The superficial aspects of this vast ter_The Geographical Distribution of Animals, Volume 1 With a study of the relations of living and extinct faunas as elucidating the past changes of the Earth's surface

vegetable covering, are very striking and well contrasted. A broad tract on

the northern coast, varying from 150 to 300 and even 500 miles wide, is

occupied by the Tundras or barrens, where nothing grows but mosses and the

dwarfest Arctic plants, and where the ground is permanently frozen to a

great depth. This tract has its greatest southern extension between the

rivers Obi and Yenesi, where it reaches the parallel of 60° north latitude.

Next to this comes a vast extent of northern forests, mostly of conifers in

the more northern and lofty situations, while deciduous trees preponderate

in the southern portions and in the more sheltered valleys. The greatest

extension of this forest region is north of Lake Baikal, where it is more

than 1,200 miles wide. These forests extend along the mountain ranges to

join those of the Hindu Koosh. South of the forests the remainder of the

sub-region consists of open pasture-lands and vast intervening deserts, of

which the Gobi, and those of Turkestan between the Aral and Balkash lakes,

are the most {217}extensive. The former is nearly 1,000 miles long, with a

width of from 200 to 350 miles, and is almost as complete a desert as the

Sahara.

With very few exceptions, this vast territory is exposed to an extreme

climate, inimical to animal life. All the lower parts being situated to the

north, have an excessively cold winter, so that the limit of constantly

frozen ground descends below the parallel of 60° north latitude. To the

south, the land is greatly elevated, and the climate extremely dry. In

summer the heat is excessive, while the winter is almost as severe as

further north. The whole country, too, is subject to violent storms, both

in summer and winter; and the rich vegetation that clothes the steppes in

spring, is soon parched up and replaced by dusty plains. Under these

adverse influences we cannot expect animal life to be so abundant as in

those sub-regions subject to more favourable physical conditions; yet the

country is so extensive and so varied, that it does actually, as we shall

see, possess a very considerable and interesting fauna.

_Mammalia._--Four genera seem to be absolutely confined to this sub-region,

_Nectogale_, a peculiar form of the mole family (Talpidæ); _Poephagus_, the

yak, or hairy bison of Thibet; with _Procapra_ and _Pantholops_, Thibetan

antelopes. Some others more especially belong here, although they just

enter Europe, as _Saiga_, the Tartarian antelope; _Sminthus_, a desert

rat;, and _Ellobius_, a burrowing mole-rat; while _Myospalax_, a curious

rodent allied to the voles, is found only in the Altai mountains and North

China; and _Moschus_, the musk-deer, is almost confined to this sub-region.

Among the characteristic animals of the extreme north, are _Mustela_, and

_Martes_, including the ermine and sable; _Gulo_, the glutton; _Tarandus_,

the reindeer; _Myodes_, the lemming; with the lynx, arctic fox, and polar

bear; and here, in the Post-pliocene epoch, ranged the hairy rhinoceros and

Siberian mammoth, whose entire bodies still remain preserved in the

ice-cliffs near the mouths of the great rivers. Farther south, species of

wild cat, bear, wolf, deer, and pika (_Lagomys_) abound; while in the

mountains we find wild goats and sheep of several species, and in the

plains and deserts wild horses {218}and asses, gazelles, two species of

antelopes, flying squirrels (_Pteromys_), ground squirrels (_Tamias_),

marmots, of the genus _Spermophilus_, with camels and dromedaries, probably

natives of the south-western part of this sub-region. The most abundant and

conspicuous of the mammalia are the great herds of reindeer in the north,

the wolves of the steppes, with the wild horses, goats, sheep, and

antelopes of the plateaus and mountains.

Among the curiosities of this sub-region we must notice the seal, found in

the inland and freshwater lake Baikal, at an elevation of about 2,000 feet

above the sea. It is a species of _Callocephalus_, closely allied to, if

not identical with, one inhabiting northern seas as well as the Caspian and

Lake Aral. This would indicate that almost all northern Asia was depressed

beneath the sea very recently; and Mr. Belt's view, of the ice during the

glacial epoch having dammed up the rivers and converted much of Siberia

into a vast freshwater or brackish lake, perhaps offers the best solution

of the difficulty.[9]

_Plate II.--Characteristic Mammalia of Western Tartary._--Several of the

most remarkable animals of the Palæarctic region inhabit Western Tartary,

and are common to the European and Siberian sub-regions. We therefore

choose this district for one of our illustrative plates. The large animals

in the centre are the remarkable saiga antelopes (_Saiga Tartarica_),

distinguished from all others by a large and fleshy proboscis-like nose,

which gives them a singular appearance. They differ so much from all other

antelopes that they have been formed into a distinct family by some

naturalists, but are here referred to the great family Bovidæ. They inhabit

the open plains from Poland to the Irtish River. On the left is the

mole-rat, or sand-rat (_Spalax murinus_). This animal burrows under ground

like a mole, feeding on bulbous roots. It inhabits the same country as the

saiga, but extends farther south in Europe. On the right is a still more

curious animal, the desman (_Myogale Muscovitica_), a long-snouted

water-mole. This creature is fifteen inches long, including the tail; it

burrows in the banks of streams, feeding on insects, {219}worms, and

leeches; it swims well, and remains long under water, raising the tip of

the snout, where the nostrils are situated, to the surface when it wants to

breathe. It is thus well concealed; and this may be one use of the

development of the long snout, as well as serving to follow worms into

their holes in the soft earth. This species is confined to the rivers Volga

and Don in Southern Russia, and the only other species known inhabits some

of the valleys on the north side of the Pyrenees. In the distance are

wolves, a characteristic feature of these wastes.

Plate II.

[Illustration]

CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA OF WESTERN TARTARY.

_Birds._--But few genera of birds are absolutely restricted to this

sub-region. _Podoces_, a curious form of starling, is the most decidedly

so; _Mycerobas_ and _Pyrrhospiza_ are genera of finches confined to Thibet

and the snowy Himalayas; _Leucosticte_, another genus of finches, is

confined to the eastern half of the sub-region and North America;

_Tetraogallus_, a large kind of partridge, ranges west to the Caucasus;

_Syrrhaptes_, a form of sand-grouse, and _Lerwa_ (snow-partridge), are

almost confined here, only extending into the next sub-region; as do

_Grandala_, and _Calliope_, genera of warblers, _Uragus_, a finch allied to

the North American cardinals, and _Crossoptilon_, a remarkable group of

pheasants.

Almost all the genera of central and northern Europe are found here, and

give quite a European character to the ornithology, though a considerable

number of the species are different. There are a few Oriental forms, such

as _Abrornis_ and _Larvivora_ (warblers); with _Ceriornis_ and _Ithaginis_,

genera of pheasants, which reach the snow-line in the Himalayas and thus

just enter this sub-region, but as they do not penetrate farther north,

they hardly serve to modify the exclusively Palæarctic character of its

ornithology.

According to Middendorf, the extreme northern Asiatic birds are the Alpine

ptarmigan (_Lagopus mutus_); the snow-bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_);

the raven, the gyrfalcon and the snowy-owl. Those which are characteristic

of the barren "tundras," but which do not range so far north as the

preceding are,--the willow-grouse (_Lagopus albus_); the Lapland-bunting

(_Plectrophanes {220}lapponica_); the shore-lark (_Otocorys alpestris_);

the sand-martin (_Cotyle riparia_), and the sea-eagle (_Haliæetus

albicilla_).

Those which are more characteristic of the northern forests, and which do

not pass beyond them, are--the linnet; two crossbills (_Loxia Leucoptera_

and _L. Curvirostra_); the pine grosbeak (_Pinicola enucleator_); the

waxwing; the common magpie; the common swallow; the peregrine falcon; the

rough-legged buzzard; and three species of owls.

Fully one-half of the land-birds of Siberia are identical with those of

Europe, the remainder being mostly representative species peculiar to

Northern Asia, with a few stragglers and immigrants from China and Japan or

the Himalayas. A much larger proportion of the wading and aquatic families

are European or Arctic, these groups having always a wider range than land

birds.

_Reptiles and Amphibia._--From the nature of the country and climate these

are comparatively few, but in the more temperate districts snakes and

lizards seem to be not uncommon. _Halys_, a genus of Crotaline snakes, and

_Phrynocephalus_, lizards of the family Agamidæ, are characteristic of

these parts. _Simotes_, a snake of the family Oligodontidæ, reaches an

elevation of 16,000 feet in the Himalayas, and therefore enters this

sub-region.

_Insects._--_Mesapia_ and _Hypermnestra_, genera of Papilionidæ, are

butterflies peculiar to this sub-region; and _Parnassius_ is as

characteristic as it is of our European mountains. Carabidæ are also

abundant, as will be seen by referring to the Chapter on the Distribution

of Insects in the succeeding part of this work. The insects, on the whole,

have a strictly European character, although a large proportion of the

species are peculiar, and several new genera appear.

_IV.--Japan and North China, or the Manchurian Sub-region._

This is an interesting and very productive district, corresponding in the

east to the Mediterranean sub-region in the west, or rather perhaps to all

western temperate Europe. Its limits are not very well defined, but it

probably includes all Japan; the Corea and Manchuria to the Amour river and

to the lower {221}slopes of the Khingan and Peling mountains; and China to

the Nanlin mountains south of the Yang-tse-kiang. On the coast of China the

dividing line between it and the Oriental region seems to be somewhere

about Foo-chow, but as there is here no natural barrier, a great

intermingling of northern and southern forms takes place.

Japan is volcanic and mountainous, with a fine climate and a most luxuriant

and varied vegetation. Manchuria is hilly, with a high range of mountains

on the coast, and some desert tracts in the interior, but fairly wooded in

many parts. Much of northern China is a vast alluvial plain, backed by

hills and mountains with belts of forest, above which are the dry and

barren uplands of Mongolia. We have a tolerable knowledge of China, of

Japan, and of the Amoor valley, but very little of Corea and Manchuria. The

recent researches of Père David in Moupin, in east Thibet, said to be

between 31° and 32° north latitude, show, that the fauna of the Oriental

region here advances northward along the flanks of the Yun-ling mountains

(a continuation of the Himalayas); since he found at different altitudes

representatives of the Indo-Chinese, Manchurian, and Siberian faunas. On

the higher slopes of the Himalayas, there must be a narrow strip from about

8,000 to 11,000 feet elevation intervening between the tropical fauna of

the Indo-Chinese sub-region and the almost arctic fauna of Thibet; and the

animals of this zone will for the most part belong to the fauna of

temperate China and Manchuria, except in the extreme west towards Cashmere,

where the Mediterranean fauna will in like manner intervene. On a map of

sufficiently large scale, therefore, it would be necessary to extend our

present sub-region westward along the Himalayas, in a narrow strip just

below the upper limits of forests. It is evident that the large number of

Fringillidæ, Corvidæ, Troglodytidæ, and Paridæ, often of south Palæarctic

forms, that abound in the higher Himalayas, are somewhat out of place as

members of the Oriental fauna, and are equally so in that of Thibet and

Siberia; but they form a natural portion of that of North China on the one

side, or of South Europe on the other.

{222}_Mammalia._--This sub-region contains a number of peculiar and very

interesting forms, most of which have been recently discovered by Père

David in North and West China and East Thibet. The following are the

peculiar genera:--_Rhinopithecus_, a sub-genus of monkeys, here classed

under _Semnopithecus_; _Anurosorex_, _Scaptochirus_, _Uropsilus_ and

_Scaptonyx_, new forms of Talpidæ or moles; _Æluropus_ (Æluridæ);

_Nyctereutes_ (Canidæ); _Lutronectes_ (Mustelidæ); _Cricetulus_ (Muridæ);

_Hydropotes_, _Moschus_, and _Elaphodus_ (Cervidæ). The _Rhinopithecus_

appears to be a permanent inhabitant of the highest forests of Moupin, in a

cold climate. It has a very thick fur, as has also a new species of

_Macacus_ found in the same district. North China and East Thibet seem to

be very rich in Insectivora. _Scaptochirus_ is like a mole; _Uropsilus_

between the Japanese _Urotrichus_ and _Sorex_; _Scaptonyx_ between

_Urotrichus_ and _Talpa_. _Æluropus_ seems to be the most remarkable mammal

discovered by Père David. It is allied to the singular panda (_Ælurus

fulgens_) of Nepal, but is as large as a bear, the body wholly white, with

the feet, ears, and tip of the tail black. It inhabits the highest forests,

and is therefore a true Palæarctic animal, as most likely is the _Ælurus_.

_Nyctereutes_, a curious racoon-like dog, ranges from Canton to North

China, the Amoor and Japan, and therefore seems to come best in this

sub-region; _Hydropotes_ and _Lophotragus_ are small hornless deer confined

to North China; _Elaphodus_, from East Thibet, is another peculiar form of

deer; while the musk deer (_Moschus_) is confined to this sub-region and

the last. Besides the above, the following Palæarctic genera were found by

Père David in this sub-region: _Macacus_: five genera or sub-genera of bats

(_Vespertilio_, _Vesperus_, _Vesperugo_, _Rhinolophus_, and _Murina_);

_Erinaceus_, _Nectogale_, _Talpa_, _Crocidura_ and _Sorex_, among

Insectivora; _Mustela_, _Putorius_, _Martes_, _Lutra_, _Viverra_, _Meles_,

_Ælurus_, _Ursus_, _Felis_, and _Canis_, among _Carnivora_; _Hystrix_,

_Arctomys_, _Myospalax_, _Spermophilus_, _Gerbillus_, _Dipus_, _Lagomys_,

_Lepus_, _Sciurus_, _Pteromys_, _Arvicola_, and _Mus_, among Rodentia;

_Budorcas_, _Nemorhedus_, _Antilope_, _Ovis_, _Moschus_, _Cervulus_ and

_Cervus_ among Ruminants; and the wide-spread _Sus_ or wild boar. The

following Oriental genera are also {223}included in Père David's list, but

no doubt occur only in the lowlands and warm valleys, and can hardly be

considered to belong to the Palæarctic region: _Paguma_, _Helictis_,

_Arctonyx_, _Rhizomys_, _Manis_. The _Rhizomys_ from Moupin is a peculiar

species of this tropical genus, but all the others inhabit Southern China.

A few additional forms occur in Japan: _Urotrichus_, a peculiar Mole, which

is found also in north-west America; _Enhydra_, the sea otter of

California; and the dormouse (_Myoxus_). Japan also possesses peculiar

species of _Macacus_, _Talpa_, _Meles_, _Canis_, and _Sciuropterus_.

It will be seen that this sub-region is remarkably rich in Insectivora, of

which it possesses ten genera; and that it has also several peculiar forms

of Carnivora, Rodentia, and Ruminants.

_Birds._--To give an accurate idea of the ornithology of this sub-region is

very difficult, both on account of its extreme richness and the

impossibility of defining the limits between it and the Oriental region. A

considerable number of genera which are well developed in the high

Himalayas, and some which are peculiar to that district, have hitherto

always been classed as Indian, and therefore Oriental groups; but they more

properly belong to this sub-region. Many of them frequent the highest

forests, or descend into the Himalayan temperate zone only in winter; and

others are so intimately connected with Palæarctic species, that they can

only be considered as stragglers into the border land of the Oriental

region. On these principles we consider the following genera to be confined

to this sub-region:--

_Grandala_, _Nemura_ (Sylviidæ); _Pterorhinus_ (Timaliidæ); _Cholornis_,

_Conostoma_, _Heteromorpha_ (Panuridæ); _Cyanoptila_ (Muscicapidæ);

_Eophona_ (Fringillidæ); _Dendrotreron_ (Columbidæ); _Lophophorus_,

_Tetraophasis_, _Crossoptilon_, _Pucrasia_, _Thaumalea_, and _Ithaginis_

(Phasianidæ). This may be called the sub-region of Pheasants; for the above

six genera, comprising sixteen species of the most magnificent birds in the

world, are all confined to the temperate or cold mountainous regions of the

Himalayas, Thibet, and China; and in addition we have {224}most of the

species of tragopan (_Ceriornis_), and some of the true pheasants

(_Phasianus_).

The most abundant and characteristic of the smaller birds are warblers,

tits, and finches, of Palæarctic types; but there are also a considerable

number of Oriental forms which penetrate far into the country, and mingling

with the northern birds give a character to the Ornithology of this

sub-region very different from that of the Mediterranean district at the

western end of the region. Leaving out a large number of wide-ranging

groups, this mixture of types may be best exhibited by giving lists of the

more striking Palæarctic and Oriental genera which are here found

intermingled.

PALÆARCTIC GENERA.

SYLVIIDÆ.

Erithacus.

Ruticilla.

Locustella.

Cyanecula.

Sylvia.

Potamodus.

Reguloides.

Regulus.

Accentor.

CINCLIDÆ.

Cinclus.

TROGLODYTIDÆ.

Troglodytidæ.

CERTHIIDÆ.

Certhia.

Sitta.

Tichodroma.

PARIDÆ.

Parus.

Lophophanes.

Acredula.

CORVIDÆ.

Fregilus.

Nucifraga.

Pica.

Cyanopica.

Garrulus.

AMPELIDÆ.

Ampelis.

FRINGILLIDÆ.

Fringilla.

Chrysomitris.

Chlorospiza.

Passer.

Coccothraustes.

Pyrrhula.

Carpodacus.

Uragus.

Loxia.

Linota.

Emberiza.

STURNIDÆ.

Sturnus.

ALAUDIDÆ.

Otocorys.

PICIDÆ.

Picoides.

Picus.

Hyopicus.

Dryocopus.

YUNGIDÆ.

Yunx.

PTEROCLIDÆ.

Syrrhaptes.

TETRAONIDÆ.

Tetrao.

Tetraogallus.

Lerwa.

Lagopus.

VULTURIDÆ.

Gypaëtus.

Vultur.

FALCONIDÆ.

Archibuteo.

ORIENTAL GENERA.

SYLVIIDÆ.

Suya.

Calliope.

Larvivora.

Tribura.

Horites.

Abrornis.

Copsychus.

TURDIDÆ.

Oreocincla.

TIMALIIDÆ.

Alcippe.

Timalia.

Pterocyclus.

Garrulax.

Trochalopteron.

Pomatorhinus. {225}

Suthora.

PANURIDÆ.

Paradoxornis.

CINCLIDÆ.

Enicurus.

Myiophonus.

TROGLODYTIDÆ.

Pnoepyga.

LIOTRICHIDÆ.

Liothrix.

Yuhina.

Pteruthius.

PYCNONOTIDÆ.

Microscelis.

Pycnonotus.

Hypsipetes.

CAMPEPHAGIDÆ.

Pericrocotus.

DICRURIDÆ.

Dicrurus.

Chibia.

Buchanga.

MUSCICAPIDÆ.

Xanthopygia.

Niltava.

Tchitrea.

CORVIDÆ.

Urocissa.

NECTARINEIDÆ.

Æthopyga.

MOTACILLIDÆ.

Nemoricola.

DICÆIDÆ.

Zosterops.

FRINGILLIDÆ.

Melophus.

Pyrgilauda.

PLOCEIDÆ.

Munia.

STURNIDÆ.

Acridotheres.

Sturnia.

PITTIDÆ.

Pitta.

PICIDÆ.

Vivia.

Yungipicus.

Gecinus.

CORACIIDÆ.

Eurystomus.

ALCEDINIDÆ.

Halcyon.

Ceryle.

UPUPIDÆ.

Upupa.

PSITTACIDÆ.

Palæornis.

COLUMBIDÆ.

Treron.

Ianthænas.

Macropygia.

PHASIANIDÆ.

Phasianus.

Ceriornis.

STRIGIDÆ.

Scops.

In the above lists there are rather more Oriental than Palæarctic genera;

but it must be remembered that most of the former are summer migrants only,

or stragglers just entering the sub-region; whereas the great majority of

the latter are permanent residents, and a large proportion of them range

over the greater part of the Manchurian district. Many of those in the

Oriental column should perhaps be omitted, as we have no exact

determination of their range, and the limits of the regions are very

uncertain. It must be remembered, too, that the Palæarctic genera of

Sylviidæ, Paridæ, and Fringillidæ, are often represented by numerous

species, whereas the corresponding Oriental genera have for the most part

only single species; and we shall then find that, except towards the

borders of the Oriental region the Palæarctic element is strongly

predominant. Four of the more especially Oriental groups are confined to

Japan, the southern {226}extremity of which should perhaps come in the

Oriental region. The great richness of this sub-region compared with that

of Siberia is well shown by the fact, that a list of all the known

land-birds of East Siberia, including Dahuria and the comparatively fertile

Amoor Valley, contains only 190 species; whereas Père David's catalogue of

the birds of Northern China with adjacent parts of East Thibet and Mongolia

(a very much smaller area) contains for the same families 366 species. Of

the Siberian birds more than 50 per cent, are European species, while those

of the Manchurian sub-region comprise about half that proportion of

land-birds which are identical with those of Europe.

Japan is no doubt very imperfectly known, as only 134 land-birds are

recorded from it. Of these twenty-two are peculiar species, a number that

would probably be diminished were the Corea to be explored. Of the genera,

only nine are Indo-Malayan, while forty-three are Palæarctic.

_Plate III.--Scene on the Borders of North-West China and Mongolia with

Characteristic Mammalia and Birds._--The mountainous districts of Northern

China, with the adjacent portions of Thibet and Mongolia, are the

head-quarters of the pheasant tribe, many of the most beautiful and

remarkable species being found there only. In the north-western provinces

of China and the southern parts of Mongolia may be found the species

figured. That in the foreground is the superb golden pheasant (_Thaumalea

picta_), a bird that can hardly be surpassed for splendour of plumage by

any denizen of the tropics. The large bird perched above is the eared

pheasant (_Crossoptilon auritum_), a species of comparatively sober plumage

but of remarkable and elegant form. In the middle distance is Pallas's sand

grouse (_Syrrhaptes paradoxus_), a curious bird, whose native country seems

to be the high plains of Northern Asia, but which often abounds near Pekin,

and in 1863 astonished European ornithologists by appearing in considerable

numbers in Central and Western Europe, in every part of Great Britain, and

even in Ireland.

Plate III.

[Illustration]

CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF NORTH CHINA.

The quadruped figured is the curious racoon dog (_Nyctereutes

procyonoides_), {227}an animal confined to North China, Japan, and the

Amoor Valley, and having no close allies in any other part of the globe. In

the distance are some deer, a group of animals very abundant and varied in

this part of the Palæarctic region.

_Reptiles and Amphibia._--Reptiles are scarce in North China, only four or

five species of snakes, a lizard and one of the Geckotidæ occurring in the

country round Pekin. The genus _Halys_ is the most characteristic form of

snake, while _Callophis_, an oriental genus, extends to Japan. Among

lizards, _Plestiodon_, _Maybouya_, _Tachydromus_, and _Gecko_ reach Japan,

the two latter being very characteristic of the Oriental region.

Amphibia are more abundant and interesting; _Hynobius_, _Onychodactylus_,

and _Sieboldtia_ (Salamandridæ) being peculiar to it, while most of the

European genera are also represented.

_Fresh-water Fish._--Of these there are a few peculiar genera; as

_Plecoglossus_ (Salmonidæ) from Japan; _Achilognathus_, _Pseudoperilampus_,

_Ochetobius_, and _Opsariichthys_ (Cyprinidæ); and there are many other

Chinese Cyprinidæ belonging to the border land of the Palæarctic and

Oriental regions.

_Insects._--The butterflies of this sub-region exhibit the same mixture of

tropical and temperate forms as the birds. Most of the common European

genera are represented, and there are species of _Parnassius_ in Japan and

the Amoor. _Isodema_, a peculiar genus of Nymphalidæ is found near Ningpo,

just within our limits; and _Sericinus_, one of the most beautiful genera

of Papilionidæ is peculiar to North China, where four species occur, thus

balancing the _Thais_ and _Doritis_ of Europe. The genus _Zephyrus_

(Lycænidæ) is well represented by six species in Japan and the Amoor,

against two in Europe. _Papilio paris_ and _P. bianor_, magnificent insects

of wholly tropical appearance, abound near Pekin, and allied forms inhabit

Japan and the Amoor, as well as _P. demetrius_ and _P. alcinous_ belonging

to the "Protenor" group of the Himalayas. Other tropical genera occurring

in Japan, the Amoor, or North China are, _Debis_, _Neope_, _Mycalesis_,

_Ypthimia_ (Satyridæ); _Thaumantis_ (Morphidæ), at Shanghae; _Euripus_,

_Neptis_, _Athyma_ (Nymphalidæ); _Terias_ (Pieridæ); and the

above-mentioned Papilionidæ.

{228}_Coleoptera._--The beetles of Japan decidedly exhibit a mixture of

tropical forms with others truly Palæarctic, and it has been with some

naturalists a matter of doubt whether the southern and best known portion

of the islands should not be joined to the Oriental region. An important

addition to our knowledge of the insects of this country has recently been

made by Mr. George Lewis, and a portion of his collections have been

described by various entomologists in the _Transactions of the

Entomological Society of London_. As the question is one of considerable

interest we shall give a summary of the results fairly deducible from what

is now known of the entomology of Japan; and it must be remembered that

almost all our collections come from the southern districts, in what is

almost a sub-tropical climate; so that if we find a considerable proportion

of Palæarctic forms, we may be pretty sure that the preponderance will be

much greater a little further north.

Of Carabidæ Mr. Bates enumerates 244 species belonging to 84 genera, and by

comparing these with the Coleoptera of a tract of about equal extent in

western Europe, he concludes that there is little similarity, and that the

cases of affinity to the forms of eastern tropical Asia preponderate. By

comparing his genera with the distributions as given in _Gemminger and

Harold's Catalogue_, a somewhat different result is arrived at. Leaving out

the generic types altogether peculiar to Japan, and also those genera of

such world-wide distribution that they afford no clear indications for our

purpose, it appears that no less than twenty-two genera, containing

seventy-four of the Japanese species, are either exclusively Palæarctic,

Palæarctic and Nearctic, or highly characteristic of the Palæarctic region;

then come thirteen genera containing eighty-seven of the species which have

a very wide distribution, but are also Palæarctic: we next have seventeen

genera containing twenty-four of the Japanese species which are decidedly

Oriental and tropical. Here then the fair comparison is between the

twenty-two genera and seventy-four species whose affinities are clearly

Palæarctic or at least north temperate, and seventeen genera with

twenty-four species which are Asiatic and tropical; and this seems to prove

that, although South {229}Japan (like North China) has a considerable

infusion of tropical forms, there is a preponderating substratum of

Palæarctic forms, which clearly indicate the true position of the islands

in zoological geography. There are also a few cases of what may be called

eccentric distribution; which show that Japan, like many other

island-groups, has served as a kind of refuge in which dying-out forms

continue to maintain themselves. These, which are worthy of notice, are as

follows: _Orthotrichus_ (1 sp.) has the only other species in Egypt;

_Trechichus_ (1 sp.) has two other species, of which one inhabits Madeira,

the other the Southern United States; _Perileptus_ (1 sp.) has two other

species, of which one inhabits Bourbon, the other West Europe; and lastly,

_Crepidogaster_ (1 sp.) has the other known species in South Africa. These

cases diminish the value of the indications afforded by some of the

Japanese forms, whose only allies are single species in various remote

parts of the Oriental region.

The Staphylinidæ have been described by Dr. Sharp, and his list exhibits a

great preponderance of north temperate, or cosmopolitan forms, with a few

which are decidedly tropical. The Pselaphidæ and Scydmenidæ, also described

by Dr. Sharp, exhibit, according to that gentleman, "even a greater

resemblance to those of North America than to those of Europe," but he says

nothing of any tropical affinities. The water-beetles are all either

Palæarctic or of wide distribution.

The Lucanidæ (_Gemm. and Har. Cat._, 1868) exhibit an intermingling of

Palæarctic and Oriental genera.

The Cetoniidæ (_Gemm. and Har. Cat._, 1869) show, for North China and

Japan, three Oriental to two Palæarctic genera.

The Buprestidæ collected by Mr. Lewis have been described by Mr. Edward

Saunders in the _Journal of the Linnæan Society_, vol. xi. p. 509. The

collection consisted of thirty-six species belonging to fourteen genera. No

less than thirteen of these are known also from India and the Malay

Islands; nine from Europe; seven from Africa; six from America, and four

from China. In six of the genera the Japanese species are said to be allied

to those of the Oriental region; while in three they are allied to European

forms, and in two to American. Considering {230}the southern latitude and

warm climate in which these insects were mostly collected, and the

proximity to Formosa and the Malay Islands compared with the enormous

distance from Europe, this shows as much Palæarctic affinity as can be

expected. In the Palæarctic region the group is only plentiful in the

southern parts of Europe, which is cut off by the cold plateau of Thibet

from all direct communication with Japan; while in the Oriental region it

everywhere abounds and is, in fact, one of the most conspicuous and

dominant families of Coleoptera.

The Longicorns collected by Mr. Lewis have been described by Mr. Bates in

the _Annals of Natural History for 1873_. The number of species now known

from Japan is 107, belonging to sixty-four genera. The most important

genera are _Leptura_, _Clytanthus_, _Monohammus_, _Praonetha_,

_Exocentrus_, _Glenea_, and _Oberea_. There are twenty-one tropical genera,

and seven peculiar to Japan, leaving thirty-six either Palæarctic or of

very wide range. A number of the genera are Oriental and Malayan, and many

characteristic European genera seem to be absent; but it is certain that

not half the Japanese Longicorns are yet known, and many of these gaps will

doubtless be filled up when the more northern islands are explored.

The Phytophaga, described by Mr. Baly, appear to have a considerable

preponderance of tropical Oriental forms.

A considerable collection of Hymenoptera formed by Mr. Lewis have been

described by Mr. Frederick Smith; and exhibit the interesting result, that

while the bees and wasps are decidedly of tropical and Oriental forms, the

Tenthredinidæ and Ichneumonidæ are as decidedly Palæarctic, "the general

aspect of the collection being that of a European one, only a single exotic

form being found among them."

_Remarks on the General Character of the Fauna of Japan._--From a general

view of the phenomena of distribution we feel justified in placing Japan in

the Palæarctic region; although some tropical groups, especially of

reptiles and insects, have largely occupied its southern portions; and

these same groups have in many cases spread into Northern China, beyond the

{231}usual dividing line of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. The causes

of such a phenomenon are not difficult to conceive. Even now, that portion

of the Palæarctic region between Western Asia and Japan is, for the most

part, a bleak and inhospitable region, abounding in desert plateaus, and

with a rigorous climate even in its most favoured districts, and can,

therefore, support but a scanty population of snakes, and of such groups of

insects as require flowers, forests, or a considerable period of warm

summer weather; and it is precisely these which are represented in Japan

and North China by tropical forms. We must also consider, that during the

Glacial epoch this whole region would have become still less productive,

and that, as the southern limit of the ice retired northward, it would be

followed up by many tropical forms along with such as had been driven south

by its advance, and had survived to return to their northern homes.

It is also evident that Japan has a more equable and probably moister

climate than the opposite shores of China, and has also a very different

geological character, being rocky and broken, often volcanic, and

supporting a rich, varied, and peculiar vegetation. It would thus be well

adapted to support all the more hardy denizens of the tropics which might

at various times reach it, while it might not be so well adapted for the

more boreal forms from Mongolia or Siberia. The fact that a mixture of such

forms occurs there, is then, little to be wondered at, but we may rather

marvel that they are not more predominant, and that even in the extreme

south, the most abundant forms of mammal, bird, and insect, are

modifications of familiar Palæarctic types. The fact clearly indicates that

the former land connections of Japan with the continent have been in a

northerly rather than in a southerly direction, and that the tropical

immigrants have had difficulties to contend with, and have found the land

already fairly stocked with northern aborigines in almost every class and

order of animals.

_General Conclusions as to the Fauna of the Palæarctic Region._--From the

account that has now been given of the fauna {232}of the Palæarctic region,

it is evident that it owes many of its deficiencies and some of its

peculiarities to the influence of the Glacial epoch, combined with those

important changes of physical geography which accompanied or preceded it.

The elevation of the old Sarahan sea and the complete formation of the

Mediterranean, are the most important of these changes in the western

portion of the region. In the centre, a wide arm of the Arctic Ocean

extended southward from the Gulf of Obi to the Aral and the Caspian,

dividing northern Europe and Asia. At this time our European and Siberian

sub-regions were probably more distinct than they are now, their complete

fusion having been effected since the Glacial epoch. As we know that the

Himalayas have greatly increased in altitude during the Tertiary period, it

is not impossible that during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs the vast

plateau of Central Asia was much less elevated and less completely cut off

from the influence of rain-bearing winds. It might then have been far more

fertile, and have supported a rich and varied animal population, a few

relics of which we see in the Thibetan antelopes, yaks, and wild horses.

The influence of yet earlier changes of physical geography, and the

relations of the Palæarctic to the tropical regions immediately south of

it, will be better understood when we have examined and discussed the

faunas of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions.

{233}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In constructing these tables showing the distribution of various classes of

animals in the Palæarctic region, the following sources of information have

been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs,

and catalogues used in compiling the fourth part of this work.

_Mammalia._--Lord Clement's Mammalia and Reptiles of Europe; Siebold's

Fauna Japonica; Père David's List of Mammalia of North China and Thibet;

Swinhoe's Chinese Mammalia; Radde's List of Mammalia of South-Eastern

Siberia; Canon Tristram's Lists for Sahara and Palestine; Papers by

Professor Milne-Edwards, Mr. Blanford, Mr. Sclater, and the local lists

given by Mr. A. Murray in the Appendix to his Geographical Distribution of

Mammalia.

_Birds._--Blasius' List of Birds of Europe; Godman, On Birds of Azores,

Madeira, and Canaries; Middendorf, for Siberia; Père David and Mr. Swinhoe,

for China and Mongolia; Homeyer, for East Siberia; Mr. Blanford, for Persia

and the high Himalayas; Mr. Elwes's paper on the Distribution of Asiatic

Birds; Canon Tristram, for the Sahara and Palestine; Professor Newton, for

Iceland and Greenland; Mr. Dresser, for Scandinavia; and numerous papers

and notes in the Ibis; Journal für Ornithologie; Annals and Mag. of Nat.

History; and Proceedings of the Zoological Society.

_Reptiles and Amphibia._--Schreiber's European Herpetology.

{234}TABLE I.

_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE PALÆARCTIC REGION._

EXPLANATION.

Names in _italics_ show families peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (......) barely enter the region, and are not

considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers are not consecutive, but correspond to those in Part IV.

---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------

| Sub-regions |

| 1=Europe. |

Order and Family | 2=Mediterranean. | Range beyond the Region.

| 3=Siberian. |

| 4=Japan. |

---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

| 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. |

---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

| | | | |

3. Cynopithecidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental

| | | | |

11. Rhinolophidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Warmer parts of E. Hemis.

12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

17. Erinaceidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, S. Africa

21. Talpidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental

22. Soricidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Australia

| | | | |

23. Felidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

28. Canidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

29. Mustelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

32. Ursidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Andes

34. Trichechidæ | -- | | -- | |Arctic regions

35. Phocidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |N. and S. temperate zones

| | | | |

36 to 41. | | | | |Oceanic

| | | | |

42. Manatidæ | -- | | -- | |Tropics, from Brazil to

| | | | |

43. Equidæ | | -- | -- | |Ethiopian

47. Suidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite, excl. Nearctic

48. Camelidæ | | -- | -- | |Andes

50. Cervidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Ethiopian and

52. Bovidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Neotropical and

| | | | |

| | | | |

55. Muridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite

56. Spalacidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, Oriental

57. Dipodidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Nearctic

58. Myoxidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian

60. Castoridæ | -- | | -- | |Nearctic

61. Sciuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

70. Leporidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

| | | | |

PASSERES. | -- | -- | -- | -- |

1. Turdidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

2. Sylviidæ | | -- | | -- |Cosmopolite

3. Timaliidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian

4. Panuridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental

5. Cinclidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental

6. Troglodytidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |American, Oriental

8. Certhiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Nearctic

9. Sittidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Australian,

10. Paridæ | -- | -- | | -- |Nearctic, Oriental, Australian

| | | | | [?]

13. Pycnonotidæ | | -- | | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian

14. Oriolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian

19. Laniidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere and N.

20. Corvidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

29. Ampelidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic

30. Hirundinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

33. Fringillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

35. Sturnidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere

37. Alaudidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Neotropical

38. Motacillidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

51. Picidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

52. Yungidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |N. W. India, N. E. Africa,

58. Cuculidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite

62. Coraciidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian

63. Meropidæ | -- | -- | | |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian

67. Alcedinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

69. Upupidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental

73. Caprimulgidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

74. Cypselidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite

| | | | |

84. Columbidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

86. Pteroclidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Indian

87. Tetraonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental

88. Phasianidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, Ethiopian, Nearctic

89. Turnicidæ | | -- | | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian

| | | | |

94. Vulturidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

96. Falconidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

97. Pandionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

98. Strigidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

99. Rallidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

100. Scolopacidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

104. Glareolidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian

105. Charadriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

106. Otididæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian

107. Gruidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Eastern Hemisphere, and

113. Ardeidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

114. Plataleidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite

115. Ciconiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearly Cosmopolite

| | | | |

118. Anatidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

119. Laridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

120. Procellariidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

121. Pelecanidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

123. Colymbidæ | -- | | -- | -- |Arctic and N. Temperate

124. Podicipidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

125. Alcidæ | -- | | -- | -- |N. Temperate zone

| | | | |

1. Typhlopidæ | | -- | | -- |All regions but Nearctic

7. Colubridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite

8. Homalopsidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Oriental, and all other regions

24. Crotalidæ | | | -- | -- |Nearctic, Neotropical, Oriental

25. Viperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Ethiopian, Oriental

| | | | |

26. _Trogonophidæ_ | | -- | | |

33. Lacertidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but American

41. Gymnopthalmidæ | -- | -- | -- | |Ethiopian, Australian,

45. Scincidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite

46. _Ophiomoridæ_ | | -- | | |

49. Geckotidæ | | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite

51. Agamidæ | | -- | -- | -- |All continents but America

| | | | |

57. Testudinidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All continents but Australia

| | | | |

6. Salamandridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic to Andes of Bogota

| | | | |

10. Bufonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All continents but Australia

13. Bombinatoridæ | -- | -- | | |Neotropical, New Zealand

17. Hylidæ | -- | -- | -- | |All regions but Ethiopian

18. Polypedatidæ | | | -- | -- |All the regions

19. Ranidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Almost Cosmopolite

20. Discoglossidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Nearctic

| | | | |

1. Gasterosteidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic

3. Percidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian

12. Scienidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All regions but Australian

26. _Comephoridæ_ | | | -- | |

37. Atherinidæ | -- | -- | | |N. America and Australia

| | | | |

59. Siluridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All warm regions

65. Salmonidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Nearctic, New Zealand

70. Esocidæ | -- | -- | | |Nearctic

75. Cyprinidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |All regions but Australian and

| | | | |

96. Accipenseridæ | -- | -- | -- | |Nearctic

| | | | |

1. Danaidæ | -- | -- | | -- |All tropical regions

2. Satyridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

8. Nymphalidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

9. Libytheidæ | -- | -- | | |All continents but Australia

13. Lycænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

14. Pieridæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

15. Papilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

16. Hesperidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

| | | | |

17. Zygænidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

21. Stygiidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Neotropical

22. Ægeriidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Absent only from Australia

23. Sphingidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- |Cosmopolite

---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

COLEOPTERA.--Of about 80 families into which the Coleoptera are divided,

all the more important are cosmopolite, or nearly so. It would therefore

unnecessarily occupy space to give tables of the whole for each region.

LAND SHELLS.--The more important families being cosmopolite, and the

smaller ones being somewhat uncertain in their limits, the reader is

referred to the account of the families and genera under each region, and

to the chapter on Mollusca in the concluding part of this work, for such

information as can be given of their distribution.

{239}TABLE II.

_LIST OF THE GENERA OF TERRESTIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE

PALÆARCTIC REGION._

EXPLANATION.

Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (...) show genera which just enter the region, but

are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera which undoubtedly belong to the region are numbered consecutively.

_MAMMALIA._

-------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------

Order, Family, and | No. of| Range within | Range beyond

Genus. |Species| the Region. | the Region.

-------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------

| | |

PRIMATES. | | |

SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Semnopithecus | 1 |Eastern Thibet) |Oriental genus

| | |

CYNOPITHECIDÆ. | | |

| | |

1. Macacus | 4 |Gibraltar, N. Africa, |Oriental

| | E. Thibet to Japan |

| | |

CHIROPTERA. | | |

PTEROPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Pteropus | 2 |Egypt, Japan) |Tropics of the E. .

| | | Hemis

(Xantharpyia | 1 |N. Africa, Palestine) |Oriental, Austro-

| | | Malayan

| | |

RHINOLOPHIDÆ. | | |

| | |

2. Rhinolphus | 9 |Temperate & Southern |Warmer parts E.

| | parts of Region | Hemisphere

(Asellia | 1 |Egypt) |Ethiopian, Java

(_Rhinopoma_ | 1 |Egypt, Palestine) |[?] India

(Nycteris | 1 |Egypt) |Nubia, Himalaya

| | |

VESPERTILIONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

3. Vesperugo | 1 |Siberia, Amoorland |[?]

4. _Otonycteris_ | 1 |Egypt |[?]

5. Vespertilio | 35 |The whole region |Cosmopolite

(Kerivoula | 1 |N. China) |Oriental, S. Africa

6. Miniopteris | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |S. Afric. Malaya,

| | Japan | Austral.

7. Plecotus | 1 |S. Europe |Himalayas

8. Barbastellus | 2 |Mid. and S. Europe, |Darjeeling, Timor

| | Palestine |

| | |

NOCTILIONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

9. Molossus | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa |Ethiop., Neotrop.,

| | | Australian

| | |

INSECTIVORA. | | |

ERINACEIDÆ. | | |

| | |

10. Erinaceus | 4 |The whole region; excl.|Oriental, Africa.

| | Japan |

| | |

TALPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

11. _Talpa_ | 5 |The whole region |N. India

12. _Scaptochirus_ | 1 |N. China |

13. _Anurosorex_ | 1 |N. China |

14. _Scaptonyx_ | 1 |N. China |

15. _Myogale_ | 2 |S. E. Russia, Pyrenees |

16. _Nectogale_ | 1 |Thibet |

17. Urotrichus | 1 |Japan |N. W. America

18. _Uropsilus_ | 1 |E. Thibet |

| | |

SORICIDÆ. | | |

| | |

19. Sorex | 10 |The whole region |Absent from Australia

| | | & S. America

20. Crocidura | 4 |W. Europe to N. China | [?]

| | |

CARNIVORA. | | |

FELIDÆ. | | |

| | |

21. Felis | 12 |The whole region; excl.|All regions but

| | extreme North | Austral.

22. Lyncus | 9 |S. Europe to Arctic sea|America N. of 66° N.

| | | Lat.

| | |

VIVERRIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Viverra | 1 |N. China) |Oriental and Ethiopian

23. Genetta | 1 |S. Europe & N. Africa, |Ethiopian

| | Palestine |

(Herpestes | 1 |N. Africa, Spain [?], |Oriental and Ethiopian

| | Palestine) |

| | |

HYÆNIDÆ. | | |

| | |

24. Hyæna | 1 |N. Africa and S. W. |Ethiopian, India

| | Asia |

| | |

CANIDÆ. | | |

| | |

25. Canis | 4 |The whole region |All reg. but Austral.

| | | [?]

26. _Nyctereutes_ | 1 |Japan, Amoorland, N. |

| | China |

| | |

MUSTELIDÆ. | | |

| | |

27. Martes | 7 |N. Europe and Asia, E. |Oriental, Nearctic

| | Thibet |

28. _Putorius_ | 3 |W. Europe to N. E. Asia|

29. Mustela | 10 |The whole region |Nearctic, Ethiop.,

| | | Himalayas, Peru

30. Vison | 2 |Europe and Siberia |N. America, N. India,

| | | China

31. Gulo | 1 |The Arctic regions |Arctic America

32. Lutra | 2 |The whole region |Oriental

33. _Lutronectes_ | 1 |Japan |

34. Enhydris | 1 |N. Asia and Japan |California

35. _Meles_ | 2 |Cen. Europe, Palestine,|China to Hongkong

| | N. China, Japan |

| | |

ÆLURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

36. Ælurus | 1 |S. E. Thibet |Nepal

37. _Æluropus_ | 1 |E. Thibet |

| | |

URSIDÆ. | | |

| | |

38. Thalassarctos | 1 |Arctic regions |Arctic America

39. Ursus | 4 |The whole region |Oriental, Nearctic,

| | | Chili

| | |

OTARIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

40. Callorhinus | 1 |Kamschatka and |

| | Behring's Straits |

41. Zalophus | 1 |Japan |California

42. Eumetopias | 1 |Japan, Behring's |California

| | Straits |

| | |

TRICHECHIDÆ. | | |

| | |

43. Trichechus | 1 |Polar Seas |Arctic America

| | |

PHOCIDÆ. | | |

| | |

44. Callocephalus | 3 |North Sea, Caspian, |Greenland

| | Lake Baikal |

45. Pagomys | 2 |North Sea, Japan |N. Pacific

46. Pagophilus | 2 |Northern Seas |N. Pacific

47. Phoca | 2 |Northern Seas |N. Pacific

48. Halichærus | 1 |North Sea and Baltic |Greenland

49. _Pelagius_ | 2 |Madeira to Black Sea |

50. Cystophora | 2 |N. Atlantic |N. Atlantic

| | |

SIRENIA. | | |Tropics & Behring's

| | | Strts.

| | |

CETACEA. | | |Oceanic

| | |

UNGULATA. | | |

EQUIDÆ. | | |

| | |

51. Equus | 4 |Cent. and W. Asia & N. |Ethiopian

| | Africa |

| | |

SUIDÆ. | | |

| | |

52. Sus | 2 |The whole region |Oriental, Austro-

| | | Malayan

| | |

CAMELIDÆ. | | |

| | |

53. _Camelus_ | 2 |Deserts of Cent. and W.|

| | Asia and N. Africa |

| | |

CERVIDÆ. | | |

| | |

54. Alces | 1 |North Europe and Asia |N. America

55. Tarandus | 1 |Arctic Europe and Asia |Arctic America

56. Cervus | 8 |The whole region |All regions but

| | | Austral.

57. _Dama_ | 1 |Mediterranean district |

58. _Elaphodus_ | 1 |N. W. China |

59. _Lophotragus_ | 1 |N. China |

60. _Capreolus_ | 2 |Temp. Europe and W. |

| | Asia and N. China |

61. _Moschus_ | 1 |Amoor R., N. China, to |

| | Himalayas |

62. _Hydropotes_ | 1 |N. China |

| | |

BOVIDÆ. | | |

| | |

63. { Bos | 1 |Europe, (not wild) |Oriental

64. { Bison | 1 |Poland and Caucasus |Nearctic

65. { _Poephagus_ | 1 |Thibet |

66. _Addax_ | 1 |N. Africa to Syria |

67. Oryx | 1 |N. Africa to Syria |Ethiopian deserts

68. { Gazella | 12 |N. Africa to Persia, |S. Africa, India

{ | | and Beloochistan |

69. { _Procapra_ | 2 |W. Thibet and Mongolia |

70. {_Saiga_ | 1 |E. Europe and W. Asia |

71. {_Pantholops_ | 1 |W. Thibet |

(Alcephalus | 1 |Syria) |Ethiopian genus.

72. _Budorcas_ | 2 |E. Himalayas to E. |

| | Thibet |

73. _Rupicapra_ | 2 |Pyrenees to Caucasus |

74. Nemorhedus | 7 |E. Himalayas to E. |Oriental to Sumatra,

| | China and Japan | Formosa

75. Capra | 20 |Spain to Thibet and |Nilgherries, Rocky

| | N.E. Africa | Mtns.

| | |

HYRACOIDEA. | | |

HYRACIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Hyrax | 1 |Syria) |Ethiopian genus

| | |

RODENTIA. | | |

MURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

76. Mus |?15 |The whole region |E. Hemisphere

77. _Cricetus_ | 9 |The whole region |

78. _Cricetulus_ | 3 |N. China |

79. Meriones | 8 |W. and Central Asia to |Ethiopian, Indian.

| | N. China, N. Africa |

80. _Rhombomys_ | 6 |E. Europe, Cent. Asia, |

| | N. Africa |

81. _Psammomys_ | 3 |Egypt and Palestine |

82. _Sminthus_ | 3 |East Europe, Siberia |

83. Arvicola |?21 |The whole region |Himalayas, Nearctic

84. Cuniculus | 1 |N. E. Europe, Siberia |Arctic America

85. Myodes | 1 |North of region |Nearctic

86. _Myospalax_ | 3 |Altai Mountains and N. |

| | China |

| | |

SPALACIDÆ. | | |

| | |

87. _Ellobius_ | 1 |S. Russia and S. W. |

| | Siberia |

88. _Spalax_ | 1 |Hungary and Greece to |

| | W. Asia, Palestine |

| | |

DIPODIDÆ. | | |

| | |

89. Dipus |?15 |S. E. Europe and N. |Africa, India

| | Africa to N. China |

| | |

MYOXIDÆ. | | |

| | |

90. Myoxus | 12 |Temperate parts of |Ethiopian

| | whole region |

| | |

CASTORIDÆ. | | |

| | |

91. Castor | 1 |Temperate zone, from |N. America

| | France to Amoorland |

| | |

SCIURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

92. Sciurus | 8 |The whole region |All regions but

| | | Austral.

92a. Tamias | 1 |All Northern Asia |N. America

93. Sciuropterus | 4 |Finland to Siberia and |Oriental, Nearctic

| | Japan |

94. Pteromys | 3 |Japan and W. China |Oriental

95. Spermophilus | 10 |E. Europe to N. China |Nearctic

| | and Kamschatka |

96. Arctomys. | 4 |Alps to E. Thibet and |Nearctic

| | Kamschatka |

| | |

OCTODONTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

97._Ctenodactylus_ | 1 |N. Africa |

| | |

HYSTRICIDÆ. | | |

| | |

98. Hystrix | 2 |S. Europe, Palestine, |Ethiopian, Oriental

| | N. China. |

| | |

LAGOMYIDÆ. | | |

| | |

99. Lagomys | 10 |Volga to E. Thibet and |Nearctic

| | Kamschatka |

| | |

LEPORIDÆ. | | |

| | |

100. Lepus | 12 |The whole region |All regions but

| | | Austral.

_BIRDS._

PASSERES. | | |

TURDIDÆ. | | |

| | |

1. Turdus | 18 |The whole region |Almost cosmopolite

| |(excluding Spitsbergen)|

2. Oreocincla | 1 |N. E. Asia and Japan, |Oriental and

| | straggler to Europe | Australian

3. Monticola | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Oriental and

| | Palestine, N. China | S. African

(Bessornis | 1 |Palestine) |Tropical and

| | | S. Africa

| | |

SYLVIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

4. Cisticola | 1 |S. W. Europe, N. |Ethiop., Orient.,

| | Africa, Japan | Austral.

5. {Acrocephalus | 10 |W. Europe to Japan |Orient., Ethiop.,

{ | | | Austral.

6. {_Dumeticola_ | 4 |Nepaul, Lake Baikal, |

{ | | E. Thibet high |

7. {_Potamodus_ | 3 |W. and S. Europe, |

{ | | N. Africa, E. Thibet |

8. {_Lusciniola_ | 1 |S. Europe |

9. {_Locustella_ | 7 |W. Europe and N. Africa|India, winter

{ | | to Japan | migrants(?)

10. {Bradyptetus | 2 |S. Europe and Palestine|E. and S. Africa

11. {_Calamodus_ | ?3 |Europe, N. Africa, |

| | Palestine |

12. {Phylloscopus | 6 |The whole region |Oriental

{ | | (excluding western |

{ | | islands) |

13. {Hypolais | 9 |Europe, N. Africa, |China, Moluccas,

{ | | Palestine, China | India, Africa

14. {Abrornis | 2 |Cashmere, E. Thibet |Oriental region

15. {Reguloides | 2 |Europe and China |N. India, Formosa

16. {Regulus | 4 |The whole region |N. and Central America

| | (excluding Iceland, |

| | &c.) |

17. {Aedon | 2 |S. Europe, W. Asia, |E. and S. Africa

{ | | N. Africa |

18. {_Pyrophthalma_ | 2 |E. Europe and Palestine|

19. {_Melizophilus_ | 2 |W. and S. Europe, |

{ | | Sardinia |

20. {_Sylvia_ | 6 |Madeira to W. India, |N. E. Africa, Ceylon

{ | | N. Africa | migrants(?)

21. {_Curruca_ | 7 |Madeira to India, |E. Africa, India,

| | N. Africa | migrants

22. {_Luscinia_ | 2 |W. Europe, N. Africa, |

{ | | Persia |

23. {_Cyanecula_ | 3 |Europe and N. Africa to|Abyssinia and India

{ | | Kamschatka | migrants

24. {_Calliope_ | 2 |N. Asia, Himalayas, |Centl. India

{ | | China | (? migrant)

25. {_Erithacus_ | 3 |Atlantic Islands to |

{ | | Japan |

26. {_Grandala_ | 1 |High Himalayas and |

| | E. Thibet |

27. { Ruticilla | 10 |Eu. to Japan, N. Afr., |Abyssinia, India

{ | | Himalayas |

28. { Larvivora | 2 |E. Thibet, Amoor, Japan|Oriental

29. Dromolæa | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Ethiopian

| | Palestine |

30. Saxicola | 10 |The whole region |E. and S. Africa,

| | | India

31. Cercomela | 2 |Palestine (a desert |N. E. Africa, N. W.

| | genus) | India

32. Pratincola | 3 |W. Europe, N. Africa to|Ethiopian to Oriental

| | India |

33. _Accentor_ | 12 |W. Europe to Japan; |Himalayas(?) in winter

| | high Himalayas |

| | |

TIMALIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

34. _Pterorhinus_ | 3 |Thibet and N. W. China |

(Malacocercus | 1 |Palestine) |Oriental genus

(Crateropus | 2 |N. Africa, Persia) |Ethiopian genus

(Trochalopteron | 3 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus

(Ianthocincla | 3 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus

| | |

PANURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Paradoxornis | 3 |Himalayas and |(?)Oriental genus

| | E. Thibet) |

35. _Conostoma_ | 1 |High Himalayas |

| | E. Thibet) |

36. Suthora | 3 |E. Thibet |Himalayas, China,

| | | Formosa

37. _Panurus_ | 1 |W. Europe to W. Siberia|

38. _Heteromorpha_ | 1 |Nepaul and E. Thibet, |

| | from 10,000 feet |

| | altitude |

39. _Cholornis_ | 1 |E. Thibet |

| | |

CINCLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

40. Cinclus | 5 |The whole region |American highlands

| | (Atlantic Islands |

| | excluded) |

(Myiophonus | 1 |Turkestan, Thian-Shan |Oriental genus

| | Mountains, 6,000 feet|

| | |

TROGLODYTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

41. Troglodytes | 3 |Iceland and Britain to |Neotropical and

| | Japan | Nearctic, Himalayas

(Pnoepyga | 2 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus

| | |

CERTHIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

42. Certhia | 2 |W. Europe to N. China |Himalayas, Nearctic

43. _Tichodroma_ | 1 |S. Europe to N. China |Abyssinia, Nepaul,

| | | high

| | |

SITTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

44. Sitta | 7 |W. Europe to Himalayas India, Nearctic

| | and Japan |

| | |

PARIDÆ. | | |

| | |

45. Parus | 20 |W. Europe to Kamschatka|Nearctic, Oriental,

| | N. Africa | Ethiopian

46. Lophophanes | 6 |Europe and high |Nearctic

| | Himalayas |

47. _Acredula_ | 6 |W. Europe to N. China |

| | and Kamschatka |

48. Ægithalus | 1 |S. E. Europe |Ethiopian

| | |

LIOTRICHIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Proparus | 4 |Moupin, in E. Thibet) |Oriental genus and

| | | fam.

| | |

PYCNONOTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

49. Microscelis | 1 |Japan |Oriental genus

50. Pycnonotus | 2 |Palestine, N. China, |Oriental and Ethiopian

| | Japan |

| | |

ORIOLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

51. Oriolus | |S. Europe, China |Ethiopian and Oriental

| | |

MUSCICAPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

52. Muscicapa | 2 |W. and Central Europe |Ethiopian.

53. Butalis | 2 |W. Europe to Japan and |E. and S. Africa,

| | China | Moluccas

54. Erythrosterna | 3 |Central Europe to N. |Oriental & Madagascar

| | China and Japan |

(Xanthopygia | 1 |Japan) |Oriental genus

(Eumyias-- | 1 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus

(Cyanoptila | 1 |Japan and Amoor) |Oriental genus

(Siphia | 1 |Moupin, E. Thibet) |Oriental genus

55. Tchitrea | 2 |N. China and Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental

| | |

LANIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

56. Lanius | 11 |The whole region (excl.|Nearctic, Ethiopian,

| | Atlantic Islands) | Oriental

(Telephonus | 1 |N. Africa) |Ethiopian genus

| | |

CORVIDÆ. | | |

| | |

57. Garrulus | 7 |W. Europe, N. Africa, |Himalayas, Formosa

| | to Japan |

58. Perisoreus | 1 |N. Europe and Siberia |N. America

(Urocissa | 2 |Cashmere, Japan) |Oriental genus

59. _Nucifraga_ | 3 |W. Europe to Japan, |Himalayan pine forests

| | and Himalayas |

60. _Pica_ | 5 |W. Europe to China and |S. China and Formosa

| | Japan | migrants[?]

61. _Cyanopica_ | 2 |Spain, N. E. Asia and |

| | Japan |

62. Corvus | 12 |The whole region |Cosmopolite (excl.

| | | S. Am.)

63. _Fregilus_ | 3 |W. Europe to N. China, |Abyssinian mountains

| | Himalayas |

| | |

NECTARINIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Arachnecthra | 1 |Palestine) |Oriental genus

| | |

DICÆIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Zosterops | 1 |Amoor and Japan) |Ethiop., Orien.,

| | | Austral.

| | |

AMPELIDÆ. | | |

| | |

64. Ampelis | 2 |Northern half of region|North America

| | |

HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | |

| | |

65. Hirundo | 2 |The whole region |Cosmopolite

66. Cotyle | 2 |The whole region (excl.|Nearctic, Ethiop.,

| | Atlan. Is.) | Orien.

67. Chelidon | 3 |The whole region |Oriental

| | |

FRINGILLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

68. Fringilla | 6 |The whole region |Africa

69. _Acanthis_ | 3 |Europe and N. Africa to|

| | Central Asia |

70. _Procarduelis_ | 1 |High Himalayas and |

| | E. Thibet |

71. Chrysomitris | 2 |W. Europe to Japan |N. and S. America

72. _Dryospiza_ | 4 |Atlantic Islands to |

| | Palestine, N. Africa |

73. _Metoponia_ | 1 |N. E. Europe to |

| | W. Himalayas |

74. Chlorospiza | 5 |W. Europe, N. Africa |China, E. Africa

| | to Japan |

75. Passer | 8 |The whole region |Ethiopian, Oriental

76. Montifringilla | 4 |Europe to Cashmere and |

| | Siberia |

77. _Fringillauda_ | 1 |N. W. Himalayas to |

| | E. Thibet, high |

78. Coccothraustes | 3 |W. Europe, High |N. America

| | Himalayas to Japan |

79. _Mycerobas_ | 2 |Central Asia & High |

| | Himalayas |

80. Eophona | 2 |E. Thibet, China, and |China

| | Japan |

81. _Pyrrhula_ | 9 |Azores to Japan, High |Alaska

| | Himalayas |

(Crithagra | 1 |Palestine) |Ethiopian genus

82. Carpodacus | 12 |Cent. Eu. to Japan, |India & China,

| | High Himalayas | N. Amer.

83. _Erythrospiza_ | 4 |N. Africa to |

| | Afghanistan and |

| | Turkestan |

84. _Uragus_ | 2 |Turkestan & E. Thibet |

| | to Japan |

85. Loxia | 3 |Europe, High Himalayas |N. America

| | to Japan |

86. Pinicola | 1 |N. Europe, Siberia |N. America

87. _Propyrrhula_ | 1 |High Himalayas |Darjeeling in winter

88. _Pyrrhospiza_ | 1 |Snowy Himalayas |

89. Linota | 6 |The whole region |N. America

90. Leucosticte | 4 |Turkestan to Kamschatka|N. W. America

| | |

Emberizinæ | | |

| | |

91. {Euspiza | 4 |E. Europe to Japan |N. America

92. {_Emberiza_ | 25 |Europe to Japan |N. India, China

93. {Fringillaria | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa |African genus

94. {Plectrophanes | 2 |Northern half of region|N. America

| | |

STURNIDÆ. | | |

| | |

95. Pastor | 1 |East Europe, Central |India

| | Asia |

96. Sturnia | 2 |Amoor, Japan, N. China |Oriental

97. Sturnus | 3 |The whole region (excl.|India, China

| | Atlantic Islands) |

(Amydrus | 1 |Palestine) |N. E. African genus

98. _Podoces_ | 3 |Cen. Asia, Turkestan, |

| | Yarkand |

| | |

ALAUDIDÆ. | | |

| | |

99. Otocorys | 6 |N. Europe to Japan, |India, N. America,

| | N. Africa, Arabia | Andes

100. Alauda | 7 |The whole region (excl.|India, Africa

| | Iceland) |

101. Galerita | 2 |Central Europe to |India, Central Africa

| | N. China, N. Africa |

102. Calandrella | 4 |Central Europe to |India

| | N. China, N. Africa |

103. _Melanocorypha_| 5 |S. Eu., N. Africa, |N. W. India

| | N. & Cen. Asia |

104. _Pallasia_ | 1 |Mongolia |

(Certhilauda | 1 |N. Africa) |S. African genus

(Alaemon | 1 |N. Africa, Arabia) |Ethiopian genus

105. Ammomanes | 3 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Africa, India

| | to Cashmere |

| | |

MOTACILLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

106. Motacilla | 6 |The whole region |Oriental, Ethiopian

107. Budytes | 4 |Europe to China |Oriental, Moluccas

108. Calobates | 2 |Atlantic Is., W. |Malaisia, Madagascar

| | Europe, to China |

| | |

PITTIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Pitta | 1 |Japan) |Oriental & Austral.

| | | genus

| | |

PICARIÆ. | | |

PICIDÆ. | | |

| | |

109. Picoides | 3 |N. and Cen. Europe to |North America

| | Thibet & E. Asia |

110. Picus | 16 |The whole region (excl.|India, China, N. and

| | Atlantic Islands) | S. America

111. Hypopicus | 1 |N. China |Himalayas

(Yungipicus | 1 |N. China) |Oriental genus

112. Dryocopus | 1 |N. & Cen. Europe to |Neotropical

| | N. China |

113. Gecinus | 6 |W. Europe to Thibet, |Oriental

| | Amoor & Japan |

| | |

YUNGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

114. Yunx | 2 |W. Europe to N. W. |N. E. Africa,

| | India, Thibet and | S. Africa

| | Japan |

| | |

CUCULIDÆ. | | |

| | |

115. Cuculus | 2 |The whole region (excl.|Ethiop., Oriental,

| | Atlantic Islands) | Austral.

116. Coccystes | 1 |S. Europe and N. Africa|Ethiopian and Oriental

| | |

CORACIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

117. Coracias | 1 |Cent. Europe to Cent. |Ethiopian, Oriental

| | Asia |

(Eurystomus | 1 |Amoor in summer) |Oriental & Austral.

| | | genus

| | |

MEROPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

118. Merops | 2 |S. Europe to Cashmere, |Ethiopian and Oriental

| | N. Africa |

| | |

ALCEDINIDÆ. | | |

| | |

(Halcyon | 3 |W. Asia, N. China, |Ethiop., Orien.,

| | Japan) | Austral.

119. Alcedo | 2 |Europe, N. China |

120. Ceryle | 2 |S. E. Europe, Japan |Africa, India, America

| | |

UPUPIDÆ. | | |

| | |

121. Upupa | 1 |S. Europe, N. China |Ethiop. & Oriental

| | | genus

| | |

CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

122. Caprimulgus | 5 |Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental

| | |

CYPSELIDÆ. | | |

| | |

123. Cypselus | 4 |The whole region (excl.|Ethiopian, America

| | Iceland) |

124. Chætura | 2 |N. China, Dauria |Africa, India

| | |

COLUMBÆ. | | |

COLUMBIDÆ. | | |

| | |

125. Columba | 6 |The whole region |Africa, Asia, America

126. Turtur | 4 |W. Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental

(Alsæcomus | 1 |E. Thibet) |Oriental genus

| | |

GALLINÆ. | | |

PTEROCLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

127. Pterocles | 2 |S. Europe, N. Africa, |Ethiopian genus

| | to W. India |

128. _Syrrhaptes_ | 2 |Central Asia, N. China |

| | |

TETRAONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

129. Francolinus | 1 |Borders of |Ethiopian, Oriental

| | Mediterranean |

130. _Perdix_ | 2 |Europe to Mongolia |

131. Coturnix | 1 |Central and S. Europe |Ethiop., Orien.,

| | to Japan | Austral.

132. _Lerwa_ | 1 |Snowy Himalayas to |

| | E. Thibet |

133. _Caccabis_ | 5 |Cen. Europe and N. |Abyssinia, Arabia

| | Africa to N. W. |

| | Himalayas |

134. _Tetraogallus_ | 4 |Caucasus to E. Thibet |

| | and Altai Mountains |

135. Tetrao | 4 |Europe and N. Asia |N. America

136. Bonasa | 1 |Europe and N. Asia |N. America

137. Lagopus | 4 |Iceland, W. Europe to |N. America, Greenland

| | Japan |

| | |

PHASIANIDÆ. | | |

| | |

138. _Crossoptilon_ | 4 |Thibet, Mongolia, |

| | N. China |

139. _Lophophorus_ | 3 |Cashmere to E. Thibet |

| | (highest woods) |

140. Tetraophasis | 1 |E. Thibet |E. Thibet(?)

141. Ceriornis | 1 |N. W. Himalayas (high) |Himalayas to W. China

142. Pucrasia-- | 3 |N. W. Himalayas to |Himalayas

| | N. W. China |

143. _Phasianus_ | 10 |Western Asia to Japan |W. Himalayas, Formosa

144. _Thaumalea_ | 3 |E. Thibet to Amoor, |West China

| | N. China |

145. _Ithaginis_ | 2 |Nepaul to E. Thibet |

| | (high) |

| | |

TURNICIDÆ. | | |

| | |

146. Turnix | 2 |Spain and N. Africa, |Ethiop., Orien.,

| | N. China | Austral.

| | |

ACCIPITRES. | | |

VULTURIDÆ. | | |

| | |

147. _Vultur_ | 1 |Spain and N. Africa to |

| | N. China |

148. Gyps | 1 |S. Europe, Palestine, |E. Africa, India

| | Cen. Asia |

149. Otogyps | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa |S. Africa, India

150. Neophron | 1 |Atlantic Isds. to |Africa, India

| | Palestine |

| | |

FALCONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

151. Circus | 5 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite

152. Astur | 1 |Europe to N. China |Almost Cosmopolite

153. Accipiter | 2 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite

154. Buteo | 4 |Europe to Japan |Cosmopolite (excl.

| | | Australia)

155. Archibuteo | 1 |N. Europe to Japan |N. America

156. Gypaetus | 1 |S. Europe, N. Africa |Abyssinia, Himalayas

157. Aquila | 5 |Europe to Japan |Nearctic, Ethiop.,

| | | Orien.

158. Nisaetus | 2 |E. Europe, N. Africa, |India, Australia

| | W. Asia |

159. Circaetus | 1 |E. and S. Europe, N. |Africa, India

| | Africa, W. Asia |

160. Haliæetus | 3 |Iceland and S. Europe |Cosmopolite (excl.

| | to Japan | Neotropical region)

161. Milvus | 4 |Europe to Japan, |The Old World &

| | N. Africa | Austral.

162. Elanus | 2 |N. Africa, N. China to |Cosmopolite (excl.

| | Amoor | East U. S.)

163. Pernis | 1 |Europe to Japan |Ethiopian and Oriental

164. Falco | 5 |The whole region |Cosmopolite (excl.

| | | Pacific Islands)

165. Hierofalco | 5 |The whole region |N. America

166. Cerchneis | 4 |Atlantic Islands to |Cosmop. (excl.

| | Japan | Oceania)

| | |

PANDIONIDÆ. | | |

| | |

167. Pandion | 1 |Europe to Japan |Cosmopolite

| | |

STRIGIDÆ. | | |

| | |

168. Surnia | 1 |N. Europe and Siberia |North America

169. Nyctea | 1 |Arctic regions |Arctic America

170. Athene | 4 |Central and S. Europe |Ethiop., Orien.,

| | to Japan | Austral.

(Ninox | 1 |N. China and Japan) |Oriental genus

171. Glaucidium | 1 |Europe to N. China |America

172. Bubo | 2 |Europe to N. China |Africa, India,

| | | America

173. Scops | 3 |S. Europe to Japan |African, Orien.,

| | | Austral.

174. Syrnium | 5 |Europe to Japan |African, Oriental,

| | | Amer.

175. Otus | 2 |Europe to Japan |Almost Cosmopolite

176. Nyctala | 1 |N. Europe to E. Siberia|N. America

177. Strix | 1 |Europe and N. Africa |All warm & temp.

| | | regions

_Peculiar or very characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._

GRALLÆ. | | |

RALLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

_Ortygometra_ | 8 |Europe, N. E. Africa |

| | |

SCOLOPACIDÆ. | | |

| | |

_Ibidorhyncha_ | 1 |Cashmere & Cen. Asia, |Himalayan Valleys

| | N. China |

Terekia | 1 |N. E. Europe and |India, Australia

| | Siberia | (migrant)

_Helodromas_ | 1 |E. and N. Europe, |

| | N. India |

_Machetes_ | 1 |N. and Cen. Europe, |India in winter

| | Cen. Asia |

_Eurinorhynchus_ | 1 |N. E. Asia |Bengal

| | |

GLAREOLIDÆ. | | |

| | |

_Pluvianus_ | 1 |N. Africa, Spain |

| | |

CHARADRIIDÆ. | | |

| | |

Vanellus | 8 |Europe to the Punjaub |S. America

| | |

OTIDIDÆ. | | |

| | |

_Otis_ | 2 |W. Europe to Mongolia, |

| | N. Africa |

ANSERES. | | |

ANATIDÆ. | | |

| | |

Aix | 1 |N. China to Amoor |N. America

Bucephala | 3 |Iceland, N. Europe, and|N. America

| | Asia |

Histrionicus | 1 |Iceland, N. Siberia |N. America

Harelda | 1 |North of whole region |Arctic America

Somateria | 3 |North of whole region |N. America

Oedemia | 3 |North of whole region |N. America

| | |

LARIDÆ. | | |

| | |

Rissa | 1 |North coasts of whole |N. America

| | region |

| | |

COLYMBIDÆ. | | |

| | |

Colymbus | 3 |North of whole region |N. America

| | |

ALCIDÆ. | | |

| | |

Alca | 2 |North coasts of whole |N. America

| | region |

Fratercula | 3 |North coasts of whole |N. America

| | region |

Uria | 3 |North coasts of whole |N. America

| | region |

Mergulus | 1 |Iceland and Arctic |Arctic America

| | coasts |

--------------------+-----+-----------------------+----------------------

[Illustration: ETHIOPIAN REGION]

{251}CHAPTER XI.

THE ETHIOPIAN REGION.

This is one of the best defined of the great zoological regions, consisting

of tropical and South Africa, to which must be added tropical Arabia,

Madagascar, and a few other islands, all popularly known as African. Some

naturalists would extend the region northwards to the Atlas Mountains and

include the whole of the Sahara; but the animal life of the northern part

of that great desert seems more akin to the Palæarctic fauna of North

Africa. The Sahara is really a debatable land which has been peopled from

both regions; and until we know more of the natural history of the great

plateaus which rise like islands in the waste of sand, it will be safer to

make the provisional boundary line at or near the tropic, thus giving the

northern half to the Palæarctic, the southern to the Ethiopian region. The

same line may be continued across Arabia.

With our present imperfect knowledge of the interior of Africa, only three

great continental sub-regions can be well defined. The open pasture lands

of interior tropical Africa are wonderfully uniform in their productions; a

great number of species ranging from Senegal to Abyssinia and thence to the

Zambesi, while almost all the commoner African genera extend over the whole

of this area. Almost all this extensive tract of country is a moderately

elevated plateau, with a hot and dry climate, and characterised by a grassy

vegetation interspersed with patches of forest. This forms our first or

East African sub-region. The whole of the west coast from the south side of

the Gambia River to about 10° or 12° south latitude, is a very

{252}different kind of country; being almost wholly dense forests where not

cleared by man, and having the hot moist uniform climate, and perennial

luxuriance of vegetation, which characterise the great equatorial belt of

forest all round the globe. This forest country extends to an unknown

distance inland, but it was found, with its features well marked, by Dr.

Schweinfurth directly he crossed the south-western watershed of the Nile;

and far to the south we find it again unmistakably indicated, in the

excessively moist forest country about the head waters of the Congo, where

the heroic Livingstone met his death. In this forest district many of the

more remarkable African types are alone found, and its productions

occasionally present us with curious similarities to those of the far

removed South American or Malayan forests. This is our second or West

African sub-region.

Extra-tropical South Africa possesses features of its own, quite distinct

from those of both the preceding regions (although it has also much in

common with the first). Its vegetation is known to be one of the richest,

most peculiar, and most remarkable on the globe; and in its zoology it has

a speciality, similar in kind but less in degree, which renders it both

natural and convenient to separate it as our third, or South African

sub-region. Its limits are not very clearly ascertained, but it is probably

bounded by the Kalahari desert on the north-west, and by the Limpopo

Valley, or the mountain range beyond, on the north-east, although some of

its peculiar forms extend to Mozambique. There remains the great Island of

Madagascar, one of the most isolated and most interesting on the globe, as

regards its animal productions; and to this must be added, the smaller

islands of Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez, the Seychelles and the Comoro

Islands, forming together the Mascarene Islands,--the whole constituting

our fourth sub-region.

_Zoological Characteristics of the Ethiopian Region._--We have now to

consider briefly, what are the peculiarities and characteristics of the

Ethiopian Region as a whole,--those which give it its distinctive features

and broadly separate it from the other primary zoological regions.

{253}_Mammalia._--This region has 9 peculiar families of mammalia.

Chiromyidæ (containing the aye-aye); Potamogalidæ and Chrysochloridæ

(Insectivora); Cryptoproctidæ and Protelidae (Carnivora); Hippopotamidæ and

Camelopardalidæ (Ungulata); and Orycteropodidæ (Edentata). Besides these it

possesses 7 peculiar genera of apes, _Troglodytes_, _Colobus_,

_Myiopithecus_, _Cercopithecus_, _Cercocebus_, _Theropithecus_, and

_Cynocephalus_; 2 sub-families of lemurs containing 6 genera, confined to

Madagascar, with 3 genera of two other sub-families confined to the

continent; of Insectivora a family, Centetidæ, with 5 genera, peculiar to

Madagascar, and the genera _Petrodromus_ and _Rhynchocyon_ belonging to the

Macroscelididæ, or elephant-shrews, restricted to the continent; numerous

peculiar genera or sub-genera of civets; _Lycaon_ and _Megalotis_,

remarkable genera of Canidæ; _Ictonyx_, the zorilla, a genus allied to the

weasels; 13 peculiar genera of Muridæ; _Pectinator_, a genus of the South

American family Octodontidæ; and 2 genera of the South American Echimyidæ

or spiny rats. Of abundant and characteristic groups it possesses

_Macroscelides_, _Felis_, _Hyæna_, _Hyrax_, _Rhinoceros_, and _Elephas_, as

well as several species of zebra and a great variety of antelopes.

The great speciality indicated by these numerous peculiar families and

genera, is still farther increased by the absence of certain groups

dominant in the Old-World continent, an absence which we can only account

for by the persistence, through long epochs, of barriers isolating the

greater part of Africa from the rest of the world. These groups are,

Ursidæ, the bears; Talpidæ the moles; Camelidæ, the camels; Cervidæ, the

deer; Caprinæ, the goats and sheep; and the genera _Bos_ (wild ox); and

_Sus_ (wild boar). Combining these striking deficiencies, with the no less

striking peculiarities above enumerated, it seems hardly possible to have a

region more sharply divided from the rest of the globe than this is, by its

whole assemblage of mammalia.

_Birds._--In birds the Ethiopian region is by no means so strikingly

peculiar, many of these having been able to pass the ancient barriers which

so long limited the range of mammalia. {254}It is, however, sufficiently

rich, possessing 54 families of land birds, besides a few genera whose

position is not well ascertained, and which may constitute distinct

families. Of these 6 are peculiar, Musophagidæ (the plantain eaters);

Coliidæ (the colies); Leptosomidæ, allied to the cuckoos; Irrisoridæ,

allied to the hoopoes; and Serpentaridæ, allied to the hawks. Only one

Passerine family is peculiar--Paictidæ, while most of the other tropical

regions possess several; but _Euryceros_ and _Buphaga_, here classed with

the Sturnidæ, ought, perhaps, to form two more. It has, however, many

peculiar genera, especially among the fruit-thrushes, Pycnonotidæ;

flycatchers, Muscicapidæ; shrikes, Lanidæ; crows, Corvidæ; starlings,

Sturnidæ; and weaver-birds, Ploceidæ; the latter family being very

characteristic of the region. It is also rich in barbets, Megalæmidæ (7

peculiar genera); cuckoos, Cuculidæ; rollers, Coraciidæ; bee-eaters,

Meropidæ; hornbills, Bucerotidæ; and goat-suckers, Caprimulgidæ. It is poor

in parrots and rather so in pigeons; but it abounds in _Pterocles_ and

_Francolinus_, genera of Gallinæ, and possesses 4 genera of the peculiar

group of the guinea-fowls, forming part of the pheasant family. It abounds

in vultures, eagles, and other birds of prey, among which is the anomalous

genus _Serpentarius_, the secretary-bird, constituting a distinct family.

Many of the most remarkable forms are confined to Madagascar and the

adjacent islands, and will be noticed in our account of that sub-region.

_Reptiles._--Of the reptiles there are 4 peculiar Ethiopian families;--3 of

snakes, Rachiodontidæ, Dendraspidæ, and Atractaspidæ and 1 of lizards,

Chamæsauridæ.

Psammophidæ (desert snakes) are abundant, as are Lycodontidæ (fanged

ground-snakes), and Viperidæ (vipers). The following genera of snakes are

peculiar or highly characteristic:--_Leptorhynchus_, _Rhamnophis_,

_Herpetethiops_ and _Grayia_ (Colubridæ); _Hopsidrophis_ and _Bucephalus_

(Dendrophidæ); _Langalia_ (Dryophidæ); _Pythonodipsas_ (Dipsadidæ);

_Boedon_, _Lycophidion_, _Holuropholis_, _Simocephalus_ and _Lamprophis_

(Lycodontidæ); _Hortulia_ and _Sanzinia_ (Pythonidæ); _Cyrptophis_,

_Elapsoidea_ and _Poecilophis_ (Elapidæ); and _Atheris_ (Viperidæ). The

following genera {255}of lizards are the most

characteristic:--_Monotrophis_ (Lepidosternidæ); _Cordylus_,

_Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_, _Cordylosaurus_, _Pleurostichus_,

_Saurophis_ and _Zonurus_ (Zonuridæ); _Sphænops_, _Scelotes_,

_Sphænocephalus_ and _Sepsina_ (Sepidæ); _Pachydactylus_ (Geckotidæ);

_Agama_ (Agamidæ); and _Chameleon_ (Chameleonidæ). Of tortoises, _Cynyxis_,

_Pyxis_ and _Chersina_ (Testudinidæ), and _Cycloderma_ (Trionychidæ) are

the most characteristic.

_Amphibia._--Of the 9 families of amphibia there is only 1 peculiar, the

Dactylethridæ, a group of toads; but the Alytidæ, a family of frogs, are

abundant.

_Fresh-water Fish._--Of the 14 families of fresh-water fishes 3 are

peculiar: Mormyridæ and Gymnarchidæ, small groups not far removed from the

pikes; and Polypteridæ, a small group of ganoid fishes allied to the

gar-pikes (Lepidosteidæ) of North America.

_Summary of Ethiopian Vertebrates._--Combining the results here indicated

and set forth in greater detail in the tables of distribution, we find that

the Ethiopian region possesses examples of 44 families of mammalia, 72 of

birds, 35 of reptiles, 9 of amphibia, and 15 of fresh-water fishes. It has

23 (or perhaps 25) families of Vertebrata altogether peculiar to it out of

a total of 175 families, or almost exactly one-eighth of the whole. Out of

142 genera of mammalia found within the region, 90 are peculiar to it; a

proportion not much short of two-thirds. Of land birds there are 294

genera, of which 179 are peculiar; giving a proportion of a little less

than three-fifths.

Compared with the Oriental region this shows a considerably larger amount

of speciality under all the heads; but the superiority is mainly due to the

wonderful and isolated fauna of Madagascar, to which the Oriental region

has nothing comparable. Without this the regions would be nearly equal.

_Insects: Lepidoptera._--11 out of the 16 families of butterflies have

representatives in Africa, but none are peculiar. Acræidæ is one of the

most characteristic families, and there {256}are many interesting forms of

Nymphalidæ, Lycænidæ, and Papilionidæ. The peculiar or characteristic forms

are _Amauris_ (Danaidæ); _Gnophodes_, _Leptoneura_, _Bicyclus_,

_Heteropsis_ and _Coenyra_ (Satyridæ); _Acræa_ (Acræidæ); _Lachnoptera_,

_Precis_, _Salamis_, _Crenis_, _Godartia_, _Amphidema_, _Pseudacræa_,

_Catuna_, _Euryphene_, _Romalæosoma_, _Hamanumida_, _Aterica_, _Harma_,

_Meneris_, _Charaxes_, and _Philognoma_ (Nymphalidæ); _Pentila_, _Liptena_,

_Durbania_, _Zeritis_, _Capys_, _Phytala_, _Epitola_, _Hewitsonia_ and

_Deloneura_ (Lycænidæ); _Pseudopontia_, _Idmais_, _Teracolus_, _Callosune_

(Pieridæ); _Abantis_, _Ceratrichia_ and _Caprona_ (Hesperidæ). The total

number of species known is about 750; which is very poor for an extensive

tropical region, but this is not to be wondered at when the nature of much

of the country is considered. It is also, no doubt, partly due to our

comparative ignorance of the great equatorial forest district, which is the

only part likely to be very productive in this order of insects.

_Coleoptera._--In our first representative family, Cicindelidæ or

tiger-beetles, the Ethiopian region is rather rich, having 13 genera, 11 of

which are peculiar to it; and among these are such remarkable forms as

_Manticora_, _Myrmecoptera_ and _Dromica_; with _Megacephala_, a genus only

found elsewhere in Australia and South America.

In Carabidæ or carnivorous ground beetles, there are about 75 peculiar

genera. Among the most characteristic are _Anthia_, _Polyrhina_,

_Graphipterus_ and _Piezia_, which are almost all peculiar; while

_Orthogonius_, _Hexagonia_, _Macrochilus_, _Thyreopterus_, _Eudema_, and

_Abacetus_ are common to this and the Oriental region; and _Hypolithus_ to

the Neotropical.

Out of 27 genera of Buprestidæ, or metallic beetles, only 6 are peculiar to

the region, one of the most remarkable being _Polybothrus_, confined to

Madagascar. _Sternocera_ and _Chrysochroa_ are characteristic of this

region and the Oriental; it has _Julodis_ in common with the Mediterranean

sub-region, and _Belionota_ with the Malayan.

The region is not rich in Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, possessing only 10

genera, 7 of which are peculiar, but most of them {257}consist of single

species. The other three genera, _Cladognathus_, _Nigidius_, and _Figulus_,

are the most characteristic, though all have a tolerably wide range in the

Old World.

In the elegant Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, this region stands preeminent,

possessing 76 genera, 64 of which are peculiar to it. The others are

chiefly Oriental, except _Oxythræa_ which is European, and _Stethodesma_

which is Neotropical. Preeminent in size and beauty is _Goliathus_,

comprising perhaps the most bulky of all highly-coloured beetles. Other

large and characteristic genera are _Ceratorhina_, _Ischnostoma_,

_Anochilia_, _Diplognatha_, _Agenius_, and many others of less extent.

In the enormous tribe of Longicorns, or long-horned beetles, the Ethiopian

is not so rich as the other three tropical regions; but this may be, in

great part, owing to its more productive districts having never been

explored by any competent entomologists. It nevertheless possesses 262

genera, 216 of which are peculiar, the others being mostly groups of very

wide range. Out of such a large number it is difficult to select a few as

most characteristic, but some of the peculiarities of distribution as

regards other regions may be named. Among Prionidæ, _Tithoes_ is a

characteristic Ethiopian genus. A few species of the American genera

_Parandra_ and _Mallodon_ occur here, while the North Temperate genus

_Prionus_ is only found in Madagascar. Among Cerambycidæ, _Promeces_ is the

most characteristic. The American genera _Oeme_ and _Cyrtomerus_ occur;

while _Homalachnus_ and _Philagathes_ are Malayan, and _Leptocera_ occurs

only in Madagascar, Ceylon, Austro-Malaya, and Australia. The Lamiidæ are

very fine; _Sternotomis_, _Tragocephala_, _Ceroplesis_, _Phryncta_,

_Volumnia_, and _Nitocris_, being very abundant and characteristic. Most of

the non-peculiar genera of this family are Oriental, but _Spalacopsis_ and

_Acanthoderes_ are American, while _Tetraglenes_ and _Schoenionta_ have

been found only in East and South Africa and in Malaya.

_Terrestrial Mollusca_.--In the extensive family of the Helicidæ or snails,

13 genera are represented, only one of which, _Columna_, is peculiar. This

region is however the metropolis of _Achatina_, some of the species being

the largest land-shells {258}known. _Buliminus_, _Stenogyra_, and _Pupa_

are characteristic genera. _Bulimus_ is absent, though one species inhabits

St. Helena. The operculated shells are not very well represented, the great

family of Cyclostomidæ having here only nine genera, with but one peculiar,

_Lithidion_, found in Madagascar, Socotra, and Arabia. None of the genera

appear to be well represented throughout the region, and they are almost or

quite absent from West Africa.

According to Woodward's _Manual_ (1868) West Africa has about 200 species

of land-shells, South Africa about 100, Madagascar nearly 100, Mauritius

about 50. All the islands have their peculiar species; and are, in

proportion to their extent, much richer than the continent; as is usually

the case.

THE ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS.

It has been already explained that these are to some extent provisional;

yet it is believed that they represent generally the primary natural

divisions of the region, however they may be subdivided when our knowledge

of their productions becomes more accurate.

_I. The East African Sub-region, or Central and East Africa._

This division includes all the open country of tropical Africa south of the

Sahara, as well as an undefined southern margin of that great desert. With

the exception of a narrow strip along the east coast and the valleys of the

Niger and Nile, it is a vast elevated plateau from 1,000 to 4,000 feet

high, hilly rather than mountainous, except the lofty table land of

Abyssinia, with mountains rising to 16,000 feet and extending south to the

equator, where it terminates in the peaks of Kenia and Kilimandjaro, 18,000

and 20,000 feet high. The northern portion of this sub-region is a belt

about 300 miles wide between the Sahara on the north and the great

equatorial forest on the south, extending from Cape Verd, the extreme

western point of Africa, across the northern bend of the Niger and Lake

Tchad to the mountains of Abyssinia. The greater part of this tract has a

{259}moderate elevation. The eastern portion reaches from about the second

cataract of the Nile, or perhaps from about the parallel of 20° N.

Latitude, down to about 20° S. Latitude, and from the east coast to where

the great forest region commences, or to Lake Tanganyika and about the

meridian of 28° to 30° E. Longitude. The greater part of this tract is a

lofty plateau.

The surface of all this sub-region is generally open, covered with a

vegetation of high grasses or thorny shrubs, with scattered trees and

isolated patches of forest in favourable situations. The only parts where

extensive continuous forests occur, are on the eastern and western slopes

of the great Abyssinian plateau, and on the Mozambique coast from Zanzibar

to Sofala. The whole of this great district has one general zoological

character. Many species range from Senegal to Abyssinia, others from

Abyssinia to the Zambesi, and a few, as _Mungos fasciatus_ and

_Phacochoerus æthiopicus_, range over the entire sub-region. _Fennecus_,

_Ictonyx_, and several genera of antelopes, characterise every part of it,

as do many genera of birds. _Coracias nævia_, _Corythornis cyanostigma_,

_Tockus nasutus_, _T. erythrorhynchus_, _Parus leucopterus_, _Buphaga

africana_, _Vidua paradisea_, are examples of _species_, which are found in

the Gambia, Abyssinia and South East Africa, but not in the West African

sub-region; and considering how very little is known of the natural history

of the country immediately south of the Sahara, it may well be supposed

that these are only a small portion of the species really common to the

whole area in question, and which prove its fundamental unity.

Although this sub-region is so extensive and so generally uniform in

physical features, it is by far the least peculiar part of Africa. It

possesses, of course, all those wide-spread Ethiopian types which inhabit

every part of the region, but it has hardly any special features of its

own. The few genera which are peculiar to it have generally a limited

range, and for the most part belong, either to the isolated

mountain-plateau of Abyssinia which is almost as much Palæarctic as

Ethiopian, or to the woody districts of Mozambique where the fauna has more

of a West or South African character.

{260}_Mammalia._--The only forms of Mammalia peculiar to this sub-region

are _Theropithecus_, one of the Cynopithecidæ confined to Abyssinia;

_Petrodromus_ and _Rhynchocyon_, belonging to the insectivorous

Macroscelididæ, have only been found in Mozambique; the Antelopine genus

_Neotragus_, from Abyssinia southward; _Saccostomus_ and _Pelomys_ genera

of Muridæ inhabiting Mozambique; _Heterocephalus_ from Abyssinia, and

_Heliophobius_ from Mozambique, belonging to the Spalacidæ; and

_Pectinator_ from Abyssinia, belonging to the Octodontidæ. _Cynocephalus_,

_Rhinoceros_, _Camelopardalis_, and antelopes of the genera _Oryx_,

_Cervicapra_, _Kobus_, _Nanotragus_, _Cephalophus_, _Hippotragus_,

_Alcephalus_, and _Catoblepas_, are characteristic; as well as _Felis_,

_Hyæna_, and numerous civets and ichneumons.

_Birds._--Peculiar forms of birds are hardly to be found here; we only meet

with two--_Hypocolius_, a genus of shrikes in Abyssinia; and _Balæniceps_,

the great boat-billed heron of the Upper Nile. Yet throughout the country

birds are abundant, and most of the typical Ethiopian forms are well

represented.

_Reptiles._--Of reptiles, the only peculiar forms recorded are

_Xenocalamus_, a genus of snakes, belonging to the Calamariidæ; and

_Pythonodipsas_, one of the Dipsadidæ, both from the Zambesi; and among

lizards, _Pisturus_, one of the Geckotidæ, from Abyssinia.

_Amphibia and Fishes._--There are no peculiar forms of amphibia or of

fresh-water fishes.

_Insects._--Insects are almost equally unproductive of peculiar forms.

Among butterflies we have _Abantis_, one of the Hesperidæ, from Mozambique;

and in Coleoptera, 2 genera of Cicindelidæ, 8 of Carabidæ, 1 or 2 of

Cetoniidæ, and about half-a-dozen of Longicorns: a mere nothing, as we

shall see, compared with the hosts of peculiar genera that characterise

each of the other sub-regions. Neither do land-shells appear to present any

peculiar forms.

The fact that so very few special types characterise the extensive area now

under consideration is very noteworthy. It justifies us in uniting this

large and widespread tract of country as forming essentially but one

sub-division of the great Ethiopian region, and it suggests some curious

speculations as to the former history of that region, a subject which must

be deferred to the latter part of this chapter. In none of the other great

tropical regions does it occur, that the largest portion of their area,

although swarming with life, yet possesses hardly any distinctive features

except the absence of numerous types characteristic of the other

sub-regions.

Plate IV.

[Illustration]

CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF EAST AFRICA.

{261}_Plate IV._--_Illustrating the Zoology of East Africa._--Although this

sub-region has so little speciality, it is that which abounds most in large

animals, and is, perhaps, the best representative of Africa as regards

zoology. Some of the most distinctive of African animals range over the

whole of it, and as, from recent explorations, many parts of this wide area

have been made known to the reading public, we devote one of our plates to

illustrate the especially African forms of life that here abound. The

antelopes represented are the koodoo (_Tragelaphus strepsiceros_) one of

the handsomest of the family, which ranges over all the highlands of Africa

from Abyssinia to the southern districts. To the left is the aardvark, or

earth pig, of North Eastern Africa (_Orycteropus æthiopicus_) which, to the

north of the equator in East Africa, represents the allied species of the

Cape of Good Hope. These Edentata are probably remnants of the ancient

fauna of Africa, when it was completely isolated from the northern

continents and few of the higher types had been introduced. The large bird

in the foreground is the secretary-bird, or serpent-killer (_Serpentarius

reptilivorus_), which has affinities both for the birds-of-prey and the

waders. It is common over almost all the open country of Africa, destroying

and feeding on the most venomous serpents. The bird on the wing is the

red-billed promerops (_Irrisor erythrorhynchus_), a handsome bird with

glossy plumage and coral-red bill. It is allied to the hoopoes, and feeds

on insects which it hunts for among the branches of trees. This species

also ranges over a large part of east and central Africa to near the Cape

of Good Hope. Other species are found in the west; and the genus, which

forms a distinct family, _Irrisoridæ_, is one of the best marked Ethiopian

types of birds. In the distance is a rhinoceros, now one of the

characteristic features of African {262}zoology, though there is reason to

believe that it is a comparatively recent intruder into the country.

_II. The West-African Sub-region._

This may be defined as the equatorial-forest sub-region, since it comprises

all that portion of Africa, from the west coast inland, over which the

great equatorial forests prevail more or less uninterruptedly. These

commence to the south of the Gambia River, and extend eastwards in a line

roughly parallel to the southern margin of the great desert, as far as the

sources of the upper Nile and the mountains forming the western boundary of

the basin of the great lakes; and southward to that high but marshy

forest-country in which Livingstone was travelling at the time of his

death. Its southern limits are undetermined, but are probably somewhere

about the parallel of 11° S. Latitude.[10]

This extensive and luxuriant district has only been explored zoologically

in the neighbourhood of the West coast. Much, no doubt, remains to be done

in the interior, yet its main features are sufficiently well known, and

most of its characteristic types of animal life have, no doubt, been

discovered.

_Mammalia._--Several very important groups of mammals are peculiar to this

sub-region. Most prominent are the great anthropoid apes--the gorilla and

the chimpanzee--forming the genus _Troglodytes_; and monkeys of the genera

_Myiopithecus_ and _Cercocebus_. Two remarkable forms of lemurs,

_Perodicticus_ and _Arctocebus_, are also peculiar to West Africa. Among

the Insectivora is _Potamogale_, a semi-aquatic animal, forming a distinct

family; and three peculiar genera of civets (Viverridæ) have been

described. _Hyomoschus_, a small, deer-like animal, belongs to the

Tragulidæ, or chevrotains, a family otherwise {263}confined to the Oriental

region; and in the squirrel family is a curious genus, _Anomalurus_, which

resembles the flying squirrels of other parts of the world, without being

directly allied to them.

_Birds._--In this class we find a larger proportionate number of peculiar

forms. _Hypergerus_ and _Alethe_, belonging to the Timaliidæ, or babblers,

are perhaps allied to Malayan groups; _Parinia_, a peculiar form of tit, is

found only in Prince's Island; _Ixonotus_ is an abundant and characteristic

form of Pycnonotidæ; _Fraseria_, _Hypodes_, _Cuphopterus_, and

_Chaunonotus_, are peculiar genera of shrikes; _Picathartes_ is one of the

many strange forms of the crow family; _Cinnyricinclus_ is a peculiar genus

of sun-birds; _Pholidornis_ is supposed to belong to the Oriental Dicæidæ,

or flower-peckers; _Waldenia_ is a recently-described new form of swallow;

_Ligurnus_, a finch, _Spermospiga_, a weaver bird, and _Onychognathus_ a

starling, are also peculiar West African genera. Coming to the Picariæ we

have _Verreauxia_, a peculiar woodpecker; three peculiar genera of barbets

(Megalæmidæ); the typical plantain-eaters (Musophaga); _Myioceyx_, a

peculiar genus of kingfishers; while _Berenicornis_ is a genus of crested

hornbills, only found elsewhere in Malaya. The grey parrots, of the genus

_Psittacus_, are confined to this sub-region, as are two peculiar genera of

partridges, and three of guinea-fowl. We have also here a species of

_Pitta_, one of the Oriental family of ground-thrushes; and the Oriental

paroquets, _Palæornis_, are found here as well as in Abyssinia and the

Mascarene Islands.

We thus find, both in the Mammalia and birds of West Africa, a special

Oriental or even Malayan element not present in the other parts of tropical

Africa, although appearing again in Madagascar. In the Mammalia it is

represented by the anthropoid apes; by _Colobus_ allied to _Semnopithecus_,

and by _Cercocebus_ allied to _Macacus_; and especially by a form of the

Malayan family of chevrotains (Tragulidæ). The Malayan genus of otters,

_Aonyx_, is also said to occur in West and South Africa. In birds we have

special Oriental and Malayan affinities in _Alethe_, _Pholidornis_,

_Berenicornis_, _Pitta_, and _Palæornis;_ while the Oriental genus _Treron_

has a wide range in Africa. We shall {264}endeavour to ascertain the

meaning of this special relation at a subsequent stage of our inquiries.

_Plate V._--_River Scene in West Africa, with Characteristic Animals._--Our

artist has here well represented the luxuriance and beauty of a tropical

forest; and the whole scene is such as might be witnessed on the banks of

one of the rivers of equatorial West Africa. On the right we see a red

river-hog (_Potamochoerus penicillatus_), one of the handsomest of the

swine family, and highly characteristic of the West African sub-region. In

a tree overhead is the potto (_Perodicticus potto_), one of the curious

forms of lemur confined to West Africa. On the left is the remarkable

_Potamogale velox_, first discovered by Du Chaillu,--an Insectivorous

animal, with the form and habits of an otter. On the other side of the

river are seen a pair of gorillas (_Troglodytes gorilla_), the largest of

the anthropoid apes.

The bird on the wing is the Whydah finch (_Vidua paradisea_), remarkable

for the enormous plumes with which the tail of the male bird is decorated

during the breeding season. The crested bird overhead is one of the

beautiful green touracos (_Turacus macrorhynchus_), belonging to the

Musophagidæ, or plantain-eaters, a family wholly African, and most abundant

in the western sub-region.

_Reptiles._--In this class we find a large number of peculiar forms; 13

genera of snakes, 3 of lizards, and 2 of tortoises being confined to the

sub-region. The snakes are _Pariaspis_, _Elapops_, and _Prosymna_

(Calamariidæ), _Rhamnophis_, _Herpetethiops_, and _Grayia_ (Colubridæ),

_Neusterophis_ and _Limnophis_ (Homalopsidæ), _Simocephalus_ and

_Holurophis_ (Lycodontidæ); _Pelophilus_ (Pythonidæ); _Elapsoidea_

(Elapidæ); and _Atheris_ (Viperidæ). The lizards are _Dalophia_

(Lepidosternidæ); _Otosaurus_ (Scincidæ); _Psilodactylus_ (Geckotidæ). The

tortoises, _Cinyxis_ (Testudinidæ) and _Tetrathyra_ (Trionichidæ).

_Amphibia._--Of Amphibia, there are 2 peculiar genera of tree-frogs,

_Hylambatis_ and _Hemimantis_, belonging to the Polypedatidæ.

Plate V.

[Illustration]

SCENE IN WEST AFRICA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{265}Here, too, we find some interesting relations with the Oriental region

on the one side, and the Neotropical on the other. The snakes of the family

Homalopsidæ have a wide range, in America, Europe, and all over the

Oriental region, but are confined to West Africa in the Ethiopian region.

_Dryiophis_ (Dryiophidæ) and _Dipsadoboa_ (Dipsadidæ) on the other hand,

are genera of tropical America which occur also in West Africa. The family

of lizards, Acontiadæ, are found in West and South Africa, Ceylon, and the

Moluccas. The family of toads, Engystomidæ, in West and South Africa and

the whole Oriental region; while the Phryniscidæ inhabit tropical Africa

and Java.

_Insects._--We have here a large number of peculiar genera. There are 10 of

butterflies, _Lachnoptera_, _Amphidema_, and _Catuna_ belonging to the

Nymphalidæ, while four others are Lycænidæ. The genus _Euxanthe_ is common

to West Africa and Madagascar.

Of Coleoptera there are 53 peculiar genera; 20 are Carabidæ, 2 Lucanidæ, 12

Cetoniidæ, 3 Prionidæ, 16 Cerambycidæ, and 34 Lamiidæ. Besides these there

are 4 or 5 genera confined to West Africa and Madagascar.

_Land Shells._--West Africa is very rich in land shells, but it does not

appear to possess any well-marked genera, although several of the smaller

groups or sub-genera are confined to it. Helicidæ of the genera _Nanina_,

_Buliminus_ and _Achatina_ are abundant and characteristic.

_Islands of the West African Sub-region._--The islands in the Gulf of

Guinea are, Fernando Po, very near the main land, with Prince's Island and

St. Thomas, considerably further away to the south-west. Fernando Po was

once thought to be a remarkable instance of an island possessing a very

peculiar fauna, although close to the main land and not divided from it by

a deep sea. This, however, was due to our having obtained considerable

collections from Fernando Po, while the opposite coast was almost unknown.

One after another the species supposed to be peculiar have been found on

the continent, till it becomes probable, that, as in the case of other

islands similarly situated, it contains no peculiar species whatever. The

presence of numerous mammalia, among which are baboons, lemurs, _Hyrax_,

and {266}_Anomalurus_, shows that this island has probably once been united

to the continent.

Prince's Island, situated about 100 miles from the coast, has no mammals,

but between 30 and 40 species of birds. Of these 7 are peculiar species,

viz., _Zosterops ficedulina_, _Cuphopterus dohrni_ (a peculiar genus of

Sylviidæ), _Symplectes princeps_, _Crithagra rufilata_, _Columba

chlorophæa_, _Peristera principalis_, and _Strix thomensis_.

In the Island of St. Thomas, situated on the equator about 150 miles from

the coast, there are 6 peculiar species out of 30 known birds, viz., _Scops

leucopsis_, _Zosterops lugubris_, _Turdus olivaceofuscus_, _Oriolus

crassirostris_, _Symplectes sancti-thomæ_ and _Aplopelia simplex_; also

_Strix thomensis_ in common with Prince's Island. The remainder are all

found on the adjacent coasts. It is remarkable that in Prince's Island

there are no birds of prey, any that appear being driven off by the parrots

(_Psittacus erithacus_) that abound there; whereas in St. Thomas and

Fernando Po they are plentiful.

_III. South-African Sub-region._

This is the most peculiar and interesting part of Africa, but owing to the

absence of existing barriers its limits cannot be well defined. The typical

portion of it hardly contains more than the narrow strip of territory

limited by the mountain range which forms the boundary of the Cape Colony

and Natal, while in a wider sense it may be extended to include Mozambique.

It may perhaps be best characterised as bounded by the Kalahari desert and

the Limpopo river. It is in the more limited district of the extreme south,

that the wonderful Cape flora alone exists. Here are more genera and

species, and more peculiar types of plants congregated together, than in

any other part of the globe of equal extent. There are indications of a

somewhat similar richness and specialization in the zoology of this

country; but animals are so much less closely dependent on soil and

climate, that much of the original peculiarity has been obliterated, by

long continued interchange of species with so vast an area as {267}that of

Africa south of the equator. The extreme peculiarity and isolation of the

flora must not, however, be lost sight of, if we would correctly interpret

the phenomena afforded by the distribution of animal life on the African

continent.

_Mammalia._--A much larger number of peculiar forms of mammals are found

here than in any of the other sub-regions, although it is far less in

extent than either of the three divisions of the continent. Among

Insectivora we have the Chrysochloridæ, or golden moles, consisting of two

genera confined to South Africa; while the Macroscelididæ, or elephant

shrews, are also characteristically South African, although ranging as far

as Mozambique and the Zambezi, with one outlying species in North Africa.

The Viverridæ are represented by three peculiar genera, _Ariela_,

_Cynictis_, and _Suricata_. The Carnivora present some remarkable forms:

_Proteles_, forming a distinct family allied to the hyænas and weasels; and

two curious forms of Canidæ--_Megalotis_ (the long-eared fox) and _Lycaon_

(the hyæna-dog), the latter found also in parts of East Africa. _Hydrogale_

is a peculiar form of Mustelidæ; _Pelea_ one of the antelopes; _Dendromys_,

_Malacothrix_, and _Mystromys_ are peculiar genera of the mouse family

(Muridæ); _Bathyerges_ one of the mole-rats (Spalacidæ); _Pedetes_, the

Cape-hare, a remarkable form of jerboa; and _Petromys_, one of the

spiny-rats (Echimyidæ). The remarkable _Orycteropus_, or earth-pig, has one

species in South and one in North East Africa. We have thus eighteen genera

of mammalia almost or quite peculiar to South Africa.

_Birds._--These do not present so many peculiar forms, yet some are very

remarkable. _Chætops_ is an isolated genus of thrushes (Turdidæ).

_Lioptilus_, one of the fruit-thrushes (Pycnonotidæ). _Pogonocichla_, one

of the fly-catchers; _Urolestes_, a shrike; _Promerops_, a sun-bird;

_Philetærus_ and _Chera_, weaver-birds; and three peculiar genera of

larks--_Spizocorys_, _Heterocorys_, and _Tephrocorys_, complete the list of

peculiar types of Passeres. A wood-pecker, _Geocolaptes_, is nearly allied

to a South American genus. The Cape-dove, _Oena_, is confined to South and

East Africa and Madagascar; and _Thalassornis_ is a peculiar form of duck.

Several genera are also confined to West and South {268}Africa;--as

_Phyllastrephus_ (Pycnonotidæ), _Smithornis_ (Muscicapidæ), _Corvinella_

(Laniidæ); _Barbatula_ and _Xylobucco_ (Megalæmidæ); _Ceuthmochares_, also

in Madagascar, (Cuculidæ); _Typanistria_ (Columbidæ). Other remarkable

forms, though widely spread over Africa, appear to have their metropolis

here, as _Colius_ and _Indicator_. Others seem to be confined to South

Africa and Abyssinia, as the curious _Buphaga_ (Sturnidæ); and _Apaloderma_

(Trogonidæ). _Machærhamphus_ (Falconidæ) is found only in South-West

Africa, Madagascar, and the Malay Peninsula.

_Reptiles._--There are 4 peculiar genera of snakes,--_Typhline_, belonging

to the blind burrowing snakes, Typhlopidæ; _Lamprophis_ (Lycodontidæ);

_Cyrtophis_ and _Pæcilophis_ (Elapidæ), a family which is chiefly Oriental

and Australian. Of Lizards there are 10 peculiar genera; _Monotrophis_

(Lepidosternidæ), but with an allied form in Angola; _Cordylus_,

_Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_, _Cordylosaurus_, _Pleurostichus_, and

_Saurophis_, all peculiar genera of Zonuridæ; _Chamæsaura_, forming the

peculiar family Chamæsauridæ; _Colopus_ and _Rhopitropus_ (Geckotidæ).

_Amphibia._--Of Amphibia there are 4 peculiar genera: _Schismaderma_

(Bufonidæ); _Brachymerus_ (Engystomidæ); _Phrynobatrachus_ and

_Stenorhynchus_ (Ranidæ). These last are allied to Oriental genera, and the

only other Engystomidæ are Oriental and Neotropical.

_Fresh-water Fish._--Of fresh-water fishes there is 1

genus--_Abrostomus_--belonging to the carp family, peculiar to South

Africa.

_Insects._--South Africa is excessively rich in insects, and the number of

peculiar types surpasses that of any other part of the region. We can only

here summarize the results.

_Lepidoptera._--Of butterflies there are 7 peculiar genera; 2 belonging to

the Satyridæ, 1 to Acræidæ, 3 to Lycænidæ, and 1 to Hesperidæ. _Zeritis_

(Lycænidæ) is also characteristic of this sub-region, although 1 species

occurs in West Africa.

The Geographical Distribution of Animals, Volume 1 With a study of the relations of living and extinct faunas as elucidating the past changes of the Earth's surface · 第 9 / 14 章

The superficial aspects of this vast territory, as determined by its