[252] 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865. See, likewise, an excellent

article, evidently by the same author, in the 'North British

Review,' July, 1869. Also, Mr. L. H. Morgan, "A Conjectural

Solution of the Origin of the Class. System of Relationship,"

in 'Proc. American Acad. of Sciences,' vol. vii. Feb. 1868.

Prof. Schaaffhausen ('Anthropolog. Review,' Oct. 1869, p. 373)

remarks on "the vestiges of human sacrifices found both in

Homer and the Old Testament."

[253] Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869,

chap. xv. and xvi. _et passim_.

[254] Dr. F. Mueller has made some good remarks to this effect

in the 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' Abtheil. iii.

1868, s. 127.

[255] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire gives a detailed account of

the position assigned to man by various naturalists in their

classifications: 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tom. ii. 1859, p. 170-189.

[256] See the very interesting article, "L'Instinct chez les

Insectes," by M. George Pouchet, 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' Feb.

1870, p. 682.

[257] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.

87.

[258] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 4.

[259] 'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 70, _et

passim_.

[260] Isid. Geoffroy, 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tom. ii. 1859, p. 217.

[261] "Ueber die Richtung der Haare," &c., Mueller's 'Archiv fuer

Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 51.

[262] On the hair in Hylobates, see 'Nat. Hist. of Mammals,' by

C. L. Martin, 1841, p. 415. Also, Isid. Geoffroy on the

American monkeys and other kinds, 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' vol. ii.

1859, p. 216, 243. Eschricht, ibid., s. 46, 55, 61. Owen, 'Anat.

of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 619. Wallace, 'Contributions to

the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870. p. 344.

[263] 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. 1869, p. 194. 'The

Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii.

1868, p. 348.

[264] 'An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,' 1869,

p. 99.

[265] This is nearly the same classification as that

provisionally adopted by Mr. St. George Mivart ('Transact.

Philosoph. Soc.' 1867, p. 300), who, after separating the

Lemuridae, divides the remainder of the Primates into the

Hominidae, the Simiadae answering to the Catarhines, the Cebidae,

and the Hapalidae,--these two latter groups answering to the

Platyrhines.

[266] 'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vi. 1867, p. 214.

[267] Mr. St. G. Mivart, 'Transact. Phil. Soc.' 1867, p. 410.

[268] Messrs. Murie and Mivart on the Lemuroidea. 'Transact.

Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, p. 5.

[269] Haeckel has come to this same conclusion. See 'Ueber die

Entstehung des Menschengeschlechts,' in Virchow's 'Sammlung.

gemein. wissen. Vortraege,' 1868, s. 61. Also his 'Natuerliche

Schoepfungsgeschichte,' 1868, in which he gives in detail his

views on the genealogy of man.

[270] 'Anthropological Review,' April, 1867, p. 236.

[271] 'Elements of Geology,' 1865, p. 583-585. 'Antiquity of

Man', 1863; p. 145.

[272] 'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 105.

[273] Elaborate tables are given in his 'Generelle Morphologie'

(B. ii. s. cliii. and s. 425); and with more especial reference

to man in his 'Natuerliche Schoepfungsgeschichte,' 1868. Prof.

Huxley, in reviewing this latter work ('The Academy,' 1869, p.

42) says, that he considers the phylum or lines of descent of

the Vertebrata to be admirably discussed by Haeckel, although he

differs on some points. He expresses, also, his high estimate

of the value of the general tenor and spirit of the whole work.

[274] 'Palaeontology,' 1860, p. 199.

[275] I had the satisfaction of seeing, at the Falkland

Islands, in April, 1833, and therefore some years before any

other naturalist, the locomotive larvae of a compound Ascidian,

closely allied to, but apparently generically distinct from,

Synoicum. The tail was about five times as long as the oblong

head, and terminated in a very fine filament. It was plainly

divided, as sketched by me under a simple microscope, by

transverse opaque partitions, which I presume represent the

great cells figured by Kowalevsky. At an early stage of

development the tail was closely coiled round the head of the

larva.

[276] 'Memoires de l'Acad. des Sciences de St. Petersbourg,'

tom. x. No. 15, 1866.

[277] This is the conclusion of one of the highest authorities

in comparative anatomy, namely, Prof. Gegenbaur: 'Grundzuege der

vergleich. Anat.' 1870, s. 876. The result has been arrived at

chiefly from the study of the Amphibia; but it appears from the

researches of Waldeyer (as quoted in Humphry's 'Journal of

Anat. and Phys.' 1869, p. 161), that the sexual organs of even

"the higher vertebrata are, in their early condition,

hermaphrodite." Similar views have long been held by some

authors, though until recently not well based.

[278] The male Thylacinus offers the best instance. Owen,

'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 771.

[279] Serranus is well known often to be in an hermaphrodite

condition; but Dr. Guenther informs me that he is convinced that

this is not its normal state. Descent from an ancient

androgynous prototype would, however, naturally favour and

explain, to a certain extent, the recurrence of this condition

in these fishes.

[280] Mr. Lockwood believes (as quoted in 'Quart. Journal of

Science,' April, 1868, p. 269), from what he has observed of

the development of Hippocampus, that the walls of the abdominal

pouch of the male in some way afford nourishment. On male

fishes hatching the ova in their mouths, see a very interesting

paper by Prof. Wyman, in 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.'

Sept. 15, 1857; also Prof. Turner, in 'Journal of Anat. and

Phys.' Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. Guenther has likewise described

similar cases.

[281] All vital functions tend to run their course in fixed and

recurrent periods, and with tidal animals the periods would

probably be lunar; for such animals must have been left dry or

covered deep with water,--supplied with copious food or

stinted,--during endless generations, at regular lunar

intervals. If then the Vertebrata are descended from an animal

allied to the existing tidal Ascidians, the mysterious fact,

that with the higher and now terrestrial Vertebrata, not to

mention other classes, many normal and abnormal vital processes

run their course according to lunar periods, is rendered

intelligible. A recurrent period, if approximately of the right

duration, when once gained, would not, as far as we can judge,

be liable to be changed; consequently it might be thus

transmitted during almost any number of generations. This

conclusion, if it could be proved sound, would be curious; for

we should then see that the period of gestation in each mammal,

and the hatching of each bird's eggs, and many other vital

processes, still betrayed the primordial birthplace of these

animals.

[282] 'History of India,' 1841, vol. i. p. 323. Father Ripa

makes exactly the same remark with respect to the Chinese.

[283] A vast number of measurements of Whites, Blacks, and

Indians, are given in the 'Investigations in the Military and

Anthropolog. Statistics of American Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould,

1869, p. 298-358; on the capacity of the lungs, p. 471. See

also the numerous and valuable tables, by Dr. Weisbach, from

the observations of Dr. Scherzer and Dr. Schwarz, in the 'Reise

der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867.

[284] See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of the brain of

a Bush-woman, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1864, p. 519.

[285] Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.

[286] With respect to the figures in the famous Egyptian caves

of Abou-Simbel, M. Pouchet says ('The Plurality of the Human

Races,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 50), that he was far from

finding recognisable representations of the dozen or more

nations which some authors believe that they can recognise.

Even some of the most strongly-marked races cannot be

identified with that degree of unanimity which might have been

expected from what has been written on the subject. Thus

Messrs. Nott and Gliddon ('Types of Mankind,' p. 148) state

that Rameses II., or the Great, has features superbly European;

whereas Knox, another firm believer in the specific distinction

of the races of man ('Races of Man,' 1850, p. 201), speaking of

young Memnon (the same person with Rameses II., as I am

informed by Mr. Birch) insists in the strongest manner that he

is identical in character with the Jews of Antwerp. Again,

whilst looking in the British Museum with two competent judges,

officers of the establishment, at the statue of Amunoph III.,

we agreed that he had a strongly negro cast of features; but

Messrs. Nott and Gliddon (ibid. p. 146, fig. 53) describe him

as "a hybrid, but not of negro intermixture."

[287] As quoted by Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' 1854,

p. 439. They give also corroborative evidence; but C. Vogt

thinks that the subject requires further investigation.

[288] "Diversity of Origin of the Human Races," in the

'Christian Examiner,' July, 1850.

[289] 'Transact. B. Soc. of Edinburgh,' vol. xxii. 1861, p.

567.

[290] 'On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo,' Eng.

translat. 1864.

[291] See the interesting letter by Mr. T. A. Murray, in the

'Anthropolog. Review,' April, 1868, p. liii. In this letter

Count Strzelecki's statement, that Australian women who have

borne children to a white man are afterwards sterile with their

own race, is disproved. M. A. de Quatrefages has also collected

('Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' March, 1869, p. 239) much

evidence that Australians and Europeans are not sterile when

crossed.

[292] 'An Examination of Prof. Agassiz's Sketch of the Nat.

Provinces of the Animal World,' Charleston, 1855, p. 44.

[293] 'Military and Anthropolog. Statistics of American

Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 319.

[294] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 109. I may here remind the reader

that the sterility of species when crossed is not a

specially-acquired quality; but, like the incapacity of certain

trees to be grafted together, is incidental on other acquired

differences. The nature of these differences is unknown, but

they relate more especially to the reproductive system, and

much less to external structure or to ordinary differences in

constitution. One important element in the sterility of crossed

species apparently lies in one or both having been long

habituated to fixed conditions; for we know that changed

conditions have a special influence on the reproductive system,

and we have good reason to believe (as before remarked) that

the fluctuating conditions of domestication tend to eliminate

that sterility which is so general with species in a natural

state when crossed. It has elsewhere been shewn by me (ibid.

vol. ii. p. 185, and 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 317)

that the sterility of crossed species has not been acquired

through natural selection: we can see that when two forms have

already been rendered very sterile, it is scarcely possible

that their sterility should be augmented by the preservation or

survival of the more and more sterile individuals; for as the

sterility increases fewer and fewer offspring will be produced

from which to breed, and at last only single individuals will

be produced, at the rarest intervals. But there is even a

higher grade of sterility than this. Both Gaertner and Koelreuter

have proved that in genera of plants including numerous

species, a series can be formed from species which when crossed

yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which never produce a

single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of the other

species, for the germen swells. It is here manifestly

impossible to select the more sterile individuals, which have

already ceased to yield seeds; so that the acme of sterility,

when the germen alone is affected, cannot be gained through

selection. This acme, and no doubt the other grades of

sterility, are the incidental results of certain unknown

differences in the constitution of the reproductive system of

the species which are crossed.

[295] 'The Variation of Animals,' &c., vol. ii. p. 92.

[296] M. de Quatrefages has given ('Anthropolog. Review,' Jan.

1869, p. 22) an interesting account of the success and energy

of the Paulistas in Brazil, who are a much crossed race of

Portuguese and Indians, with a mixture of the blood of other

races.

[297] For instance with the aborigines of America and

Australia. Prof. Huxley says ('Transact. Internat. Congress of

Prehist. Arch.' 1868. p. 105) that the skulls of many South

Germans and Swiss are "as short and as broad as those of the

Tartars," &c.

[298] See a good discussion on this subject in Waitz,

'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. 1863, p. 198-208,

227. I have taken some of the above statements from H. Tuttle's

'Origin and Antiquity of Physical Man,' Boston, 1866, p. 35.

[299] Prof. Naegeli has carefully described several striking

cases in his 'Botanische Mittheilungen,' B. ii. 1866, s.

294-369. Prof. Asa Gray has made analogous remarks on some

intermediate forms in the Compositae of N. America.

[300] 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 68.

[301] See Prof. Huxley to this effect in the 'Fortnightly

Review,' 1865, p. 275.

[302] 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 468.

[303] 'Die Racen des Schweines,' 1860, s. 46. 'Vorstudien fuer

Geschichte, &c., Schweineschaedel,' 1864, s. 104. With respect

to cattle, see M. de Quatrefages, 'Unite de l'Espece Humaine,'

1861, p. 119.

[304] Tylor's 'Early History of Mankind,' 1865; for the

evidence with respect to gesture-language, see p. 54. Lubbock's

'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869.

[305] 'The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,' Eng.

translat. edited by Sir J. Lubbock, 1868, p. 104.

[306] Hodder M. Westropp, on Cromlechs, &c., 'Journal of

Ethnological Soc.' as given in 'Scientific Opinion,' June 2nd.

1869, p. 3.

[307] 'Journal of Researches: Voyage of the "Beagle,"' p. 46.

[308] 'Prehistoric Times,' 1869, p. 574.

[309] Translation in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p.

431.

[310] 'Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehistoric Arch.' 1868,

p. 172-175. See also Broca (translation) in 'Anthropological

Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 410.

[311] Dr. Gerland, 'Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvoelker,'

1868, s. 82.

[312] Gerland (ibid. s. 12) gives facts in support of this

statement.

[313] See remarks to this effect in Sir H. Holland's 'Medical

Notes and Reflections,' 1839, p. 390.

[314] I have collected ('Journal of Researches, Voyage of the

"Beagle,"' p. 435) a good many cases bearing on this subject:

see also Gerland, ibid. s. 8. Poeppig speaks of the "breath of

civilisation as poisonous to savages."

[315] Sproat, 'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868, p.

284.

[316] Bagehot, "Physics and Politics," 'Fortnightly Review,'

April 1, 1868, p. 455.

[317] "On Anthropology," translation, 'Anthropolog. Review,'

Jan. 1868, p. 38.

[318] 'The Annals of Rural Bengal,' 1868, p. 134.

[319] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 95.

[320] Pallas, 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, part ii. p.

69. He was followed by Rudolphi, in his 'Beytraege zur

Anthropologie,' 1812. An excellent summary of the evidence is

given by Godron, 'De l'Espece,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 246, &c.

[321] Sir Andrew Smith, as quoted by Knox, 'Races of Man,'

1850, p. 473.

[322] See De Quatrefages on this head, 'Revue des Cours

Scientifiques,' Oct. 17, 1868, p. 731.

[323] Livingstone's 'Travels and Researches in S. Africa,'

1857, p. 338, 329. D'Orbigny, as quoted by Godron, 'De

l'Espece,' vol. ii. p. 266.

[324] See a paper read before the Royal Soc. in 1813, and

published in his Essays in 1818. I have given an account of Dr.

Wells' views in the Historical Sketch (p. xvi) to my 'Origin of

Species.' Various cases of colour correlated with

constitutional peculiarities are given in my 'Variation of

Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 227, 335.

[325] See, for instance, Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,'

p. 68.

[326] Major Tulloch, in a paper read before the Statistical

Society, April 20th, 1840, and given in the 'Athenaeum,' 1840,

p. 353.

[327] 'The Plurality of the Human Race' (translat.), 1864, p.

60.

[328] Quatrefages, 'Unite de l'Espece Humaine,' 1861, p. 205.

Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' translat. vol. i. 1863, p.

124. Livingstone gives analogous cases in his 'Travels.'

[329] In the spring of 1862 I obtained permission from the

Director-General of the Medical department of the Army, to

transmit to the surgeons of the various regiments on foreign

service a blank table, with the following appended remarks, but

I have received no returns. "As several well-marked cases have

been recorded with our domestic animals of a relation between

the colour of the dermal appendages and the constitution; and

it being notorious that there is some limited degree of

relation between the colour of the races of man and the climate

inhabited by them; the following investigation seems worth

consideration. Namely, whether there is any relation in

Europeans between the colour of their hair, and their liability

to the diseases of tropical countries. If the surgeons of the

several regiments, when stationed in unhealthy tropical

districts, would be so good as first to count, as a standard of

comparison, how many men, in the force whence the sick are

drawn, have dark and light-coloured hair, and hair of

intermediate or doubtful tints; and if a similar account were

kept by the same medical gentlemen, of all the men who suffered

from malarious and yellow fevers, or from dysentery, it would

soon be apparent, after some thousand cases had been tabulated,

whether there exists any relation between the colour of the

hair and constitutional liability to tropical diseases. Perhaps

no such relation would be discovered, but the investigation is

well worth making. In case any positive result were obtained,

it might be of some practical use in selecting men for any

particular service. Theoretically the result would be of high

interest, as indicating one means by which a race of men

inhabiting from a remote period an unhealthy tropical climate,

might have become dark-coloured by the better preservation of

dark-haired or dark-complexioned individuals during a long

succession of generations."

[330] 'Anthropological Review,' Jan. 1866, p. xxi.

[331] See, for instance, Quatrefages ('Revue des Cours

Scientifiques,' Oct. 10, 1868, p. 724) on the effects of

residence in Abyssinia and Arabia, and other analogous cases.

Dr. Rolle ('Der Mensch, seine Abstammung,' &c., 1865, s. 99)

states, on the authority of Khanikof, that the greater number

of German families settled in Georgia, have acquired in the

course of two generations dark hair and eyes. Mr. D. Forbes

informs me that the Quichuas in the Andes vary greatly in

colour, according to the position of the valleys inhabited by

them.

[332] Harlan, 'Medical Researches,' p. 532. Quatrefages ('Unite

de l'Espece Humaine,' 1861, p. 128) has collected much evidence

on this head.

[333] See Prof. Schaaffhausen, translat. in 'Anthropological

Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 429.

[334] Mr. Catlin states ('N. American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842,

vol. i. p. 49) that in the whole tribe of the Mandans, about

one in ten or twelve of the members of all ages and both sexes

have bright silvery grey hair, which is hereditary. Now this

hair is as coarse and harsh as that of a horse's mane, whilst

the hair of other colours is fine and soft.

[335] On the odour of the skin, Godron, 'Sur l'Espece,' tom.

ii. p. 217. On the pores in the skin, Dr. Wilckens, 'Die

Aufgaben der landwirth. Zootechnik,' 1869, s. 7.

[336] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1810, p.

541. In regard to the statement about Tanais, mentioned below,

I am indebted to Fritz Mueller.

[337] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.

1826, p. 309.

[338] Even with those of plants in which the sexes are

separate, the male flowers are generally mature before the

female. Many hermaphrodite plants are, as first shewn by C. K.

Sprengel, dichogamous; that is, their male and female organs

are not ready at the same time, so that they cannot be

self-fertilised. Now with such plants the pollen is generally

mature in the same flower before the stigma, though there are

some exceptional species in which the female organs are mature

before the male.

[339] I have received information, hereafter to be given, to

this effect with respect to poultry. Even with birds, such as

pigeons, which pair for life, the female, as I hear from Mr.

Jenner Weir, will desert her mate if he is injured or grows

weak.

[340] On the Gorilla, Savage and Wyman, 'Boston Journal of Nat.

Hist.' vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423. On Cynocephalus, Brehm,

'Illust. Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 77. On Mycetes, Rengger,

'Naturgesch.: Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 14, 20. On

Cebus, Brehm, ibid. s. 108.

[341] Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoolog.' Fasc. xii. 1777, p. 29. Sir

Andrew Smith, 'Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,'

1849, pl. 29, on the Kobus. Owen, in his 'Anatomy of

Vertebrates' (vol. iii. 1868, p. 633) gives a table

incidentally showing which species of Antelopes pair and which

are gregarious.

[342] Dr. Campbell, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 138. See

also an interesting paper, by Lieut. Johnstone, in 'Proc.

Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,' May, 1868.

[343] 'The Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133, on the Progne

Widow-bird. See also on the Vidua axillaris, ibid. vol. ii.

1860, p. 211. On the polygamy of the Capercailzie and Great

Bustard, see L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 19, and

182. Montagu and Selby speak of the Black Grouse as polygamous

and of the Red Grouse as monogamous.

[344] The Rev. E. S. Dixon, however, speaks positively

('Ornamental Poultry,' 1848, p. 76) about the eggs of the

guinea-fowl being infertile when more than one female is kept

with the same male.

[345] Noel Humphreys, 'River Gardens,' 1857.

[346] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.

1826, p. 342.

[347] One parasitic Hymenopterous insect (Westwood, 'Modern

Class. of Insects,' vol. ii, p. 160) forms an exception to the

rule, as the male has rudimentary wings, and never quits the

cell in which it is born, whilst the female has well-developed

wings. Audouin believes that the females are impregnated by the

males which are born in the same cells with them; but it is

much more probable that the females visit other cells, and thus

avoid close inter-breeding. We shall hereafter meet with a few

exceptional cases, in various classes, in which the female,

instead of the male, is the seeker and wooer.

[348] 'Essays and Observations,' edited by Owen, vol. i. 1861,

p. 194.

[349] Prof. Sachs ('Lehrbuch der Botanik,' 1870, s. 633) in

speaking of the male and female reproductive cells, remarks,

"verhaelt sich die eine bei der Vereinigung activ, ... die

andere erscheint bei der Vereinigung passiv."

[350] 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867, s. 216-269.

The results were calculated by Dr. Weisbach from measurements

made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz. On the greater

variability of the males of domesticated animals, see my

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii.

1868, p. 75.

[351] 'Proceedings Royal Soc.' vol. xvi. July, 1868, p. 519 and

524.

[352] 'Proc. Royal Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 123.

[353] 'Massachusetts Medical Soc.' vol. ii. No. 3, 1808, p. 9.

[354] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 75. In the last chapter but

one, the provisional hypothesis of pangenesis, above alluded

to, is fully explained.

[355] These facts are given on the high authority of a great

breeder, Mr. Teebay, in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1868, p.

158. On the characters of chickens of different breeds, and on

the breeds of the pigeon, alluded to in the above paragraph,

see 'Variation of Animals,' &c., vol. i. p. 160, 249; vol. ii.

p. 77.

[356] 'Novae species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,' 1778, p. 7.

On the transmission of colour by the horse, see 'Variation of

Animals, &c. under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 21. Also vol. ii.

p. 71, for a general discussion on Inheritance as limited by

Sex.

[357] Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87.

Boitard et Corbie, 'Les Pigeons de Voliere,' &c., 1824, p. 173.

[358] References are given in my 'Variation of Animals under

Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 72.

[359] I am much obliged to Mr. Cupples for having made

enquiries for me in regard to the Roebuck and Red Deer of

Scotland from Mr. Robertson, the experienced head-forester to

the Marquis of Breadalbane. In regard to Fallow-deer, I am

obliged to Mr. Eyton and others for information. For the

_Cervus alces_ of N. America, see 'Land and Water,' 1868, p.

221 and 254; and for the _C. Virginianus_ and _strongyloceros_

of the same continent, see J. D. Caton, in 'Ottawa Acad. of

Nat. Sc.' 1868, p. 13. For _Cervus Eldi_ of Pegu, see Lieut.

Beavan, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1867, p. 762.

[360] _Antilocapra Americana._ Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,'

vol. iii. p. 627.

[361] I have been assured that the horns of the sheep in North

Wales can always be felt, and are sometimes even an inch in

length, at birth. With cattle Youatt says ('Cattle,' 1834, p.

277) that the prominence of the frontal bone penetrates the

cutis at birth, and that the horny matter is soon formed over

it.

[362] I am greatly indebted to Prof. Victor Carus for having

made inquiries for me, from the highest authorities, with

respect to the merino sheep of Saxony. On the Guinea coast of

Africa there is a breed of sheep in which, as with merinos, the

rams alone bear horns; and Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that in

the one case observed, a young ram born on Feb. 10th first

showed horns on March 6th, so that in this instance the

development of the horns occurred at a later period of life,

conformably with our rule, than in the Welsh sheep, in which

both sexes are horned.

[363] In the common peacock (_Pavo cristatus_) the male alone

possesses spurs, whilst both sexes of the Java peacock (_P.

muticus_) offer the unusual case of being furnished with spurs.

Hence I fully expected that in the latter species they would

have been developed earlier in life than in the common peacock;

but M. Hegt of Amsterdam informs me, that with young birds of

the previous year, belonging to both species, compared on April

23rd, 1869, there was no difference in the development of the

spurs. The spurs, however, were as yet represented merely by

slight knobs or elevations. I presume that I should have been

informed if any difference in the rate of development had

subsequently been observed.

[364] In some other species of the Duck Family the speculum in

the two sexes differs in a greater degree; but I have not been

able to discover whether its full development occurs later in

life in the males of such species, than in the male of the

common duck, as ought to be the case according to our rule.

With the allied _Mergus cucullatus_ we have, however, a case of

this kind: the two sexes differ conspicuously in general

plumage, and to a considerable degree in the speculum, which is

pure white in the male and greyish-white in the female. Now the

young males at first resemble, in all respects, the female, and

have a greyish-white speculum, but this becomes pure white at

an earlier age than that at which the adult male acquires his

other more strongly-marked sexual differences in plumage: see

Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. iii. 1835, p.

249-250.

[365] 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,' 1837, s. 21, 24. For the

case of the streaked pigeons, see Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon

Voyageur Belge.' 1865, p. 87.

[366] For full particulars and references on all these points

respecting the several breeds of the Fowl, see 'Variation of

Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 250, 256.

In regard to the higher animals, the sexual differences which

have arisen under domestication are described in the same work

under the head of each species.

[367] 'Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Registrar-General for

1866.' In this report (p. xii) a special decennial table is

given.

[368] For Norway and Russia, see abstract of Prof. Faye's

researches, in 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,'

April, 1867, p. 343, 345. For France, the 'Annuaire pour l'An

1867.' p. 213.

[369] In regard to the Jews, see M. Thury, 'La Loi de

Production des Sexes,' 1863, p. 25.

[370] Babbage, 'Edinburgh Journal of Science,' 1829, vol. i. p.

88; also p. 90, on still-born children. On illegitimate

children in England, see 'Report of Registrar-General for

1866,' p. xv.

[371] 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,' April,

1867, p. 343. Dr. Stark also remarks ('Tenth Annual Report of

Births, Deaths, &c., in Scotland,' 1867, p. xxviii) that "These

examples may suffice to shew that, at almost every stage of

life, the males in Scotland have a greater liability to death

and a higher death-rate than the females. The fact, however, of

this peculiarity being most strongly developed at that

infantile period of life when the dress, food, and general

treatment of both sexes are alike, seems to prove that the

higher male death-rate is an impressed, natural, and

constitutional peculiarity due to sex alone."

[372] With the savage Guaranys of Paraguay, according to the

accurate Azara ('Voyages dans l'Amerique merid.' tom. ii. 1809,

p. 60, 179), the women in proportion to the men are as 14 to

13.

[373] Leuckart in Wagner, 'Handwoerterbuch der Phys.' B. iv.

1853, s. 774.

[374] Anthropological Review, April, 1870, p. cviii.

[375] During the last eleven years a record has been kept of

the number of mares which have proved barren or prematurely

slipped their foals; and it deserves notice, as shewing how

infertile these highly-nurtured and rather closely-interbred

animals have become, that not far from one-third of the mares

failed to produce living foals. Thus during 1866, 809 male

colts and 816 female colts were born, and 743 mares failed to

produce offspring. During 1867, 836 males and 902 females were

born, and 794 mares failed.

[376] I am much indebted to Mr. Cupples for having procured for

me the above returns from Scotland, as well as some of the

following returns on cattle. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, first

called my attention to the premature deaths of the males,--a

statement subsequently confirmed by Mr. Aitchison and others.

To this latter gentleman, and to Mr. Payan, I owe my thanks for

the larger returns on sheep.

[377] Bell, 'History of British Quadrupeds,' p. 100.

[378] 'Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,' 1849, pl.

29.

[379] Brehm ('Illust. Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 990) comes to the

same conclusion.

[380] On the authority of L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,'

1867, p. 12, 132.

[381] 'Nat. Hist. of Selbourne,' letter xxix. edit. of 1825,

vol. i. p. 139.

[382] Mr. Jenner Weir received similar information, on making

enquiries during the following year. To shew the number of

chaffinches caught, I may mention that in 1869 there was a

match between two experts; and one man caught in a day 62, and

another 40, male chaffinches. The greatest number ever caught

by one man in a single day was 70.

[383] 'Ibis,' vol. ii. p. 260, as quoted in Gould's

'Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 52. For the foregoing proportions, I am

indebted to Mr. Salvin for a table of his results.

[384] 'Ibis,' 1860, p. 137; and 1867, p. 369.

[385] 'Ibis,' 1862, p. 137.

[386] Leuckart quotes Bloch (Wagner, 'Handwoerterbuch der Phys.'

B. iv. 1853, s. 775), that with fish there are twice as many

males as females.

[387] Quoted in the 'Farmer,' March 18, 1869, p. 369.

[388] 'The Stormontfield Piscicultural Experiments,' 1866, p.

23. The 'Field' newspaper, June 29th, 1867.

[389] 'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 41.

[390] Yarrell, 'Hist. British Fishes,' vol. i. 1836, p. 307; on

the _Cyprinus carpio_, p. 331; on the _Tinca vulgaris_, p. 331;

on the _Abramis brama_, p. 336. See, for the minnow (_Leuciscus

phoxinus_), 'Loudon's Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. v. 1832, p. 682.

[391] Leuckart quotes Meinecke (Wagner, 'Handwoerterbuch der

Phys.' B. iv. 1853, s. 775) that with Butterflies the males are

three or four times as numerous as the females.

[392] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii. 1863, p. 228,

347.

[393] Four of these cases are given by Mr. Trimen in his

'Rhopalocera Africae Australis.'

[394] Quoted by Trimen, 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. v. part iv.

1866, p. 330.

[395] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. p. 37.

[396] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Feb. 17th, 1868.

[397] Quoted by Dr. Wallace in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series,

vol. v. 1867, p. 487.

[398] Blanchard, 'Metamorphoses, Moeurs des Insectes,' 1868, p.

225-226.

[399] 'Lepidopteren-Doubblettren Liste,' Berlin, No. x. 1866.

[400] This naturalist has been so kind as to send me some

results from former years, in which the females seemed to

preponderate; but so many of the figures were estimates, that I

found it impossible to tabulate them.

[401] Guenther's 'Record of Zoological Literature,' 1867, p.

260. On the excess of female Lucanus, ibid. p. 250. On the

males of Lucanus in England, Westwood, 'Modern Class. of

Insects,' vol. i. p. 187. On the Siagonium, ibid. p. 172.

[402] Walsh, in 'The American Entomologist,' vol. i. 1869, p.

103. F. Smith, 'Record of Zoological Literature,' 1867, p. 328.

[403] 'Farm Insects,' p. 45-46.

[404] 'Observations on N. American Neuroptera,' by H. Hagen and

B. D. Walsh, 'Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia,' Oct. 1863, p. 168,

223, 239.

[405] 'Proc. Ent. Soc. London,' Feb. 17, 1868.

[406] Another great authority in this class, Prof. Thorell of

Upsala ('On European Spiders,' 1869-70, part i. p. 205) speaks

as if female spiders were generally commoner than the males.

[407] See, on this subject, Mr. Pickard-Cambridge, as quoted in

'Quarterly Journal of Science,' 1868, p. 429.

[408] I have often been struck with the fact, that in several

species of Primula the seeds in the capsules which contained

only a few were very much larger than the numerous seeds in the

more productive capsules.

[409] 'Principles of Biology,' vol. ii. 1867, chaps. ii.-xi.

[410] 'De l'Espece et de la Class.' &c., 1869, p. 106.

[411] See, for instance, the account which I have given in my

'Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 7.

[412] I have given ('Geolog. Observations on Volcanic Islands,'

1844, p. 53) a curious instance of the influence of light on

the colours of a frondescent incrustation, deposited by the

surf on the coast-rocks of Ascension, and formed by the

solution of triturated sea-shells.

[413] 'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' English translat. 1869,

p. 20. See the previous discussion on the olfactory threads.

Sars has described a somewhat analogous case (as quoted in

'Nature,' 1870, p. 455) in a Norwegian crustacean, the

_Pontoporeia affinis_.

[414] See Sir J. Lubbock in 'Annals. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.'

vol. xi. 1853, pl. i. and x.; and vol. xii. (1853) pl. vii. See

also Lubbock in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iv. new series,

1856-1858, p. 8. With respect to the zigzagged antennae

mentioned below, see Fritz Mueller, 'Facts and Arguments for

Darwin' 1869, p. 40, foot-note.

[415] See a paper by Mr. C. Spence Bate, with figures, in

'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 363; and on the nomenclature of

the genus, ibid. p. 585. I am greatly indebted to Mr. Spence

Bate for nearly all the above statements with respect to the

chelae of the higher crustaceans.

[416] 'Hist. Nat. des Crust.' tom. ii. 1837, p. 50.

[417] Fritz Mueller, 'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' 1869, p.

25-28.

[418] 'Travels in the Interior of Brazil,' 1846, p. 111. I have

given, in my 'Journal of Researches,' p. 463, an account of the

habits of the Birgos.

[419] Mr. Ch. Fraser, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 3. I am

indebted to Mr. Bate for the statement from Dr. Power.

[420] Claus, 'Die freilebenden Copepoden,' 1863, s. 35.

[421] 'Facts and Arguments,' &c., p. 79.

[422] 'A History of the Spiders of Great Britain,' 1861-64. For

the following facts, see p. 102, 77, 88.

[423] Aug. Vinson ('Araneides des Iles de la Reunion,' pl. vi.

figs. 1 and 2) gives a good instance of the small size of the

male in _Epeira nigra_. In this species, as I may add, the male

is testaceous and the female black with legs banded with red.

Other even more striking cases of inequality in size between

the sexes have been recorded ('Quarterly Journal of Science,'

1868, July, p. 429); but I have not seen the original accounts.

[424] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. i.

1818, p. 280.

[425] Theridion (Asagena, Sund.) serratipes, 4-punctatum et

guttatum; see Westring, in Kroyer, 'Naturhist. Tidskrift,' vol.

iv. 1842-1843, p. 349; and vol. ii. 1846-1849, p. 342. See,

also, for other species, 'Araneae Svecicae,' p. 184.

[426] Walckenaer et P. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Insectes:

Apteres,' tom. iv. 1847, p. 17, 19, 68.

[427] Sir J. Lubbock, 'Transact. Linnean Soc.' vol. xxv. 1866,

p. 484. With respect to the Mutillidae see Westwood, 'Modern

Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 213.

[428] These organs in the male often differ in closely-allied

species, and afford excellent specific characters. But their

importance, under a functional point of view, as Mr. E.

MacLachlan has remarked to me, has probably been overrated. It

has been suggested, that slight differences in these organs

would suffice to prevent the intercrossing of well-marked

varieties or incipient species, and would thus aid in their

development. That this can hardly be the case, we may infer

from the many recorded cases (see for instance, Bronn,

'Geschichte der Natur,' B. ii. 1843, s. 164; and Westwood,

'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iii. 1842, p. 195) of distinct

species having been observed in union. Mr. MacLachlan informs

me (vide 'Stett. Ent. Zeitung,' 1867, s. 155) that when several

species of Phryganidae, which present strongly-pronounced

differences of this kind, were confined together by Dr. Aug.

Meyer, _they coupled_, and one pair produced fertile ova.

[429] 'The Practical Entomologist,' Philadelphia, vol. ii. May,

1867, p. 88.

[430] Mr. Walsh, ibid. p. 107.

[431] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.

206, 205. Mr. Walsh, who called my attention to this double use

of the jaws, says that he has repeatedly observed this fact.

[432] We have here a curious and inexplicable case of

dimorphism, for some of the females of four European species of

Dytiscus, and of certain species of Hydroporus, have their

elytra smooth; and no intermediate gradations between sulcated

or punctured and quite smooth elytra have been observed. See

Dr. H. Schaum, as quoted in the 'Zoologist,' vol. v.-vi.

1847-48, p. 1896. Also Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to

Entomology,' vol. iii. 1826, p. 305.

[433] Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 193. The following

statement about Penthe, and others in inverted commas, are

taken from Mr. Walsh, 'Practical Entomologist,' Philadelphia,

vol. ii. p. 88.

[434] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct.' &c., vol. iii. p. 332-336.

[435] 'Insecta Maderensia,' 1854, p. 20.

[436] E. Doubleday, 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i.

1848, p. 379. I may add that the wings in certain Hymenoptera

(see Shuckard, 'Fossorial Hymenop.' 1837, p. 39-43) differ in

neuration according to sex.

[437] H. W. Bates, in 'Journal of Proc. Linn. Soc.' vol. vi.

1862, p. 74. Mr. Wonfor's observations are quoted in 'Popular

Science Review,' 1868, p. 343.

[438] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.

p. 299.

[439] Robinet, 'Vers a Soie,' 1848, p. 207.

[440] 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series, vol. v. p. 486.

[441] 'Journal of Proc. Ent. Soc.' Feb. 4th, 1867, p. lxxi.

[442] For this and other statements on the size of the sexes,

see Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 300; on the duration

of life in insects, see p. 344.

[443] 'Transact. Linnean Soc.' vol. xxvi. 1868, p. 296.

[444] 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 313.

[445] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.

526.

[446] See Mr. B. T. Lowne's very interesting work, 'On the

Anatomy of the Blow-Fly, Musca vomitoria,' 1870, p. 14.

[447] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 473.

[448] These particulars are taken from Westwood's 'Modern

Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p. 422. See, also, on the

Fulgoridae, Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct.' vol. ii. p. 401.

[449] 'Zeitschrift fuer wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s.

152-158.

[450] I am indebted to Mr. Walsh for having sent me this

extract from a 'Journal of the Doings of Cicada septemdecim,'

by Dr. Hartman.

[451] L. Guilding, 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xv. p. 154.

[452] Koeppen, as quoted in the 'Zoological Record,' for 1867,

p. 460.

[453] Gilbert White, 'Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' vol. ii. 1825,

p. 262.

[454] Harris, 'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 128.

[455] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. i. 1863, p. 252.

Mr. Bates gives a very interesting discussion on the gradations

in the musical apparatus of the three families. See also

Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 445 and 453.

[456] 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xi. April, 1868.

[457] 'Nouveau Manuel d'Anat. Comp.' (French translat.), tom.

i. 1850 p. 567.

[458] 'Zeitschrift fuer wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s.

117.

[459] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 440.

[460] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 453.

[461] Landois, ibid. s. 121, 122.

[462] Mr. Walsh also informs me that he has noticed that the

female of the _Platyphyllum concavum_, "when captured makes a

feeble grating noise by shuffling her wing-covers together."

[463] Landois, ibid. s. 113.

[464] 'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 133.

[465] Westwood, 'Modern Classification,' vol. i. p. 462.

[466] Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 453.

[467] Landois, ibid. s. 115, 116, 120, 122.

[468] 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series, vol. ii. ('Journal of

Proceedings, p. 117.)

[469] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 427; for

crickets, p. 445.

[470] Mr. Ch. Horne, in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' May 3, 1869, p. xii.

[471] The _Oecanthus nivalis_, Harris, 'Insects of New

England,' 1842, p. 124.

[472] Platyblemnus: Westwood, 'Modern. Class.' vol. i. p. 447.

[473] B. D. Walsh, the Pseudo-neuroptera of Illinois, in 'Proc.

Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1862, p. 361.

[474] 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 37.

[475] Walsh, ibid. p. 381. I am indebted to this naturalist for

the following facts on Hetaerina, Anax, and Gomphus.

[476] 'Transact. Ent. Soc' vol. i. 1836, p. lxxxi.

[477] See abstract in the 'Zoological Record' for 1867, p. 450.

[478] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct. to Entomology,' vol. ii.

1818, p. 35.

[479] See an interesting article, "The Writings of Fabre," in

'Nat. Hist. Review,' April, 1862, p. 122.

[480] 'Journal of Proc. of Entomolog. Soc.' Sept. 7th, 1863,

p. 169.

[481] P. Huber, 'Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810,

p. 150, 165.

[482] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1866, p.

238-239.

[483] Quoted by Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii.

p. 214.

[484] Pyrodes pulcherrimus, in which the sexes differ

conspicuously, has been described by Mr. Bates in 'Transact.

Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 50. I will specify the few other cases in

which I have heard of a difference in colour between the sexes

of beetles. Kirby and Spence ('Introduct. to Entomology,' vol.

iii. p. 301) mention a Cantharis, Meloe, Rhagium, and the

_Leptura testacea_; the male of the latter being testaceous,

with a black thorax, and the female of a dull red all over.

These two latter beetles belong to the Order of Longicorns.

Messrs. R. Trimen and Waterhouse, junr., inform me of two

Lamellicorns, viz., a Peritrichia and Trichius, the male of the

latter being more obscurely coloured than the female. In

_Tillus elongatus_ the male is black, and the female always, as

it is believed, of a dark blue colour with a red thorax. The

male, also, of _Orsodacna atra_, as I hear from Mr. Walsh, is

black, the female (the so-called _O. ruficollis_) having a

rufous thorax.

[485] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1864, p. 228.

[486] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct. Entomolog.' vol. iii. p.

300.

[487] Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 329.

[488] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. i. p. 172. On

the same page there is an account of Siagonium. In the British

Museum I noticed one male specimen of Siagonium in an

intermediate condition, so that the dimorphism is not strict.

[489] 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 276.

[490] 'Entomological Magazine,' vol. i. 1833, p. 82. See also

on the conflicts of this species, Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol.

iii. p. 314; and Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 187.

[491] Quoted from Fischer, in 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom.

x. p. 324.

[492] 'Ann. Soc. Entomolog. France,' 1866, as quoted in

'Journal of Travel,' by A. Murray, 1868, p. 135.

[493] Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. i. p. 184.

[494] Wollaston, On certain musical Curculionidae, 'Annals and

Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. 1860, p. 14.

[495] 'Zeitschrift fuer wiss. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s. 127.

[496] I am greatly indebted to Mr. G. R. Crotch for having sent

me numerous prepared specimens of various beetles belonging to

these three families and others, as well as for valuable

information of all kinds. He believes that the power of

stridulation in the Clythra has not been previously observed. I

am also much indebted to Mr. E. W. Janson, for information and

specimens. I may add that my son, Mr. F. Darwin, finds that

_Dermestes murinus_ stridulates, but he searched in vain for

the apparatus. Scolytus has lately been described by Mr. Algen

as a stridulator, in the 'Edinburgh Monthly Magazine,' 1869,

Nov., p. 130.

[497] Schioedte, translated in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.'

vol. xx. 1867, p. 37.

[498] Westring has described (Kroyer, 'Naturhist. Tidskrift,'

B. ii. 1848-49, p. 334) the stridulating organs in these two,

as well as in other families. In the Carabidae I have examined

_Elaphrus uliginosus_ and _Blethisa multipunctata_, sent to me

by Mr. Crotch. In Blethisa the transverse ridges on the

furrowed border of the abdominal segment do not come into play,

as far as I could judge, in scraping the rasps on the elytra.

[499] I am indebted to Mr. Walsh, of Illinois, for having sent

me extracts from Leconte's 'Introduction to Entomology,' p.

101, 143.

[500] M. P. de la Brulerie, as quoted in 'Journal of Travel,'

A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 135.

[501] Mr. Doubleday informs me that "the noise is produced by

the insect raising itself on its legs as high as it can, and

then sinking its thorax five or six times, in rapid succession,

against the substance upon which it is sitting." For references

on this subject see Landois, 'Zeitschrift fuer wissen. Zoolog.'

B. xvii. s. 131. Olivier says (as quoted by Kirby and Spence,

'Introduct.' vol. ii. p. 395) that the female of _Pimelia

striata_ produces a rather loud sound by striking her abdomen

against any hard substance, "and that the male, obedient to

this call, soon attends her and they pair."

[502] Apatura Iris: 'The Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer,'

1859, p. 139. For the Bornean Butterflies see C. Collingwood,

'Rambles of a Naturalist,' 1868, p. 183.

[503] See my 'Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 33. Mr.

Doubleday has detected ('Proc. Ent. Soc.' March 3rd, 1845, p.

123) a peculiar membranous sac at the base of the front wings,

which is probably connected with the production of the sound.

[504] See also Mr. Bates' paper in 'Proc. Ent. Soc. of

Philadelphia,' 1865, p. 206. Also Mr. Wallace on the same

subject, in regard to Diadema, in 'Transact. Entomolog. Soc. of

London,' 1869, p. 278.

[505] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. i. 1863, p. 19.

[506] See the interesting article in the 'Westminster Review,'

July, 1867, p. 10. A woodcut of the Kallima is given by Mr.

Wallace in Hardwicke's 'Science Gossip,' Sept. 1867, p. 196.

[507] See the interesting observations by Mr. T. W. Wood, 'The

Student,' Sept. 1868, p. 81.

[508] Mr. Wallace in 'Hardwicke's Science Gossip,' Sept. 1867,

p. 193.

[509] See also, on this subject, Mr. Weir's paper in 'Transact.

Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 23.

[510] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 16.

[511] For instance, Lithosia; but Prof. Westwood ('Modern

Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 390) seems surprised at this

case. On the relative colours of diurnal and nocturnal

Lepidoptera, see ibid. p. 333 and 392; also Harris, 'Treatise

on the Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 315.

[512] Such differences between the upper and lower surfaces of

the wings of several species of Papilio, may be seen in the

beautiful plates to Mr. Wallace's Memoir on the Papilionidae of

the Malayan Region, in 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. part i.

1865.

[513] 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' March 2nd, 1868.

[514] See also an account of the S. American genus Erateina

(one of the Geometrae) in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' new series, vol.

v. pl. xv. and xvi.

[515] 'Proc. Ent. Soc. of London,' July 6, 1868, p. xxvii.

[516] Harris, 'Treatise,' &c., edited by Flint, 1862, p. 395.

[517] For instance, I observe in my son's cabinet that the

males are darker than the females in the _Lasiocampa quercus_,

_Odonestis potatoria_, _Hypogymna dispar_, _Dasychira

pudibunda_, and _Cycnia mendica_. In this latter species the

difference in colour between the two sexes is strongly marked;

and Mr. Wallace informs me that we here have, as he believes,

an instance of protective mimickry confined to one sex, as will

hereafter be more fully explained. The white female of the

Cycnia resembles the very common _Spilosoma menthrasti_, both

sexes of which are white; and Mr. Stainton observed that this

latter moth was rejected with utter disgust by a whole brood of

young turkeys, which were fond of eating other moths; so that

if the Cycnia was commonly mistaken by British birds for the

Spilosoma, it would escape being devoured, and its white

deceptive colour would thus be highly beneficial.

[518] 'Rambles of a Naturalist in the Chinese Seas,' 1868, p.

182.

[519] Wallace on the Papilionidae of the Malayan Region, in

'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. 1865, p. 8, 36. A striking case

of a rare variety, strictly intermediate between two other

well-marked female varieties, is given by Mr. Wallace. See also

Mr. Bates, in 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Nov. 19th, 1866, p. xl.

[520] Mr. R. MacLachlan, 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. ii. part

6th, 3rd series, 1866, p. 459.

[521] H. W. Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii.

1863, p. 228. A. R. Wallace, in 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv.

1865, p. 10.

[522] On this whole subject see 'The Variation of Animals and

Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, chap. xxiii.

[523] A. R. Wallace, in 'The Journal of Travel,' vol. i. 1868,

p. 88. 'Westminster Review,' July, 1857, p. 37. See also

Messrs. Wallace and Bates in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' Nov. 19th, 1866,

p. xxxix.

[524] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xii. p. 17.

[525] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxiii. 1862, p. 495.

[526] 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv.

[527] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. 1865, p. 1; also

'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iv. (3rd series), 1867, p. 301.

[528] See an ingenious article entitled, "Difficulties of the

Theory of Natural Selection," in the 'Month,' 1869. The writer

strangely supposes that I attribute the variations in colour of

the Lepidoptera, by which certain species belonging to distinct

families have come to resemble others, to reversion to a common

progenitor; but there is no more reason to attribute these

variations to reversion than in the case of any ordinary

variation.

[529] Wallace, "Notes on Eastern Butterflies," 'Transact. Ent.

Soc.' 1869, p. 287.

[530] Wallace, in 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 37; and

in 'Journal of Travel and Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1868, p. 88.

[531] See remarks by Messrs. Bates and Wallace, in 'Proc. Ent.

Soc.' Nov. 19, 1866, p. xxxix.

[532] See Mr. Wallace in 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p.

11 and 37. The male of no butterfly, as Mr. Wallace informs me,

is known to differ in colour, as a protection, from the female;

and he asks me how I can explain this fact on the principle

that one sex alone has varied and has transmitted its

variations exclusively to the same sex, without the aid of

selection to check the variations being inherited by the other

sex. No doubt if it could be shewn that the females of very

many species had been rendered beautiful through protective

mimickry, but that this has never occurred with the males, it

would be a serious difficulty. But the number of cases as yet

known hardly suffices for a fair judgment. We can see that the

males, from having the power of flying more swiftly, and thus

escaping danger, would not be so likely as the females to have

had their colours modified for the sake of protection; but this

would not in the least have interfered with their receiving

protective colours through inheritance from the females. In the

second place, it is probable that sexual selection would

actually tend to prevent a beautiful male from becoming

obscure, for the less brilliant individuals would be less

attractive to the females. Supposing that the beauty of the

male of any species had been mainly acquired through sexual

selection, yet if this beauty likewise served as a protection,

the acquisition would have been aided by natural selection. But

it would be quite beyond our power to distinguish between the

two processes of sexual and ordinary selection. Hence it is not

likely that we should be able to adduce cases of the males

having been rendered brilliant exclusively through protective

mimickry, though this is comparatively easy with the females,

which have rarely or never been rendered beautiful, as far as

we can judge, for the sake of sexual attraction, although they

have often received beauty through inheritance from their male

parents.

[533] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv., and

March 4th, 1867, p. lxxx.

[534] See Mr. J. Jenner Weir's paper on insects and

insectivorous birds, in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 21; also

Mr. Butler's paper, ibid. p. 27.

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TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

Footnote 292 spells the city Charleston but the text has it as

Charlestown. This is as in the original book.

Inconsistent spelling of St. Petersburg/Petersburgh as in the original

text.