican produce are given in the following
_resume_, which serves to show the extent of the country's agricultural
resources, in their variety and order of value.
_Resume_ OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE: LAST AVAILABLE RETURNS.[35]
(Fractions omitted).
ARTICLE. VALUE POUNDS STERLING.
Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,965,000
Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,340,000
Henequen (Sisal hemp) . . . . . . . . 2,933,500
Sugar-cane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,644,000
Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,215,200
Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,508,700
Chilli peppers . . . . . . . . . . . 950,000
Frijoles (beans) . . . . . . . . . . 933,200
Pulque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800,000
Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606,800
Barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562,500
Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273,000
Mezcal (spirits) . . . . . . . . . . 256,000
Ixtle fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202,000
Pease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200,000
Chocolate (cacao) . . . . . . . . . . 160,000
Chewing gum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150,000
Tequila (spirits) . . . . . . . . . . 135,000
Other spirits . . . . . . . . . . . . 113,500
Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95,300
Peanuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92,800
Sweet potatoes . . . . . . . . . . . 71,000
White beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70,200
Vetch (_alfalfa_) . . . . . . . . . . 54,000
Sesame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51,000
Crude india-rubber . . . . . . . . . 44,300
Yucca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,100
[Footnote 35: Compiled from the Mexican Year Book, 1908.]
These, with other minor matters, give a total for the annual value of
agricultural products, of approximately 27,500,000 pounds sterling.
_Fruit Culture_.--A wide range of fruits are grown and marketed
throughout the different climatic regions of Mexico, and the following
list of these is of much interest to horticulturists:--Alligator pears
(_ahuacates_), _ciruelas_ (plums), cocoanuts, apricots, apples, dates,
peaches, strawberries, pomegranates, guavas, figs, limes, lemons,
mamey,[36] mangoes, melons, quinces, oranges, nuts, pears, pineapples,
bananas, tunas (the fruit of the nopal), grapes, zapote. The
considerable trade in these will be gathered from the fact that its
value yearly amounts to more than 1,000,000 pounds sterling.
[Footnote 36: This strange fruit is known as "the fruit of the Aztec
kings."]
_Forestry_.--As has been shown, the country is rich in woods for
constructional and cabinet purposes. Laws are being enacted regarding
the preservation and cultivation of forests, and subsidies are to be
granted in this connection to cultivators. Among the kinds of timber
either natural or cultivated, in addition to those already enumerated,
are:--Cypress, poplar, myrtle, balsam, Brazil-wood, cinnamon, mahogany,
cherry, cedar, copal, mezquite, ebony, oak, ash, beech, osier,
mulberry, orange, walnut, pine, log-wood (_campeche_), rosewood,
spruce, willow, and numerous others bearing native names which have no
equivalent in English, forming a total of more than seventy-five kinds.
The value of these timbers, felled and marketed, is about 2,225,000
pounds sterling per annum, and constantly growing.
_Stock-raising_.--This is an important and non-speculative industry,
and the owners of the cattle-ranches are generally wealthy. The
industry can be conducted on a large or small scale. The principal
demand is a home one, although some export to the United States takes
place, with a steady output. The exports from 1901 to 1907 fluctuated
between 50,000 to 200,000 head. The great plains of the north are in
the hands of the large landowners, but on the coast foot-hills, where
pasturage abounds, small parcels of land can be purchased. On the great
plateau the droughts at times cause severe loss, and I have on one
occasion observed cattle dying about the plain of thirst, and others
whose lives were only saved by feeding them with pieces of succulent
palm-stem. On these arid plains water is generally encountered in the
subsoil in wells of not extreme depths, and these _norias_, as the well
and windlass are termed, are seen in many places. Laws for the
encouragement of stock-raising have been promulgated. The value of
Mexican live-stock, including cattle, horses, mules, sheep, goats, and
hogs, is given as 12,000,000 pounds sterling.
_Land_.--As has been stated, the great estates or _haciendas_ are held
by landowners who rarely part with any portion thereof, and as capital
is not always plentiful among them, they are sometimes "land poor" with
a resulting lack of development. The Mexican landed aristocracy
consider it a point of honour almost, not to part with their land. The
problems which have to be considered in connection with Mexican
agriculture are: the establishing of irrigation works, the system of
land tenure, the question of labour; whilst as regards the tropical
products there exists the added element of fluctuation in foreign
markets. Thus the export trade of sugar in 1905 reached a value of
600,000 pounds sterling, whilst a year later it fell to 67,000 pounds
sterling, due to fluctuations in European markets: and this matter also
affects coffee. Special laws concerning irrigation works have been
promulgated, and Government subsidies are granted for such, and there
are good openings here for enterprise and capital. An international dam
is to be built on the Rio Grande, for the equitable distribution of the
waters of this river for irrigation.
Lands within the area or division known as vacant or national lands can
be acquired by Mexican or foreign inhabitants of the Republic by
"denouncement" or claim, which entails certain legal formalities and
the annual payment of a tax. This latter varies according to different
states, as the land is naturally worth more in some situations than in
others, and ranges from 2 _pesos_--a _peso_ equals about 2s.--per
_hectare_ (or about 2-1/2 acres), in Lower California, to 27 _pesos_ in
Morelos, being 4, 5, 10, 17, 20 _pesos_ in many states, and 100 in the
Federal District. Payment for these lands can be made in Three per
cent. Consolidated Debt Bonds, purchased at 70 per cent. of their
nominal value and received by the Government at par.
_Colonisation_.--The conditions which the colonist in Mexico will
encounter will have been fully learned by a general perusal of these
pages. There is much room for colonists and they are welcomed. Great
care must be taken to avoid the numerous land schemes which are
continually sprung upon investors by land sharks and speculators,
principally of American nationality. A number of people have lost their
small capital through investing in ill-judged or fraudulent plantation
schemes, and as to the United States, the abuse became so marked that
the Government of that country at length declined to permit the mails
to be used by promoters of some Mexican land schemes. I have seen the
most extraordinary prospectuses, emanating from the United States,
calculating and offering systems of life assurance and annuities based
upon the yield of rubber of some tropical jungle, which they held in
Mexico. A large number of these "buccaneers" have been operating of
recent years, and _bona fide_ companies have to bear the ill-fame so
created in connection with tropical land dealings. Nevertheless, the
individual often does and may obtain success and achieve profits amid
the easy conditions and temperate climates of some of Mexico's fertile
regions. But capital is indispensable to his success, and no emigrant
should proceed there without it.
_Labour_.--With regard to native labour, there is not sufficient. The
_peon_ earns a low wage, but the demand is likely to increase this
considerably in coming years. Mexico does not prohibit the introduction
of Asiatics, but these are not a good element, and if such a policy
were continued in indiscriminately it would be a vast mistake and would
injure Mexico. The immigrants Mexico really wants are Europeans, and
their valleys and forests are better left unworked than stuffed with
the yellow race. Similar conditions may be pointed to in Peru and other
countries of Spanish-America. Mexico boasts that she is the "bridge of
the world's commerce" and that she looks towards Asia with equal favour
as towards Europe. But the importation of Asiatics will be disastrous,
and the native _peones_ are a superior race in every respect and must
rather be encouraged to multiply. As regards the labour of the white
man in the tropics, Nature does not intend him to work in the same way
as in northern latitudes, and there is no doubt that a great
adaptability to environment will be brought about yet.
To turn now to a geographical distribution of the agricultural and
other resources of the country. As has been shown throughout these
chapters, Mexico embodies a wide range of varying topography, climate,
and natural resources. The thirty-one States and Territories into which
the Republic is divided politically fall into groups, to a certain
extent physically, some of them being mainly upon the Great Plateau,
whilst others occupy the Pacific or Atlantic slopes and southern
region, with their lowland and tropical conditions. In some cases,
however, some of the states partake of all the conditions of highland,
lowland, and mountain region.
These great territories, the mere names of which are often unknown to
British readers, are full of interest and variety, both as regards
their natural features and the human element which inhabits them. Names
which appear upon the map seem to the casual reader to embody the idea
of vast uninhabited deserts or bleak mountain ranges alone. They do not
come within the scope of ordinary knowledge, and the traveller entering
such places is astonished to discover beautiful cities and picturesque
towns, their inhabitants living in a state of advanced civilisation and
engaged in thriving industries, the whole being in the nature of a
revelation to his preconceived ideas of the country. We had forgotten,
or never knew, that a large productive part of the North American
continent lay in this cornucopia-shaped land of Mexico, or that single
provinces, in some instances the size of Great Britain, sleep here
under a southern sun and support a pastoral and contented population of
considerable extent. Some of them are remote from main routes of travel
and from the busy world outside them--remote but of great future
possibilities; others are valuable centres of life and industry upon
trunk lines of travel, and it will be the object of this and the
following chapter to give a succinct idea of their condition and
natural resources.
We will begin with the Maritime States which form the extensive Pacific
littoral from the frontier with the United States to that of
Guatemala--a zone of territory more than 2,000 miles long.
The great State of Sonora lies at the north-west corner of the country,
forming the littoral washed by the Gulf of California on the west and
bounded by the United States--Arizona--on the north. Its very
considerable area of 76,620 square miles supports a population of about
222,000 inhabitants. The state is traversed longitudinally by the great
range of the Western Sierra Madre, with various secondary chains,
forming a rugged region, with, however, a flat zone upon the coast. All
its rivers descend from the Sierra to the Gulf, the five principal of
these ranging in length from 145 miles to 390 miles--the Yaqui River,
which debouches at Guaymas, the principal port of the Gulf of
California. The climate and temperature are very varied according to
the altitude, the coast region being hot and dry, a low, arid region
generally, with an occasional rainfall from a cloudless sky--a
peculiarity of that zone. Temperate slopes and valleys, as we ascend,
are succeeded by the cold and occasional frosts of the mountain region.
As a whole the climate is healthy. The coast fisheries are important,
and valuable pearls are produced from the pearl oysters here. A varied
_fauna_ and _flora_ are encountered throughout the state, but although
the soil is fertile, agriculture is backward, due to the lack of
irrigation works necessary for development, in parts of the region.
However, considerable quantities of sugar-cane, tobacco, cereals,
fruits, _maguey_, &c., are raised, and cattle bred.
But mining is the great industry here, and Sonora is one of the richest
parts of the earth's surface as regards minerals. The state was one of
the main contributors to Spain's coffers before the War of
Independence, but ruin ensued then, followed by the extraordinary
regeneration of the past decade. Capitalists of the United States have
invested heavily in the copper and gold mines, and exports of minerals
to that country reach millions of _pesos_ annually. There is some
British capital successfully employed also in the mines. Modern
copper-smelters turning out hundreds of tons of bars and large
gold-quartz crushing mills are in operation. Numerous mines are being
worked, and some coalfields are being exploited. The mountain region is
covered with the old workings of bygone days, and the streams' margins
and valleys contain hundreds of old _arrastres_, which attest the
former activity of the Spaniards and natives. Much is being done in
this field, but much more remains to be accomplished, and the
prospector and the capitalist find ample scope for their efforts. In
the chapter upon mining will be found the names of some of the
principal enterprises in operation.
The state suffers from lack of railways, as is natural from its
mountainous character, there being but one--that from Nogales, at the
boundary with Arizona, to the port of Guaymas on the Gulf of
California, about 255 miles long, connecting to the north of Nogales
with the Southern Pacific Transcontinental Railway of the United
States. There are several good roads and a telegraph system. Timber and
water are plentiful in some parts of the state; in others scarce or
absent. The capital of the state is Hermisillo, with a population of
11,000.
Leaving for a moment the Mexican mainland and crossing the Gulf of
California, we come to the remarkable peninsula of Lower California, or
Baja California. This great tongue of land, isolated almost from the
rest of the Republic, extends paralleling the coast of the mainland at
a distance of 60 to 100 miles therefrom, with a length of more than 900
miles and a width varying from 25 to 125 miles. Its area is 48,300
square miles, supporting a small population of about 50,000
inhabitants. On the north it is bounded by the United
States--California; on the east the Gulf of California, and on the west
and south by the Pacific Ocean. There are, in addition, numerous
islands which fringe the coast.
A range of hills traverses the peninsula longitudinally, paralleling
and near to the Gulf coast, with a highest peak of 4,230 feet above
sea-level. Of granite in its highest portion, the range is of volcanic
origin mainly, and gives an arid and desolate character to the land.
Naturally, from its topography rivers are almost nonexistent except for
a few small streams, the Colorado River, dividing it from Arizona and
Sonora, being the only one of importance, and indeed this is a river of
the United States, simply forming the boundary of the peninsula for a
short distance.
With so limited a hydrographical system and a scarcity of rainfall,
irrigation and agricultural possibilities are but limited. In the humid
portion of the territory sugar-cane, tropical fruits, vines, _maguey_,
cereals, and other products are, however, raised. There are some
natural products, especially the _orchilla_, or Spanish moss, which
grows profusely in some parts of the west coast and is gathered and
used commercially for dyeing. The climate in the north is hot, but dry
and more temperate towards the south. The _flora_, few in species, are
those of the other northern states of Mexico. Among the _fauna_ are--on
the west coast--sperm whales, otters, and seals. The Gulf of California
is stated to be one of the finest fishing grounds in the world:
including pearl-fishing.
If Baja California is poor in species of organic life, Nature has
compensated it in the mineral world, and that peninsula is considered
one of the most highly mineralised parts of the North American
continent. Copper, silver, and gold are among its most important
products, and quicksilver, opal, sulphur, and rock-salt exist. The
famous Boleo copper mine is situated in this territory, and some
extensive _placer_ gold mines are found near Ensenada. The principal
towns are La Paz, the capital of the southern district, and Ensenada,
of the northern.
Returning to the Mexican mainland we come to the states lying to the
south of those already described. Beginning at the west, as before, we
have the State of Sinaloa. This long narrow region lies between the
Sierra Madre on the east and the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California
on the west, with a coast-line nearly 400 miles in length. Its area is
27,000 square miles, with a population of about 297,000 inhabitants.
Topographically the state may be divided into three zones--the coast,
the foothills, and the mountains; and in this it reminds the traveller
of California, to which it bears resemblance in many physical and
climatic respects. The coast zone consists of a well-watered and
fertile strip, producing all the crops of the tropics. Next comes the
foothill zone, rising gently to an elevation of 2,000 feet, and merging
into a fine timbered belt alternating with extensive natural pastures.
Well-watered valleys intersect this zone, capable of much cultivation,
and with splendid possibilities for irrigation, cattle-raising and
timber-cutting. Leaving this we enter on the more broken and
mountainous country, with a heavy growth of pine and oak forest,
grazing lands, and frequent streams, extending up to 4,000 or 5,000
feet elevation. This also is the rich mineral-bearing zone, whose oil
deposits have justly caused the state to be considered among the
foremost in the Republic in this field.
The Sierra Madre has a general and continuous elevation above sea-level
throughout the great length of this state, of 8,000 to 12,000 feet,
except the passes, which are crossed at much lower altitudes. The
mountains give rise to numerous rivers, and the state may be considered
more freely endowed with water-courses than any other in the Republic.
Among the first of these is the great River Fuerte, with a large volume
of water: and with ten other important streams it rises amid the snow
and rain of the Sierra, flowing thence through fertile valleys to the
Pacific Ocean.
The climate of Sinaloa is good; in the upper regions excellent. The
coast zone is hot during the dry season, and here, in places, the
malaria found on the coast of both North and South America is
encountered at times. The principal agricultural products are sugar and
cotton, and these are followed by the numerous fruits, vegetables,
fibres, timber, and other matters common to these rich zones, at their
respective elevations, including coffee and the cocoanut trees. Cattle
and horse-breeding flourishes under the favourable conditions the
region affords for this industry. Wild game is freely encountered, as
pheasants, quail, and other birds, deer, &c. The cost of living is low,
the soil fertile, and labour cheap, conditions which seem to promise
growing prosperity. The mineral resources include copper, gold, silver,
and other metals.
The remarkable resources of this favoured part of the country have
largely remained fallow due to the lack of railways. No lines yet
connect the state with the rest of the community. Recently, available
passes over the Sierra which isolate the state from the railway system
of the Republic, have been brought into notice, and capitalists,
principally American, are engaged upon projects to build lines to the
coast, traversing the state, among them being the Mexican Central
Railway.
The capital city of Sinaloa is Culiacan; and the principal that of
Mazatlan, the handsome and flourishing seaport, which awaits the coming
of a railway. Probably a busy future awaits the development of this
state.
The Territory of Tepic, formerly part of the State of Jalisco to the
south, is the next of the Pacific littoral states. This small region
was separated from Jalisco in 1884, on account of long rebellion
against the Federal Government, and it remains as a Federal Territory,
and not a state. Its coast-line is 155 miles long; its area is 10,950
square miles, and population 150,000. The climate is very hot on the
coast zone and temperate in the hills. Several rivers and streams flow
through it from the Sierra, some of which are navigable for short
distances from its mouth. The region partakes much of the character of
that to the north, already described, and of that of its parent state
Jalisco, which follows. The most important agricultural product is
sugar, followed by rice, maize, and coffee respectively. Mining--gold
and silver--is an important industry, and numerous small native plants
exist for ore-treatment. The lack of any railway communication,
however, prevents the development of the resources of what is a
promising territory. Various railway projects are under consideration,
having as their terminus the port of San Blas, and connecting this and
Tepic, the capital town, with the railway system of Mexico beyond the
Sierras.
Jalisco, with its beautiful capital of Guadalajara, is the next Pacific
littoral state. It is 290 miles in length, and with its extreme breadth
of 268 miles it stretches across the Sierra Madre and occupies a
portion of the Great Plateau. Its area is 53,800 square miles, and its
population 1,200,000.
The state is exceedingly hilly, being crossed by four Cordilleras and
other lesser ranges, and as we traverse it we pass from tableland to
valley, desert plain to rugged spur and peak amid scenery often of a
varied and picturesque character. The beautiful lake of Chapala, eighty
miles long, is the equal of many of the world's pleasure resorts. Into
this lake flows the Santiago river, near its headwaters, and emerging
thence, crosses the state and flows through the Sierra, emptying into
the Pacific at San Blas in Tepic. Various other streams flow to the
ocean, crossing the coast zone and affording the means of irrigation to
its arid plains. The configuration of these rivers gives rise to
ravines of great depth which form remarkable topographical features.
The Santiago river in a part of its course, near the state capital,
forms the beautiful falls of Juanacatlan, nearly 500 feet wide, justly
described as the Niagara of Mexico: elsewhere depicted.
The climate varies greatly, from the cold of the mountains to the heat
of the plains, and a consequent variety in the _flora_ and agricultural
products is encountered, ranging from those of the tropical to the cold
zone, from rubber and cocoa to wheat; whilst numerous kinds of timber
grow in the forest areas, including those most useful to commerce. The
prosperity of the state is based on its agriculture. There are more
than fifty sugar mills in the state, with their corresponding area
under cane cultivation, and a similar number of flour mills, whilst
great quantities of molasses are produced, and textile fabrics woven. A
large number of tobacco factories exist in the different towns, and, in
brief, manufacturing of other articles, food, clothing, and general
industries, show a considerable and rapid development.
The mining industry is less important than in other of the states, but
gold, silver, and petroleum are found.
The fine city of Guadalajara, described in another chapter, is situated
upon the tableland portion of the state, and so enjoys the benefit of
railway connection with the main line of the Republic, by means of the
Mexican Central. This line runs westwardly through the state as far as
Ameca, approaching the coast at Tuxpan and Colima: only a short portion
remaining to reach the seaport of San Blas, in the state of Colima, on
the Pacific.
Colima is a small state, bordering on the Pacific next below Jalisco,
with an area of 4,250 square miles, and population of 66,000
inhabitants. Flat near the coast, the land is mountainous in the
interior. There are several rivers, the waters of which, after
furnishing the means of irrigation, and water-power for various textile
factories, flow to the sea. The climate, good in the north, is hot and
subject to malaria upon the coast. The principal products of the state
are agricultural; rice, corn, sugar-cane, and coffee being foremost
among these. The soil is generally fertile; and in the northern parts
the woods and canyons favour cattle-raising, in which industry various
large _haciendas_ are engaged. There are also great palm plantations,
which produce cocoanut oil, whilst timber of valuable kinds exists.
Some trade is carried on in the hides and skins of animals and
reptiles--cattle, deer, "tigers," crocodiles, &c. Minerals
exist--copper, gold, silver, but have been little prospected as yet.
The means of communication, like those of the other littoral states,
are principally by sea, and the port and harbour of Manzanillo is one
of the best upon the coast. But a line of railway connects this seaport
with the picturesque capital of the state, Colima, surrounded by
tropical vegetation and backed by its volcanoes. This line of railway
is being continued to join the main system of the Republic, beyond the
mountains, and but a short portion remains to be completed, as
described above.
[Illustration: THE PACIFIC COAST ZONE: THE PLAZA AND ENVIRONS OF THE
CITY OF COLIMA.]
With a short littoral zone upon the Pacific, the State of Michoacan
stretches far inland towards the Great Plateau. From the burning sun
which beats upon its shores to the cold mountain regions on the borders
of Queretaro this state has a wide range of climate and temperature,
with a _flora_ and agricultural products of corresponding diversity,
such as described for its sister states of this zone. The area is about
22,600 square miles, and the population 931,000 inhabitants
approximately.
The state, in certain portions, is exceedingly well-timbered, and
provides material for sleepers for the railways throughout the
Republic. Agriculture is the chief industry, among which coffee, wheat,
sugar, and rice are prominent, whilst the wild rubber-tree which
abounds on the hot zone might be made a source of profit. Mining is not
neglected. High-grade silver ores are produced and sent to the smelting
works at Aguascalientes, and copper mines are being actively worked, as
well as gold ores. Coal beds exist also, and will be of importance to
the state.
Several railways enter this territory, and give outlet to the produce
of its eastern side, but none reach the coast, although such a line has
long been projected, to terminate at the port of Manzanillo in Colima.
The great Balsas river traverses a portion of the state, emptying
thence into the Pacific Ocean. Morelia, the capital of this rich zone
of Mexican territory, stands at an elevation of 6,500 feet above
sea-level, and with its handsome cathedral and square is a typical city
of Mexico.
In Guerrero we are reaching the narrow portion of Mexico, and the
coast-line has turned more in east and west direction. Consequently the
southern side of this state is bathed by the Pacific. Remote from the
railways and isolated from the rest of the Republic by the great
Southern Sierra Madre, Guerrero, notwithstanding its varied natural
resources, has remained in a comparatively undeveloped condition.
The area of this state is 28,200 square miles, with a population of
480,000 inhabitants. The long coast-line of 310 miles affords various
ports, and the famous bay of Acapulco is classed among the finest
harbours in the world. Indeed, it has been placed second. The state is
mountainous almost throughout its entire area, with narrow valleys
between the spurs of the Sierra Madre--which approaches near to the
coast here--with small plains upon the margins of the streams. The
highest peaks of the Sierra reach the height of 8,300 feet and 9,250
feet. The principal river is the Balsas, which flows for a very
considerable distance from the east of the Cordillera or Sierra--more
than 1,200 miles from its source to its outlet in the Pacific. It is
navigable for about 150 miles for launches and other small craft.
The climate varies greatly upon the coast, excessive heat being
encountered, ranging thence through the temperate zone up to the
exceeding cold of the mountains. The state as a whole is healthy, and
the mountain breezes bracing, but the coast is subject to the usual
_paludismo_ or malarial fevers of Western America generally. _Pinto_,
the curious mottled skin disease, is encountered in some of the
valleys: as in Morelos.
Of railways there are none, the main route of travel from the City of
Mexico to Acapulco having been, ever since the time of Cortes, a
mountain track, the _Camino Real_, of difficult transit. Various
projects to reach Acapulco by rail have been put forward, but none
consummated so far, the nearest rail point being that of the terminus
of the Mexican Central Railway on the Balsas river.
The principal products of the state attest its varied and profuse
natural resources; sugar-cane, rubber, coffee, cotton, cocoa, cereals,
are among these, whilst the extensive forests afford a great variety of
timber. Oak grows abundantly. Mining is an important industry. The
historic mines of Taxco, mentioned elsewhere, are situated in the
district of that name near the picturesque town of Taxco; and the
quicksilver mines of Ahuituzco, and the iron deposits of Chilpancingo,
the capital, are notable occurrences of the rich mineral zone of this
state. There can be no doubt that the future holds much in store
commercially for Guerrero, and, indeed, recently much attention has
been drawn to it as a field for enterprise, both by British and
American capitalists. The state is unique in its resources of huge
forests, iron and quicksilver mines, whilst it is traversed by the
longest of Mexico's rivers, and possesses thousands of square miles of
unexplored territory. The prehistoric ruins which are encountered in
such large numbers, and the remarkable number of aboriginal tribes
which inhabit it, speaking various languages, render it of much
interest ethnologically.
Oaxaca, the Pacific littoral state next adjoining Guerrero, is a region
of much interest, both historically and topographically. The character
of the Pacific coast has changed somewhat from those of the littoral
states further north, in that there are no sandy plains bordering it,
for the waves of the ocean bathe the very roots of the forest trees
upon parts of the shore-line of this great state.
The area of Oaxaca is 35,400 square miles, and the population numbers
some 800,000 souls, of which the white and Mestizo people take 330,000,
the remainder representing the various Indian tribes. Due to its varied
physical configuration, the state, notwithstanding that it is within
the torrid zone, is subject to a variety of climate and temperature,
from the heat of the coast with its occasional _paludismo_ and fevers
to the pleasant atmosphere of the temperate altitudes, and the
ever-blowing cold winds of the Cordilleran summits. Here in this region
the Sierra Madre forms a "knot" and ramifies greatly, the various
branches breaking up the topography, and entering into the adjoining
states. The central portion of the territory forms the _divortia
aquarum_ of the continent in the narrow portion embodying the famous
isthmus of Tehuantepec, separating the waters of the Atlantic system
from the Pacific. The numerous rivers of Oaxaca descend variously to
the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, the latter after traversing the
State of Vera Cruz.
The scenery in places is grand and rugged, the mountain slopes are
covered with thick woods, and the valleys with aromatic shrubs and
bright-hued flowers, rich with animal life. Huge trees tower upwards,
their giant limbs developed in a way such as only these tropical
regions afford.
The agricultural products are similar to those enumerated for the
neighbouring maritime states--wheat, barley, maize, and textile plants
are produced, as also sugar-cane, cotton, coffee. The great forests
afford oak, pine, cedar, mahogany, ebony, and other timber, and
excellent natural pasturage abounds for cattle-raising, which is an
important industry. The rich valley of Oaxaca is a favoured region,
with a mild and healthy climate. To enumerate all the plants and
products of this exuberant, tropical region would be to fill pages with
names, but it may be said that almost every variety of tropical and
temperate zone fruit, flower, fibrous plant, cereal, vegetable, and
timber abound--a _flora_ such as could not be surpassed anywhere. There
are vast tracts of land in this state, of virgin country, consisting of
pure alluvial soil, waiting population to cultivate it, and the whole
forms an agricultural region of much promise.
Railway construction of late years has made the state a
trans-continental territory. The Tehuantepec railway, elsewhere
described, has its western terminus at the port of Salina Cruz, having
traversed the state, and from this important route midway across the
Isthmus a line of railway runs to Oaxaca, the state capital, and so
connects with the main system of the Republic. Some years ago a serious
outbreak of yellow fever occurred upon the isthmus, but improving
hygienic measures appear to have prevented a recurrence of this, and to
have diminished the almost inevitable malaria. There are other short
lines of railway in the state.
[Illustration: MEXICO'S ARTIFICIAL HARBOURS OF THE PACIFIC COAST: THE
NEW PORT WORKS OF SALINA CRUZ, TERMINUS OF THE TEHUANTEPEC RAILWAY.]
The city of Oaxaca is handsome and interesting, and enjoys a temperate
climate due to its elevation of more than 5,000 feet above sea-level.
It justly prides itself upon having produced some of Mexico's famous
men, including Juarez and Porfirio Diaz.
Chiapas is the southernmost of the Mexican states--the last upon the
Pacific, its eastern boundary forming the frontier with the
neighbouring Republic of Guatemala. Following out the general structure
of Mexico's littoral, the Sierra Madre parallels the Pacific Ocean
here, leaving a narrow coast strip, but with a lack of good ports and
navigable rivers. On the northern side, however, the Atlantic
watershed, the state is traversed by navigable streams which flow to
the Gulf of Campeche, notably the affluents of the Grijalva and
Usumacinta, traversing the neighbouring State of Tabasco.
The country is generally high and healthy, of an undulating and
picturesque character, and is one of the best-watered states of the
Republic. There is no barren land, except the summits of the rocky
ranges, as it forms a tropical region tempered by altitude, with
corresponding fertility of soil and profuse vegetation. Forests cover
the slopes and canyons, and in the valleys and on the plains an
extensive _flora_ and range of agricultural products is encountered
common to this zone.
With an area of 27,250 square miles, the state supports a population of
about 361,000. The capital is Tuxtla Gutierrez, which is reached most
easily by navigation in low-draught boats up the Grijalva or Mezcalapa
river to within about seventy miles of the city. A waggon road connects
the capital with Tonala, a port on the Pacific coast, from which a
short railway connects with the Tehuantepec line, and so with the
general railway system. But apart from this, the principal means of
communication are the navigable streams and the waggon roads.
Agriculture is the principal industry of this state, with
timber-cutting, cattle-raising, and the production of salt from the
deposits on the coast. In their relative order of importance are
sugar-cane, coffee, chocolate, tobacco, indigo, whilst fibre, rubber,
cereals, alcohol, cattle, and other products, as cedar, mahogany, &c.,
are also exported in increasing value. There is, however, much room for
the improvement and development of agriculture in this prolific region.
The famous ruins of Palenque render this state of great interest
archaeologically.