CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.

Christopher Columbo or Colon, better known by his Latinized name of

Columbus, was born at Genoa about the year 1436. His father was a

woolcomber, in not very affluent circumstances; although connected,

according to some accounts, with persons of superior rank. Columbus

was the eldest of a family of four. His two brothers, Bartholomew and

Diego, will afterwards be mentioned in connection with his

discoveries; his sister married an obscure person of the name of

Bavarello.

Of the early life of Columbus very little is known. Considering the

habits of the age, and the condition of his parents, he appears to

have received a good education. While yet a mere child, he learned

reading, writing, and arithmetic; he was also such a proficient in

drawing and painting, that according to one of his biographers, he

could have earned a livelihood by them. At an early age he went to the

university of Padua, in Lombardy, then a celebrated school of

learning. Here he acquired the Latin language, and devoted himself

with zeal to the study of mathematics in all its branches, especially

those connected with geography and navigation, towards which he seems

to have been drawn from the first by an irresistible propensity. His

stay at Padua connot have been long; for in his fourteenth year he

returned to his father’s house in Genoa, where he is said to have

pursued for some time the occupation of woolcombing. This, however,

was far from his taste; and he made choice of the seafaring

profession. Genoa being at that time one of the greatest commercial

cities in the world, the enthusiasm for maritime enterprise was

universal amongst its inhabitants. A historian of the period speaks of

the proneness of the Genoese youth to wander through the world in

quest of riches, which they intended to return and spend in their

native city: few, however, he says, were able to carry their intention

into effect――not one in ten of those who left Genoa ever revisiting

it. Of these adventurous youths, whose ambition to be sailors was

nursed by the sight of the merchant-vessels landing their rich

freights on the quays of Genoa, Columbus was one; and, as we have

already seen, his education was suitable for the mode of life he had

chosen.

At fourteen years of age Columbus left Genoa in the humble capacity of

a sailor boy on board a Mediterranean trader; and for many years, at

first as a common sailor, and latterly as master of a vessel, he

appears to have sailed along the Mediterranean from the Levant to

Gibraltar, possibly also undertaking an occasional voyage to some of

the northern countries of Europe, with which the Genoese merchants may

have had dealings. In this undistinguished course of life he passed

his youth; and he does not come prominently into notice till he

settled in Lisbon in 1470, when he was thirty-four years of age. At

this period he is described as being above the middle size, and of

strong muscular frame. His visage was long; his nose aquiline; his

eyes of a bluish gray; his complexion fair, but somewhat inflamed. His

hair in youth was reddish, but before he was thirty years of age it

had turned quite white. His habits were simple; his manners grave and

affable; his temper, which was naturally irritable, he had subdued by

the force of his will; and in his attention to the observances of

religion, he was devout and enthusiastic. His acquirements were far

beyond what might have been expected in one whose life had been spent

at sea. Besides being a skillful navigator, he was well-informed in

astronomy, geography, and all the general science of the age; and

while on shore, his leisure appears to have been spent in studying

such scientific works as were within his reach. A marriage which he

contracted about this period seems to have had some effect in

determining his subsequent career. The lady to whom he became attached

was Felipa de Palestrello, the daughter of Bartolemeo de Palestrello,

an Italian who had distinguished himself as a navigator in the

Portuguese service. Marrying this young lady, Columbus obtained from

her mother all the charts, journals, and memorandums of her late

husband, the possession of which was a treasure to him. After his

marriage he lived for many years as a humble citizen of Lisbon,

earning a livelihood for himself and family by constructing maps and

charts, or by making an occasional voyage in a Portuguese vessel to

the Guinea coast, then the ultimate limit of African navigation.

Columbus seems to have acted from deliberate choice in making Lisbon

his place of residence. In no city in the world would the demand be so

great at that time for maps and charts, or for persons skilled in any

of the arts connected with navigation. Portugal had taken the lead of

all the nations of Europe in maritime enterprise; and for upwards of

twenty years all the great discoveries which had been made by

navigators of new coasts or islands had been effected under the

auspices of the Portuguese government.

The best result of Columbus’ labors in drawing maps was, that he

thereby became acquainted with the small extent of that part of the

earth’s surface known to geographers and navigators, as compared with

the conjectural extent of the whole. This fact appears to have made a

deep impression on his mind, and to have been the germ of his future

speculations. It was not long, however, before the idea began to

assume a more definite shape. Like all the navigators of the time, he

was full of the notion of discovering a new route to India, Cathay, or

Cipango――the land of gold, and diamonds, and spices――which was

supposed to lie in the east of Asia, and respecting which the most

gorgeous fancies were entertained. There was this difference, however,

between the speculations of Columbus and other navigators as to this

imaginary route to India, that while they universally followed Prince

Henry in supposing that it was to be sought by sailing round Africa,

he was employed in considering the possibility of effecting the same

object by sailing due west across the Atlantic. This most original

idea was fully formed in Columbus’ mind before the year 1474.

The globular form of the earth had been for a considerable time known

to all scientific men, and various calculations had been made as to

its probable size. On this latter point all were at fault, the general

supposition being, that the globe was much smaller than it is.

Columbus, in pondering on its imaginary magnitude, arrived at the

conviction that the Atlantic was a comparatively narrow sea, and that

if any one were to push boldly across it, he would inevitably reach

the shores of India. These ideas were confirmed by the various rumors

which prevailed of lands existing in the Atlantic to the west of

Africa. Plato’s fabled island of Atalantis was supposed to be a real

country lying in that quarter. There were many traditionary

recollections of mariners having been cast upon unknown shores when

driven far out to sea by the violence of a storm. There were legends

also of adventurers who had embarked in ships in the northern

countries of Europe, and gone to seek homes across the Atlantic; and

of fugitive bishops and priests, who, to escape persecution in their

own country, had committed themselves to the waves, and been conducted

by the hand of Providence to fertile and happy islands to the west of

the Azores. Moreover, certain circumstances had come within Columbus’

own knowledge, which seemed to argue the existence of land in that

direction. Martin Vicenti, a pilot in the Portuguese service, had

picked up a piece of carved wood floating in the ocean four hundred

and fifty leagues west of St. Vincent, which, as the wind was

westerly, he concluded must have come from some land opposite to

Africa. Columbus’ brother-in-law, Pedro Correa, had seen a similar

piece of wood, which had drifted across the ocean from the same

quarter; and had also heard of large canes seen floating on the waves

west of Madeira, apparently resembling the reeds known to be produced

in the East Indies. It was likewise reported that, when the wind had

blown long from the west, trunks of huge pine-trees were often cast

ashore upon the Azores; and that once two dead bodies, evidently the

corpses neither of Europeans nor Africans, were driven upon the beach

of the island of Flores.

All these and many other arguments convinced Columbus that the East

Indies could be reached by sailing westward from Gibraltar, or the

western coast of Africa. Every circumstance corroborative of this view

which came to his knowledge he diligently noted down; and at last the

conviction became so strong, that he conceived himself to be expressly

destined by God for the great work of discovering a new world. No

doubt or hesitation remained in his mind; and his only wish was to

find the means of making the contemplated voyage. Once launched upon

the Atlantic, he was absolutely certain that, after having sailed

seven or eight hundred leagues to the west of the Canaries, he would

come upon Marco Polo’s island of Cipango, or the dominions of the

great khan of Tartary.

Impressed with these delusive convictions, Columbus was eager to make

application to some of the governments of Europe for means to make a

voyage of discovery on the Atlantic. He first applied to John II, king

of Portugal, who inherited the enterprising spirit of his grand-uncle,

prince Henry, and in whose reign the means of finding the latitude at

sea had been discovered. Columbus, without much difficulty, obtained

an interview with the Portuguese monarch, to whom he explained his

scheme of reaching the East Indies, not by the route round Africa,

which all other navigators were pursuing, but by a shorter one across

the Atlantic. Various accounts are given of the manner in which the

proposal was received. John himself was a wise and magnanimous prince,

and he appears to have been much impressed by the earnestness of the

noble-looking foreigner who addressed him. Naturally cautious,

however, of patronising an enterprise which might turn out to be a

mere chimera, he referred the matter to some of his counselors, who

dissuaded him from engaging in it. Still, such was the effect of

Columbus’ representations, that John did not at once dismiss the

project. On the contrary, by a piece of meanness not agreeing with his

general character, he followed the advice of some of his counselors,

and having, on false pretenses, procured from Columbus a detailed plan

of his contemplated voyage, with maps and charts to correspond, he

secretly despatched a vessel to ascertain the practicability of the

intended route. The vessel actually sailed a considerable way beyond

the Cape Verd islands; but a storm arising, the crew became afraid to

venture farther, and put back, reporting that Columbus’ notion was mad

and irrational.

Indignant at this unjust treatment, Columbus, whose wife had for some

time been dead, secretly left Lisbon, taking with him his young son

Diego. The reason for his leaving the city secretly is said by some to

have been the fear of being prevented by the government; by others,

the fear of being apprehended for debts which he was unable to pay.

Proceeding to his native city of Genoa, he renewed an offer which he

had previously made by letter, of conducting the enterprise under the

patronage of the Genoese government――an offer which was contemptuously

refused, Genoa being already in the decline of her fortunes, and too

broken-spirited to engage in any more bold enterprises. It is said

that Columbus’ next offer was made to the Venetian government; which,

however, is improbable. The usual account, also, of his sending his

brother Bartholomew at this time to England to propose the scheme to

Henry VII, is incorrect: it was not till the year 1488, when the

negotiations with Spain had begun, that Bartholomew proceeded to

England on this errand.

COLUMBUS’ NEGOTIATIONS IN SPAIN. Spain was the country to which

Columbus looked with the greatest hope after the rejection of his

scheme by Portugal. No country at that time occupied the attention of

Europe so much as Spain. By the marriage of Ferdinand II of Arragon,

with Isabella of Castile, the whole of the peninsula, except Portugal,

had been consolidated into one powerful kingdom. Ruling separately

over their distinct territories――the wise, cold, and wary Ferdinand

over his subjects of Arragon, and the generous and high-souled

Isabella over hers of Castile――the two made it their common endeavor

to promote the glory of Spain, and raise its reputation as one of the

first powers of Christendom. They were at this time engaged in a war

with Granada, the last of the Moorish kingdoms in Spain; and all their

energies were occupied in the accomplishment of what was then regarded

a noble and chivalrous enterprise――the entire expulsion of the Moors

from the peninsula. Spain, accordingly, was then the land of daring

deeds, and hither our poor Italian resolved to bend his steps, with

the scheme of a new world.

In Andalusia, one of the most southern of the Spanish provinces, and

next to Granada, is an insignificant little seaport, of the name of

Palos de Moguer. At a little distance from this village stood, and we

believe still stands, a Franciscan convent, dedicated to Santa Marie

de Rabido. One day, late in the year of 1485, a stranger on foot,

accompanied by a little boy, stopped at the convent gate, and begged a

little bread and water for his child. The stranger was of a noble

aspect, venerable from his white hairs, and interesting from his

foreign accent. While the porter of the convent was supplying him with

what he had asked, the prior, Juan Perez de Marchena, chanced to pass,

and, struck with the stranger’s appearance, he entered into

conversation with him. The stranger informed him that his name was

Columbus, and that, with his son, he was on his way to the neighboring

town of Huelua, where his brother-in-law resided. Inviting him into

the convent, the prior soon learned the rest of his story; and

instantly conceiving a wonderful affection for the extraordinary man

whom Providence had thus cast in his way, he insisted on his taking up

his residence with him until a fit time should arrive for proceeding

to the court of the Spanish sovereigns. Himself a man of information

and ability, Juan Perez entered heartily into Columbus’ views, and

sent for such scientific persons in the neighborhood as he thought

would be able to form a judgment on the matter. Here, in the midst of

a little club of listeners, gathered in the evenings in the

comfortable apartment of the prior, did Columbus produce his charts

and expound his project in the winter of 1485-6; and long afterwards,

in the height of his fame, did the great navigator remember Juan

Perez, his first kind friend in Spain.

Early in the year 1486 Columbus set out for Cordova, where the Spanish

court then resided, making preparations for a spring campaign against

the Moors of Granada. He left his son Diego under the charge of the

worthy prior, who, to add to his other kindnesses, furnished him with

a letter of introduction to Fernando de Talavera, prior of Prado, and

confessor of Queen Isabella――a man, therefore, of some importance, and

likely to be of use to him. The letter proved of small avail; either

Juan Perez had overrated his influence with so great a personage as

Talavera, or Talavera was too busy to pay any attention to the poor

Italian enthusiast who was introduced to him. Neither Columbus nor his

project appears to have been mentioned to the Spanish sovereigns; and

the campaign against the Moors having commenced, there was no hope of

his obtaining an interview with them for some time. While the court

was thus shifting about, Columbus remained in Cordova, supporting

himself, as before, by his skill in designing maps. Here also his

worth, his noble appearance, and the modest enthusiasm of his manners,

gained him many kind friends, through whom he made the acquaintance of

Mendoza, archbishop of Toledo, and grand cardinal of Spain. Mendoza,

after being satisfied that there was something more in Columbus’

project than a mere vague fancy, procured him an audience with

Ferdinand and Isabella. The able Ferdinand instantly perceived the

propriety of at least inquiring into the scheme which was proposed to

him; he therefore referred the matter to Fernando de Talavera, the

above-mentioned prior, to whom Columbus had already been introduced:

instructing him to hold a council of the most learned geographers and

scientific men to examine and report on the plan submitted by

Columbus.

Few meetings ever held are more interesting to us now than the great

meeting of scientific men held in the convent of St. Stephen, at

Salamanca, to investigate into the feasibility of Columbus’ project of

reaching the East Indias by sailing due west. There were assembled all

the sages of Spain, professors of astronomy, geography, and

mathematics, most of them churchmen, together with a number of learned

friars and ecclesiastical dignitaries in their robes; and in the midst

of them all stood a simple mariner of Genoa, ready to explain his

scheme and answer questions. A great majority seem to have been

prepossessed against Columbus from the beginning, arguing that of

necessity he must be wrong, seeing that it was not in the nature of

things that one man could know better about such matters than all the

rest of the world. Others, however, favored him so far as to be ready

at least to enter into argument with him. The arguments produced

against him were of the strangest kind――a mixture of crude science

with religious dogmas――quotations from Scripture interpreted in the

oddest manner; together with extracts from the Greek and Latin

fathers. To all the objections urged Columbus answered with firmness

and modesty, failing, however, as may be supposed, to convince men

against long-cherished prejudice, backed by an erroneous

interpretation of Scripture.

The deliberations of the assembly were interrupted by the departure of

the court from Cordova in the spring of 1487. No answer had as yet

been given to Columbus with respect to his project; on the whole,

however, there seemed little hope of a favorable one. The next five

years were occupied by the Spanish sovereigns in the war against

Granada, so that they had no leisure to enter personally into a

consideration of the merits of the proposal made to them by the

Genoese navigator. During all that time Columbus waited patiently,

generally residing at Cordova, where, it is said, the children in the

streets used to point to their foreheads as he passed, bidding each

other look at the mad Italian; sometimes, however, following the court

in its journeys from place to place, and even taking part in the

sieges and battles in which the Spanish troops were engaged. His hopes

seem to have alternately risen and sunk during these five years. In

the year 1488 he appears to have despaired of a favorable issue to his

application; for in that year he despatched his brother Bartholomew

Columbus to England to make an offer of his project to Henry VII.

Unfortunately, Bartholomew was captured by pirates on the voyage, and

was not able to reach England for some years, otherwise Spain might

have been for ever deprived of the advantages offered her; for when

the scheme was ultimately proposed to Henry VII, he embraced it more

warmly than any monarch to whom it had been broached before. In the

same year, 1488, Columbus received a letter from the king of Portugal,

inviting him to return to that country, but he refused the invitation.

In the winter of 1491, when the Spanish monarchs were about to

commence their last Moorish campaign, Columbus received an answer to

his frequent applications. He was informed that the expenses of the

war prevented the sovereigns from engaging at present in any new

enterprise, but that, when the war was over, his scheme would be again

considered. This was most disheartening to one who had waited so long.

Already advanced in years, he began to fear that death would overtake

him before he had obtained the means of accomplishing his design. He

resolved to quit Spain. Before doing so, however, he offered his

scheme to two of the Spanish nobles, whose wealth and importance made

them almost independent princes――the Duke of Medina Sidonia and the

Duke of Medina Celi. Both, after some delay, refused to engage in the

project, as too ambitious for any but a great sovereign. Columbus,

therefore, hesitated no longer, but prepared to go to France, where he

anticipated a more favorable reception. Before setting out, he

proceeded to the convent at Palos, to visit his friend Juan Perez, and

to bring away his son Diego, whom with his other son, Fernando, he

intended to leave at Cordova. When his old friend the prior saw

Columbus once more at the gate of his monastery, after several years

of vain solicitation at court, he was deeply affected. He entreated

him by all means to remain in the country. He had been father

confessor to the queen, and thought he might still exercise an

influence over her mind. He accordingly proceeded to Santa Fé, where

the sovereigns were in person superintending the siege of the capital

of Grenada. Perez obtained a ready access to the queen. He laid before

her the propositions of Columbus with freedom and eloquence. Isabella

was moved with the grandeur of the project. The principles on which it

was founded, the advantages that would result from its success, and

the glory it would shed on Spain, were for the first time represented

to her in their true colors. She promised her patronage to the

undertaking. Columbus was summoned to court, and 20,000 maravedies,

equivalent to upwards of $200 of our money, were sent to him to pay

his traveling expenses; and he arrived in time to witness the

memorable surrender of Granada to the Spanish arms. It was now only

necessary to agree upon the terms of the proposed enterprise. A meaner

spirit, after years of unsuccessful toil, poverty, and disappointment,

would have been glad to secure the assistance of the sovereigns on

such arrangements as their own liberality might dictate. But Columbus

stipulated his own rewards and honors, and would consent to no other.

He demanded them as if he were already successful, and aware of the

extent and importance of his discoveries. In consequence of his

resoluteness in adhering to these demands, the negotiation was once

more broken off; and Columbus, mounting his mule, left Santa Fé;

resolved never to return. He was within two leagues of Grenada, when a

courier overtook him and brought him back. The court now agreed that

he should be admiral on the ocean, and enjoy all the privileges and

honors allowed to the high admiral of Castile; that he should be

governor over all the countries he might discover; and that he should

reserve to himself one-tenth of all pearls, precious stones, gold,

silver, and articles of merchandise, in whatever manner obtained,

within his admirality. They also allowed that he should appoint judges

in all parts of Spain trading to those countries; and that on this

voyage, and at all other times, he should contribute an eighth part of

the expense, and receive an eighth part of the profits. These articles

of agreement were signed by Ferdinand and Isabella at the city of

Santa Fé on the 17th of April 1492.

Preparations for the voyage were now commenced in good earnest. The

port of Palos de Moguer, already mentioned, was fixed as the place

where the armament should be fitted out. Royal orders were issued to

the magistrates of Palos to have three caravels in readiness, and

somewhat arbitrary measures were had recourse to for the purpose of

obtaining crews. As soon as the nature of the enterprise became known,

the little town of Palos was in an uproar; the owners of vessels

refused to lend them; and the boldest seamen absconded, lest they

should be pressed into such service. Columbus had repaired to the

spot; but all his exertions were unavailing; neither vessels nor crew

could be got. At length a rich and adventurous navigator, named Alonzo

Pinzon, came forward, and interested himself strenuously in the

expedition. His assistance was effectual. He owned vessels, and had

many seamen in his employ, and consequently possessed great influence.

He and his brother Vicente Pinzon determined to take commands, and

sail with Columbus. Their example had a great effect; they persuaded

their relations and friends to embark with them; and the vessels were

ready for sea within a month after they had thus engaged in their

equipment.

After all, the armament was miserably ill-proportioned to the grandeur

of the enterprise. Only one of the three small vessels was

full-decked. The other two, says Washington Irving, ‘were light

barques, called caravels, not superior to river and coasting craft of

more modern days. They are delineated as open, and without deck in the

center; but built up high at the prow and stern, with forecastles and

cabins for the accommodation of the crew. The largest vessel was

called the Santa Maria: on board of this Columbus hoisted his flag.

The second, called the Pinta, was commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon,

accompanied by his brother Francisco Martin, as pilot. The third,

called the Nina, had latine sails, and was commanded by the third of

the brothers, Vicenta Yanez Pinzon.’ The crews, including Columbus,

the three Pinzons, three other pilots, several royal officials, a

physician and a surgeon, some private adventurers with their servants,

and ninety sailors, amounted in all to one hundred and twenty persons.

Thus, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, after innumerable efforts

and disappointments, and at least eighteen years after he had matured

his project in his own mind, did Columbus find his wishes gratified,

by being placed at the head of an armament bound on a voyage through

the hitherto unexplored Atlantic. He still labored under the delusion

that the lands he would reach by sailing in that direction would be

the East Indies――the golden regions lying in the eastern extremity of

Asia, and described in such glowing colors by Marco Polo. So firm was

he in this belief, that he was furnished by Ferdinand and Isabella

with letters to be delivered to the great khan of Tartary. It ought to

be mentioned also, as characteristic of the times, and of the almost

wildly-enthusiastic genius of Columbus, that he had all along

cherished the design of devoting the wealth which should be acquired

from his discoveries to the object of rescuing the holy sepulchre of

Jerusalem from the hands of the infidels.

THE VOYAGE.――On the 2d of August, 1492, Columbus and all his

companions marched in solemn procession to the monastery of Rabida to

confess their sins, obtain absolution, and implore the blessing of God

on their expedition. The account of this deeply-interesting voyage may

be best given in the elegant language of Robertson:

‘On Friday, the third day of August, in the year one thousand four

hundred and ninety-two, Columbus set sail, a little before sunrise, in

presence of a vast crowd of spectators, who sent up their

supplications to Heaven for the prosperous issue of the voyage, which

they wished rather than expected. Columbus steered directly for the

Canary Islands, and arrived there (August 13) without any occurrence

that would have deserved notice on any other occasion. But in a voyage

of such expectation and importance, every circumstance was the object

of attention. The rudder of the Pinta broke loose the day after she

left the harbor; and that accident alarmed the crew, no less

superstitious than unskillful, as a certain omen of the unfortunate

destiny of the expedition. Even in the short run to the Canaries, the

ships were found to be so crazy and ill-appointed, as to be very

improper for a navigation which was expected to be both long and

dangerous. Columbus refitted them, however, to the best of his power;

and having supplied himself with fresh provisions, he took his

departure from Gomera, one of the most westerly of the Canary Islands,

on the sixth day of September.

‘Here the voyage of discovery may properly be said to begin; for

Columbus, holding his course due west, left immediately the usual

track of navigation, and stretched into unfrequented and unknown seas.

The first day, as it was very calm, he made but little way; but on the

second, he lost sight of the Canaries; and many of the sailors,

dejected already and dismayed, when they contemplated the boldness of

the undertaking, began to beat their breasts and to shed tears, as if

they were never more to behold land. Columbus comforted them with

assurances of success, and the prospect of vast wealth in those

opulent regions whither he was conducting them. This early discovery

of the spirit of his followers taught Columbus that he must prepare to

struggle not only with the unavoidable difficulties which might be

expected from the nature of his undertaking, but with such as were

likely to arise from the ignorance and timidity of the people under

his command; and he perceived that the art of governing the minds of

men would be no less requisite for accomplishing the discoveries which

he had in view, than naval skill and undaunted courage. Happily for

himself, and for the country by which he was employed, he joined to

the ardent temper and inventive genius of a projector, virtues of

another species, which are rarely united with them. He possessed a

thorough knowledge of mankind, an insinuating address, a patient

perseverance in executing any plan, the perfect government of his own

passions, and the talent of acquiring an ascendency over those of

other men. All these qualities, which formed him for command, were

accompanied with that superior knowledge of his profession which

begets confidence in times of difficulty and danger. To unskillful

Spanish sailors, accustomed only to coasting voyages in the

Mediterranean, the maritime science of Columbus――the fruit of thirty

years’ experience, improved by an acquaintance with all the inventions

of the Portuguese――appeared immense. As soon as they put to sea, he

regulated everything by his sole authority; he superintended the

execution of every order; and allowing himself only a few hours for

sleep, he was at all other times upon deck. As his course lay through

seas which had not formerly been visited, the sounding line, or

instruments for observation, were continually in his hands. After the

example of the Portuguese discoverers, he attended to the motion of

tides and currents, watched the flight of birds, the appearance of

fishes, or seaweeds, and of everything that floated on the waves; and

entered every occurrence with a minute exactness in the journal which

he kept. As the length of the voyage could not fail of alarming

sailors habituated only to short excursions, Columbus endeavored to

conceal from them the real progress which they made. With this view,

though they ran eighteen leagues on the second day after they left

Gomera, he gave out that they had advanced only fifteen; and he

uniformly employed the same artifice of reckoning short during the

whole voyage. By the fourteenth of September, the fleet was above two

hundred leagues to the west of the Canary Islands, at a greater

distance from land than any Spaniard had been before that time. There

they were struck with an appearance no less astonishing than new. They

observed that the magnetic needle in their compasses did not point

exactly to the polar star, but varied towards the west; and as they

proceeded, this variation increased. This appearance, which is now

familiar――though it still remains one of the mysteries of nature, into

the cause of which the sagacity of man hath not been able to

penetrate――filled the companions of Columbus with terror. They were

now in a boundless and unknown ocean, far from the usual course of

navigation; nature itself seemed to be altered, and the only guide

which they had left was about to fail them. Columbus, with no less

quickness than ingenuity, invented a reason for this appearance,

which, though it did not satisfy himself, seemed so plausible to them,

that it dispelled their fears or silenced their murmurs.

‘He still continued to steer due west, nearly in the same latitude

with the Canary Islands. In this course he came within the sphere of

the trade wind, which blows invariably from east to west between the

tropics and a few degrees beyond them. He advanced before this steady

gale with such uniform rapidity, that it was seldom necessary to shift

a sail. When about four hundred leagues west of the Canaries, he found

the sea so covered with weeds that it resembled a meadow of vast

extent, and in some places they were so thick as to retard the motion

of the vessels. This strange appearance occasioned new alarm and

disquiet. The sailors imagined that they were now arrived at the

utmost boundary of the navigable ocean; that these floating weeds

would obstruct their farther progress, and concealed dangerous rocks,

or some other large tract of land, which had sunk, they knew not how,

in that place. Columbus endeavored to persuade them that what had

alarmed ought rather to have encouraged them, and was to be considered

as a sign of approaching land. At the same time a brisk gale arose and

carried them forward. Several birds were seen hovering about the ship,

and directing their flight towards the west. The desponding crew

resumed some degree of spirit, and began to entertain fresh hopes.

‘Upon the first of October they were, according to the admiral’s

reckoning, seven hundred and seventy leagues to the west of the

Canaries; but, lest his men should be intimidated by the prodigious

length of the navigation, he gave out that they had proceeded only

five hundred and eighty-four leagues; and, fortunately for Columbus,

neither his own pilot, nor those of the other ships, had skill

sufficient to corect this error, and discover the deceit. They had now

been above three weeks at sea; they had proceeded far beyond what

former navigators had attempted or deemed possible; all their

prognostics of discovery, drawn from the flight of birds and other

circumstances, had proved fallacious; the appearances of land, with

which their own credulity or the artifice of their commander had from

time to time flattered and amused them, had been altogether illusive;

and their prospect of success seemed now to be as distant as ever.

These reflections occurred often to men who had no other object or

occupation than to reason and discourse concerning the intention and

circumstances of their expedition. They made impression at first upon

the ignorant and timid; and, extending by degrees to such as were

better informed or more resolute, the contagion spread at length from

ship to ship. From secret whispers or murmurings, they proceeded to

open cabals and public complaints. They taxed their sovereign with

inconsiderate credulity in paying such regard to the vain promises and

rash conjectures of an indigent foreigner, as to hazard the lives of

so many of her own subjects in prosecuting a chimerical scheme. They

affirmed that they had fully performed their duty by venturing so far

in an unknown and hopeless course, and could incur no blame by

refusing to follow any longer a desperate adventurer to certain

destruction. They contended that it was necessary to think of

returning to Spain while their crazy vessels were still in a condition

to keep the sea; but expressed their fears that the attempt would

prove vain, as the wind, which had hitherto been so favorable to their

course, must render it impossible to sail in the opposite direction.

All agreed that Columbus should be compelled by force to adopt a

measure on which their common safety depended. Some of the more

audacious proposed, as the most expeditious and certain method of

getting rid at once of his remonstrances, to throw him into the sea,

being persuaded that, upon their return to Spain, the death of an

unsuccessful projector would excite little concern, and be inquired

into with no curiosity.

‘Columbus was fully sensible of his perilous situation. He had

observed with great uneasiness the fatal operation of ignorance and of

fear in producing disaffection among his crew, and saw that it was now

ready to burst out into open mutiny. He retained, however, perfect

presence of mind. He affected to seem ignorant of their machinations.

Notwithstanding the agitation and solicitude of his own mind, he

appeared with a cheerful countenance, like a man satisfied with the

progress he had made, and confident of success. Sometimes he employed

all the arts of insinuation to soothe his men. Sometimes he endeavored

to work upon their ambition or avarice, by magnificent descriptions of

the fame and wealth which they were about to acquire. On other

occasions he assumed a tone of authority, and threatened them with

vengeance from their sovereign if, by their dastardly behavior, they

should defeat this noble effort to promote the glory of God and to

exalt the Spanish name above that of every other nation. Even with

seditious sailors the words of a man whom they had been accustomed to

reverence were weighty and persuasive, and not only restrained them

from those violent excesses which they meditated, but prevailed with

them to accompany their admiral for some time longer.

‘As they proceeded, the indications of approaching land seemed to be

more certain, and excited hope in proportion. The birds began to

appear in flocks, making towards the south-west. Columbus, in

imitation of the Portuguese navigators, who had been guided in several

of their discoveries by the motion of birds, altered his course from

due west towards that quarter whither they pointed their flight. But,

after holding on for several days in this new direction, without any

better success than formerly, having seen no object during thirty days

but the sea and the sky, the hopes of his companions subsided faster

than they had risen; their fears revived with additional force;

impatience, rage, and despair appeared in every countenance. All sense

of subordination was lost. The officers, who had hitherto concurred

with Columbus in opinion, and supported his authority, now took part

with the private men; they assembled tumultuously on the deck,

expostulated with their commander, mingled threats with their

expostulations, and required him instantly to tack about and to return

to Europe. Columbus perceived that it would be of no avail to have

recourse to any of his former arts, which, having been tried so often,

had lost their effect; and that it was impossible to rekindle any zeal

for the success of the expedition among men in whose breasts fear had

extinguished every generous sentiment. He saw that it was no less vain

to think of employing either gentle of severe measures to quell a

mutiny so general and so violent. It was necessary, on all these

accounts, to soothe passions which he could no longer command, and to

give way to a torrent too impetuous to be checked. He promised

solemnly to his men that he would comply with their request, provided

they would accompany him, and obey his command for three days longer;

and if, during that time, land were not discovered, he would then

abandon the enterprise, and direct his course towards Spain.

‘Enraged as the sailors were, and impatient to turn their faces again

towards their native country, this proposition did not appear to them

unreasonable. Nor did Columbus hazard much in confining himself to a

term so short. The presages of discovering land were now so numerous

and promising, that he deemed them infallible. For some days the

sounding-line reached the bottom, and the soil which it brought up

indicated land to be at no great distance. The flocks of birds

increased, and were composed not only of sea-fowl, but of such land

birds as could not be supposed to fly far from the shore. The crew of

the Pinta observed a cane floating, which seemed to have been newly

cut, and likewise a piece of timber artificially carved. The sailors

aboard the Nina took up the branch of a tree covered with red berries,

perfectly fresh. The clouds around the setting sun assumed a new

appearance; the air was milder and warmer; and during night the wind

became unequal and variable. From all these symptoms, Columbus was so

confident of being near land, that on the evening of the eleventh of

October, after public prayers for success, he ordered the sails to be

furled, and the ships to lie to, keeping strict watch lest they should

be driven ashore in the night. During this interval of suspense and

expectation no man shut his eyes; all kept upon deck, gazing intently

towards that quarter where they expected to discover the land, which

had been so long the object of their wishes.

‘About two hours before midnight, Columbus, standing on the

forecastle, observed a light at a distance, and privately pointed it

out to Pedro Guttierez, a page of the queen’s wardrobe. Guttierez

perceived it, and calling to Salcedo, comptroller of the fleet, all

three saw it in motion, as if it were carried from place to place. A

little after midnight the joyful sound of ‘Land! land!’ was heard from

the Pinta, which kept always ahead of the other ships. But having been

so often deceived by fallacious appearances, every man had now become

slow of belief, and waited in all the anguish of uncertainty and

impatience for the return of day. As soon as morning dawned [October

12th], all doubts and fears were dispelled. From every ship an island

was seen about two leagues to the north, whose flat and verdant

fields, well stored with wood, and watered with many rivulets,

presented the aspect of a delightful country. The crew of the Pinta

instantly began the _Te Deum_, as a hymn of thanksgiving to God, and

were joined by those of the other ships with tears of joy and

transports of congratulation. This office of gratitude to Heaven was

followed by an act of justice to their commander. They threw

themselves at the feet of Columbus, with feelings of self-condemnation

mingled with reverence. They implored him to pardon their ignorance,

incredulity, and insolence, which had created him so much unnecessary

disquiet, and had so often obstructed the prosecution of his

well-concerted plan; and passing, in the warmth of their admiration,

from one extreme to another, they now pronounced the man whom they had

so lately reviled and threatened, to be a person inspired by Heaven

with sagacity and fortitude more than human, in order to accomplish a

design so far beyond the ideas and conceptions of all former ages.

‘As soon as the sun arose, all their boats were manned and armed. They

rowed towards the island with their colors displayed, with warlike

music, and other martial pomp. As they approached the coast, they saw

it covered with a multitude of people, whom the novelty of the

spectacle had drawn together, whose attitudes and gestures expressed

wonder and astonishment at the strange objects which presented

themselves to their view. Columbus was the first European who set foot

in the new world which he had discovered. He landed in a rich dress,

and with a naked sword in his hand. His men followed, and kneeling

down, they all kissed the ground which they had so long desired to

see. They next erected a crucifix, and, prostrating themselves before

it, returned thanks to God for conducting their voyage to such a happy

issue. They then took solemn possession of the country for the crown

of Castile and Leon, with all the formalities which the Portuguese

were accustomed to observe in acts of this kind in their new

discoveries.

‘The Spaniards, while thus employed, were surrounded by many of the

natives, who gazed in silent admiration upon actions which they could

not comprehend, and of which they did not foresee the consequences.

The dress of the Spaniards, the whiteness of their skins, their

beards, their arms, appeared strange and surprising. The vast machines

in which they had traversed the ocean, that seemed to move upon the

waters with wings, and uttered a dreadful sound resembling thunder,

accompanied with lightning and smoke, struck them with such terror,

that they began to respect their new guests as a superior order of

beings, and concluded that they were children from the sun, who had

descended to visit the earth.

‘The Europeans were hardly less amazed at the scene now before them.

Every herb, and shrub, and tree, was different from those which

flourished in Europe. The soil seemed to be rich, but bore few marks

of cultivation. The climate, even to the Spaniards, felt warm, though

extremely delightful. The inhabitants appeared in the simple innocence

of nature――entirely naked. Their black hair, long and uncurled,

floated upon their shoulders, or was bound in tresses around their

heads. They had no beards, and every part of their bodies was

perfectly smooth. Their complexion was of a dusky copper color; their

features singular, rather than disagreeable; their aspect gentle and

timid. Though not tall, they were well-shaped and active. Their faces,

and several parts of their bodies, were fantastically painted with

glaring colors. They were shy at first through fear, but soon became

familiar with the Spaniards; and with transports of joy received from

them hawks’ bells, glass beads, or other baubles, in return for which

they gave such provisions as they had, and some cotton yarn, the only

commodity of value that they could produce. Towards evening Columbus

returned to his ship, accompanied by many of the islanders in their

boats, which they called canoes; and though rudely formed out of the

trunk of a tree, they rowed them with surprising dexterity. Thus, in

the first interview between the inhabitants of the old and new worlds,

everything was conducted amicably, and to their mutual satisfaction.

The former, enlightened and ambitious, formed already vast ideas with

respect to the advantages which they might derive from the regions

that began to open to their view. The latter, simple and undiscerning,

had no foresight to the calamities and desolation which were

approaching their country.

‘Columbus, who now assumed the title and authority of admiral and

viceroy, called the island which he had discovered San Salvador. It is

better known by the name of Guanahani, which the natives gave to it,

and is one of that large cluster of islands called the Lucaya or

Bahama Isles. It is situated above three thousand miles to the west of

Gomera, from which the squadron took its departure, and only four

degrees to the south of it; so little had Columbus deviated from the

westerly course which he had chosen as the most proper.’

CRUISE IN THE WEST INDIA ARCHIPELAGO――VARIOUS DISCOVERIES.――Columbus

imagined that the island he had thus discovered, and others which

could be seen from it, belonged to the Archipelago, which, according

to Marco Polo, lay east of the Asiatic continent. He resolved,

therefore, to remain no longer at San Salvador, but to sail in the

direction in which he conceived the mainland to lie. When he asked the

natives, by signs, where they obtained the gold, of which most of them

wore thin plates attached to their nostrils by way of ornament, they

invariably pointed to the south. To the south, therefore, he

determined to prosecute his voyage, not doubting but that the region

which the natives pointed to must be Cathay or Cipango. Accordingly,

after spending one day at San Salvador, he directed his course through

the midst of that multitudinous cluster of islands now called the

Bahamas, convinced as he gazed at their green and luxuriant foliage,

that these must be the ‘seven thousand four hundred and fifty-eight

islands abounding with spices and odoriferous trees,’ which Marco Polo

described as filling the Chinese sea. He landed at three of the

largest, and gave them names. Here the appearance of the ships and the

Spaniards produced the same astonishment among the natives as at San

Salvador. Receiving to his inquiries after gold the same invariable

answer, that it lay to the south, he pushed on through group after

group of islands, and at last, on the 28th of October, came in sight

of Cuba. The appearance of this noble island as he approached it, its

high mountains, its spreading forests, its broad rivers, made him

uncertain whether it might not be part of the great continent he was

in search of. ‘He entered the mouth of a large river with his

squadron, and all the inhabitants fled to the mountains as he

approached the shore. But as he resolved to careen his ships in that

place, he sent some Spaniards, together with one of the people of San

Salvador, to view the interior part of the country. They having

advanced above sixty miles from the shore, reported, upon their

return, that the soil was richer and more cultivated than any they had

hitherto discovered; that, besides many scattered cottages, they had

found one village containing above a thousand inhabitants; that the

people, though naked, seemed to be more intelligent than those of San

Salvador, but had treated them with the same respectful attention,

kissing their feet, and honoring them as sacred beings allied to

heaven; that they had given them to eat a certain root, the taste of

which resembled roasted chestnuts, and likewise a singular species of

corn called maize, which, when roasted whole or ground into meal, was

abundantly palatable; that there seemed to be no four-footed animals

in the country but a species of dog, which could not bark, and a

creature resembling a rabbit, but of a much smaller size; that they

had observed some ornaments of gold among the people, but of no great

value.’ Here also, for the first time, the Spaniards saw the use of

tobacco.

Columbus was particularly anxious to ascertain whether the country he

had now reached belonged to the Indian continent. From the rude

civilization which he saw around him, the ill constructed huts, the

want of clothing among the natives, etc., he knew that he was still at

some distance from the territories of the great khan, covered with

finely-built cities, and abounding in gold and spices; but he imagined

that Cuba might be the extremity of that part of the continent where

the expected territories lay. Full of this delusion, he eagerly seized

on every little circumstance which seemed to confirm it. When the

natives spoke of _Cubanacan_ as the place where the gold was to be

found, meaning by it the central district of Cuba, he fancied that

they were speaking of the country of _Kubla Khan_, one of the great

potentates mentioned by Marco Polo. At length, however, after cruising

along the coast for nearly a fortnight without approaching the

confines of the desired country, he altered his course to the

east-south-east, intending to sail for an island called Hayti, to

which the natives directed him as a place where gold was more

plentiful than with them. The fleet left Cuba on the 12th of November,

having on board some of the natives, who were to act as guides. On

their way thither, ‘Martin Alonzo Pinzon, impatient to be the first

who should take possession of the treasures which this country was

supposed to contain, quitted his companions, regardless of all the

admiral’s signals to slacken sail until they should come up with him.

Columbus, retarded by contrary winds, did not reach Hayti till the 6th

of December. He called the port where he first touched, St. Nicholas,

and the island itself Espagnola, in honor of the kingdom by which he

was employed; and it is the only country of those he had yet

discovered which has retained the name that he gave it. As he could

neither meet with the Pinta, nor have any intercourse with the

inhabitants, who fled in great consternation towards the woods, he

soon quitted St. Nicholas; and, sailing along the northern coast of

the island, he entered another harbor, which he called Conception.

Here he was more fortunate; his people overtook a woman who was flying

from them, and, after treating her with great gentleness, dismissed

her with a present of such toys as they knew were most valued in those

regions. The description which she gave to her countrymen of the

humanity and wonderful qualities of the strangers, their admiration of

the trinkets, which she showed with exultation, and their eagerness to

participate in the same favors, removed all their fears, and induced

many of them to repair to the harbor. The strange objects which they

beheld, and the baubles which Columbus bestowed upon them, amply

gratified their curiosity and their wishes. They nearly resembled the

people of Guanahani and Cuba. Like them, they were naked, ignorant,

and simple; and seemed to be equally unacquainted with all the arts

which appear most necessary in polished societies; but they were

gentle, credulous, and timid, to a degree which rendered it easy to

acquire the ascendency over them, especially as their excessive

admiration led them into the same error with the people of the other

islands, in believing the Spaniards to be more than mortals, and

descended immediately from heaven. They possessed gold in greater

abundance than their neighbors, which they readily exchanged for

bells, beads, or pins; and in this unequal traffic both parties were

highly pleased, each considering themselves as gainers by the

transaction.’

The Spaniards remained at Hispaniola for the space of a month, during

which time they explored a great part of the coast, and became

familiar with the natives. Columbus had a keen sense of the beautiful

in scenery, and his journal is full of enthusiastic description of

Hispaniola, its deep groves, its clear skies, its tranquil bays, its

soft and balmy atmosphere, its birds with their splendid plumage.

‘Tongue,’ he says, ‘cannot express the whole truth, nor pen describe

it; and I have been so overwhelmed at the sight of so much beauty,

that I have not known how to relate it. The people also seem to have

made a deep impression on him by their gentle and confiding manners.

‘So loving, so tractable, so peaceable,’ he says, ‘are these people,

that I swear to your majesties there is not in the world a better

nation nor a better land. They love their neighbors as themselves; and

their discourse is ever sweet and gentle, and accompanied with a

smile; and though it is true that they are naked, yet their manners

are decorous and praiseworthy.’ Such are the descriptions given of the

island of Hayti by its discoverer――the first island doomed to

experience the miseries produced by the cruelty and avarice of the

invaders.

The part of Hayti which the fleet first touched at was its western

extremity. As usual, one of the earliest inquiries made of the natives

was where they obtained gold. The natives, in reply, pointed to a

mountainous district to the eastward, which they named _Cibao_――a

sound in which Columbus, still clinging to his original delusion,

traced a resemblance to the _Cipango_ of Marco Polo. Proceeding

eastward, therefore, Columbus anchored his two vessels in a habor, to

which he gave the name of St. Thomas.

While here he received a message from a chieftain called Guacanagari,

one of the five caçiques or kings amongst whom the whole island was

divided, requesting that he would come and visit him. Columbus

resolved to do so. ‘He sailed for this purpose from St. Thomas on the

24th of December, with a fair wind, and the sea perfectly calm; and

as, amongst the multiplicity of his occupations, he had not shut his

eyes for two days, he retired at midnight in order to take some

repose, having committed the helm to the pilot, with strict

injunctions not to quit it for a moment. The pilot, dreading no

danger, carelessly left the helm to an inexperienced cabin-boy, and

the ship, carried away by the current, was dashed against a rock. The

violence of the shock awakened Columbus. He ran up to the deck. There

all was confusion and despair. He alone retained presence of mind. He

ordered some of the sailors to take a boat, and carry out an anchor

astern; but, instead of obeying, they made off towards the Nina, which

was about half a league distant. He then commanded the masts to be cut

down, in order to lighten the ship; but all his endeavors were too

late; the vessel opened near the keel, and filled so fast with water,

that its loss was inevitable. The smoothness of the sea, and the

timely assistance of boats from the Nina, enabled the crew to save

their lives.’ Hearing of the accident, Guacanagari hastened to the

shore, and, by the assistance of the Indians with their canoes,

everything of value was saved from the wreck. Nothing could exceed the

kindness of the chieftain: he testified the utmost sorrow at the loss

which had befallen his visitors, and offered his services to repair

it. The loss was indeed a serious one to Columbus. He had as yet heard

no tidings from the treacherous Pinta; his best ship was a total

wreck; and there remained but one crazy little bark to carry so many

men back to Europe.

In these circumstances he resolved to leave part of his men in

Hispaniola, returning to Spain with the rest for fresh ships and

stores. Although driven by necessity to this resolution, it was

advisable on many other accounts. The island was one which it would be

desirable to colonize at all events; and by leaving a number of men in

it, the way would be prepared for a settlement; a quantity of gold

would be collected, ready to be carried to Spain against the time he

came back; and, by intercourse with the natives, much knowledge would

be obtained, not only about Hayti itself, but about the other islands

and lands in the Archipelago. Nor did he meet with any difficulty on

the part of his men. On the contrary, when the proposal was made to

them, many were delighted with the idea of remaining on an island

where they would lead a life of such enjoyment. Nothing remained,

therefore, but to obtain the permission of Guacanagari, or some other

cacique. This was soon granted. It appeared that the island was often

visited by a terrible race of people called the Caribs, represented by

the Haytians as cannibals, who came from the east, and, penetrating

inland, burned their villages, and carried many of them away captives.

On the proposal, therefore, of Columbus to leave some of his men on

the island, to protect it with their great guns against the incursions

of these Caribs, Guacanagari and his people exhibited unbounded

delight. The Spaniards immediately commenced building a fortress on a

spot named by Columbus _La Navidad_; not omitting, at the same time,

to improve the opportunity of obtaining as much gold as possible from

the natives, to be shipped for Spain. Considerable quantities were

obtained; the natives readily exchanging little lumps of the precious

metal for any trinket offered them. The hawk’s bells of the Spaniards,

however, delighted them most. Tying these toys to some part of their

persons, they would dance and caper about with them in perfect

ecstacies at the sounds they produced; and it is told of one Indian

that, having obtained a hawk’s bell in exchange for a lump of gold of

about four ounces in weight, he made off to the woods as fast as

possible with his prize, lest the Spaniard should repent of his bad

bargain, and demand back the bell.

The fortress was soon finished, and thirty-eight men chosen to remain

on the island. ‘He intrusted the command of these to Diego de Arado, a

gentleman of Cordova, investing him with the same powers which he

himself had received from Ferdinand and Isabella; and furnished him

with everything requisite for the subsistence or defense of this

infant colony. He strictly enjoined them to maintain concord among

themselves, to yield an unreserved obedience to their commander, to

avoid giving offense to the natives by any violence or exaction, to

cultivate the friendship of Guacanagari, but not to put themselves in

his power by straggling in small parties, or marching too far from the

fort. He promised to revisit them soon, with such a reinforcement of

strength as might enable them to take full possession of the country,

and to reap all the fruits of their discoveries. In the meantime he

engaged to mention their names to the king and queen, and to place

their merit and services in the most advantageous light.

‘Having thus taken every precaution for the security of the colony, he

left Navidad on the 4th of January 1493, and steering towards the

east, discovered and gave names to most of the harbors on the northern

coast of the island. On the 6th he descried the Pinta, and soon came

up with her, after a separation of more than six weeks. Pinzon

endeavored to justify his conduct by pretending that he had been

driven from his course by stress of weather, and prevented from

returning by contrary winds. The admiral, though he still suspected

his perfidious intentions, and knew well what he urged in his own

defense to be frivolous as well as false, was so sensible that this

was not a proper time for venturing upon any high strain of authority,

and felt such satisfaction in this junction with his consort, which

delivered him from many disquieting apprehensions, that, lame as

Pinzon’s apology was, he admitted of it without difficulty, and

restored him to favor. During his absence from the admiral, Pinzon had

visited several harbors in the island, and acquired some gold by

trafficking with the natives, but had made no discovery of any

importance.

‘From the condition of his ships, as well as the temper of his men,

Columbus now found it necessary to hasten his return to Europe. The

former, having suffered much during a voyage of such unusual length,

were extremely leaky; the latter expressed the utmost impatience to

revisit their native country, from which they had been so long absent,

and where they had things so wonderful and unheard-of to relate.

Accordingly, on the 16th of January, he directed his course towards

the northeast, and soon lost sight of land. He had on board some of

the natives, whom he had taken from the different islands which he

discovered; and besides the gold, which was the chief object of

research, he had collected specimens of all the productions which were

likely to become subjects of commerce in the several countries, as

well as many unknown birds, and other natural curiosities, which might

attract the attention of the learned, or excite the wonder of the

people. The voyage was prosperous to the 14th of February; and he had

advanced nearly five hundred leagues across the Atlantic Ocean, when

the wind began to rise, and continued to blow with increasing rage,

which terminated in a furious hurricane. Everything that the naval

skill and experience of Columbus could devise was employed in order to

save the ships. But it was impossible to withstand the violence of the

storm, and, as they were still far from any land, destruction seemed

inevitable. The sailors had recourse to prayers to Almighty God, to

the invocation of saints, to vows and charms, to everything that

religion dictates or superstition suggests to the affrighted mind of

man. No prospect of deliverance appearing, they abandoned themselves

to despair, and expected every moment to be swallowed up in the waves.

Besides the passions which naturally agitate and alarm the human mind

in such awful situations, when certain death, in one of its most

terrible forms, is before it, Columbus had to endure feelings of

distress peculiar to himself. He dreaded that all knowledge of the

amazing discoveries which he had made was now to perish; mankind were

to be deprived of every benefit that might have been derived from the

happy success of his schemes; and his own name would descend to

posterity as that of a rash, deluded adventurer, instead of being

transmitted with the honor due to the author and conductor of the most

noble enterprise that had ever been undertaken. These reflections

extinguished all sense of his own personal danger. Less affected with

the loss of life than solicitous to preserve the memory of what he had

attempted and achieved, he retired to his cabin, and wrote upon

parchment a short account of the voyage which he had made, of the

course which he had taken, of the situation and riches of the

countries which he had discovered, and of the colony that he had left

there. Having wrapped up this in an oiled cloth, which he enclosed in

a cake of wax, he put it into a cask carefully stopped up, and threw

it into the sea, in hopes that some fortunate accident might preserve

a deposit of so much importance to the world.’

The storm at length abated, and Columbus was able to reach the Azores.

After being detained here for a short time by a dispute with the

Portuguese governor of one of the islands, he continued his voyage,

anxious to reach Spain before the Pinta, which had again parted

company with him in the storm, with the design, he feared, of being

the first to carry the news of his discovery to Spain. A second storm,

however, obliged him to make for the coast of Portugal, and take

refuge in the Tagus. Proceeding to Lisbon by the king’s invitation, he

was received with the highest honors――having thus the satisfaction of

announcing the success of his great scheme to the very persons who,

fourteen years before, had scouted and rejected it. After remaining

five days at Lisbon, he set out for Palos, having still heard no

tidings of the Pinta. He reached the little Spanish seaport on the

15th of March, seven months and four days from the time of his

departure from it. Great was the excitement among the inhabitants as

they saw the little bark, which they instantly recognized, standing up

the river. And when the news spread that the new world was discovered,

that Columbus had returned with gold and specimens of the productions

of the new lands, and, above all, with live natives on board his ship,

the joy was indescribable. The bells were rung, the shops shut, all

business was suspended, and the whole population hurried to the shore

to receive the admiral with shouts and acclamations, such as usually

attend the visits of royalty. Columbus’ first act on landing was to

march with his people to church, to return thanks for the success of

his voyage. On the evening of the day of his arrival, the missing

Pinta likewise entered the harbor, having been driven far to the north

by the violence of the storm. The commander, Martin Alonzo Pinzon,

full of remorse and chagrin for his past conduct, took to his bed

almost immediately on reaching Palos, and died in a few days.

After the first expressions of joy and admiration, Columbus departed

for Seville. From this place he sent a message to Barcelona, where the

king and queen at that time resided, to lay before them a brief

account of his voyage, and to receive from them an indication of their

royal will. His reception at Barcelona was particularly gratifying. He

made a sort of triumphal entry, surrounded by knights and nobles, who

emulated each other in their efforts to swell his praise. He was

received publicly by the sovereigns, in a splendid saloon, seated on

the throne, and encircled by a magnificent court. On his entrance,

they rose to greet him, and would hardly allow him to kiss their

hands, considering it too unworthy a mark of vassalage. Columbus then

gave an account of his discoveries, and exhibited the different

articles which he had brought home with him. He described the quantity

of spices, the promise of gold, the fertility of the soil, the

delicious climate, the never-fading verdure of the trees, the

brilliant plumage of the birds, in the new regions which his own

enterprise had acquired for his sovereigns. He then drew their

attention to six natives of the new world, whom he had brought, and

who were present, and described their manners and dispositions. He

exhibited their dresses and ornaments, their rude utensils, their

feeble arms; which corresponded with his description of them as naked

and ignorant barbarians. To this he added, that he had observed no

traces of idolatry or superstition among them, and that they all

seemed to be convinced of the existence of a Supreme Being. The

conclusion of his speech was in these words: ‘That God had reserved

for the Spanish monarchs not only all the treasures of the new world,

but a still greater treasure, of inestimable value, in the infinite

number of souls destined to be brought over into the bosom of the

Christian church.’

After he had finished his address, the whole assembly fell upon their

knees, while an anthem was chanted by the choir of the royal chapel.

With songs of praise the glory was given to God for the discovery of a

new world. Columbus and his adventures were for many days the wonder

and delight of the people and the court. The sovereigns admitted the

admiral to their audience at all hours, and loaded him with every mark

of favor and distinction. Men of the highest rank were proud of the

honor of his company.

The news of the great discovery which had been made soon spread over

Europe, and the name of Columbus at once became celebrated over the

whole of the civilized world. As it was universally believed that the

lands which he had discovered were what he supposed them to be――the

extremity of the Asiatic continent――they were spoken of as the Indies;

and hence, even after the error was found out, the name of _West

Indies_ still continued to be applied to them.

THE SECOND VOYAGE――COLONY FOUNDED IN HISPANIOLA.――No time was lost in

fitting out a second expedition to the new world. On the morning of

the 25th September, 1493, Columbus left the bay of Cadiz with three

large ships and fourteen caravels, loaded with everything necessary to

found a colony, and manned not with despondent sailors, as the first

fleet had been, but with eager and joyous adventurers, with young and

bold cavaliers. In the fleet were several enthusiastic priests, who

embarked with the intention of spreading Christianity among the

benighted heathens of the new lands.

Steering farther south than in his last voyage, the first land which

Columbus made was one of the Caribbee, or Leeward Islands, to which he

gave the name of Dominica. It was discovered on the 2d of November,

1493. After cruising for about three weeks among these islands, giving

names to several of the largest, among which may be mentioned Porto

Rico, and everywhere discovering traces of that savage and warlike

disposition which the Haytians had attributed to the Caribs, he bent

his course to the north-west, anxious to learn the fate of the little

colony which he had left at Hispaniola. Anchoring off the coast of La

Navidad, he was surprised and alarmed to find none of the Spaniards on

the shore to welcome him, and to receive no return-signals to the

shots which he fired announcing his arrival. He soon learned the

dreadful truth. Not a man of the thirty-eight he had left remained

alive――they had all fallen victims to their own imprudence and

licentiousness. A mystery hung about their story which was never fully

cleared up; but it appeared, from the accounts of the natives, that as

soon as Columbus had departed the men had begun to range through the

island, committing all sorts of crimes, and losing the respect of the

Indians; that at length one of the five chieftains of the island,

named Caonabo, had attacked the fort, and put them all to death; and

that Guacanagari and many of his subjects had been wounded in trying

to protect them. With this account Columbus was obliged to be content,

although some of his officers questioned its truth, and suspected

Guacanagari of having been concerned in the massacre of their

countrymen.

A second colony was immediately founded under better auspices. The

plan of a city was marked out; and in a short time the building was

sufficiently far advanced to afford protection to all who intended to

remain on the island. To this rising city, Columbus gave the name of

Isabella, in honor of the queen of Castile. Even thus early in the

history of the colony, however, symptoms of discontent broke out. Many

of the Spaniards were attacked by the diseases incident to a new

climate; others, and especially such as were of noble families, began

to complain of the hard labor imposed upon them. They had imagined

that, on reaching the new world, they would find lumps of gold lying

on the soil ready to be gathered, and mines of diamonds which it would

only be necessary to open, in order to grow rich; and when they found

that what gold the island contained was only to be obtained by

industry, and that the principal value of the new country consisted in

the fertility of its soil, and its readiness to yield abundant produce

to the patient cultivator, they could not conceal their disappointment

and dislike to the ambitious foreigner, whose false representations,

they said, had lured them from their homes. To banish these gloomy

thoughts from the minds of the colonists, Columbus, as soon as the

settlement of Isabella was in tolerable condition, employed himself

and his men in expeditions into the interior of the island, especially

to the mountainous district of Cibao, where gold was said to be

obtained in large quantities.

Returning from a long expedition into the interior in the end of March

1492, Columbus found the colony of Isabella in a most flourishing

condition. The only drawbacks to the satisfaction of Columbus were the

illness of many of the colonists, their growing discontent, and the

symptoms of ill-will which the natives began at length to manifest

towards the Spaniards. Still, as there was no appearance of any

interruption to the tranquillity of the colony, Columbus resolved to

undertake a voyage of discovery through the Archipelago, with a view

to reach the great Indian continent, of which his imagination was

still full. Leaving, therefore, his brother Diego to govern the

Island, with the assistance of a council of officers, and intrusting

the command of a body of soldiers to Don Pedro Margarita, he sailed

from Hayti on the 24th of April 1494. For five months he sailed in

various directions through the West Indian Archipelago in quest of the

imaginary Cathay or Cipango; discovering nothing of consequence,

however, except the island of Jamaica. The weather was tempestuous;

and it was only by incessant care on the part of the admiral that his

fleet was kept afloat. At length, wearied out with his labors, he was

attacked by a violent fever, which terminated in a sort of lethargy or

paralysis of all his faculties; and his officers, despairing of his

life, returned to Hispaniola in the month of September.

Here a joyful surprise awaited Columbus, which contributed greatly to

his recovery. His brother Bartholomew, whom he had not seen for

several years, had arrived in the island during his absence.

Bartholomew, it will be remembered, had been despatched in 1488 to

England, with offers of his brother’s project to Henry VIII; but had

been captured by pirates on the way. Escaping at length, he was

engaged in negotiations with the English monarch, when he learned that

his brother had returned to Spain with the announcement of a new

world. Ere he could reach Spain, however, Columbus had departed on his

second voyage; but on arriving, he had been treated with great honor

by the Spanish sovereigns, and intrusted with the command of a

squadron which they were sending out to the colony with provisions.

Bartholomew was a man of extraordinary vigor and talent, with less

enthusiasm and genius than his brother the admiral, but his equal in

decision and sagacity; and much superior to his other brother Diego,

who, though a worthy and good man, was of a soft and yielding

character.

During Columbus’ absence the colony had fallen into confusion. Besides

the growing discontent of many of the colonists, the natives were in

insurrection――provoked, as it appeared, by the ravages and cruelties

of the whites. It was necessary, in the first place, to reduce the

natives to obedience. Several months were spent in this wretched and

bloody work; which was at length accomplished at the expense of the

lives of some Spaniards and thousands of the natives. Many of the

latter were also taken prisoners, and reduced to servitude; some of

them being even shipped to Spain, to be sold in the slave market. The

natives universally were compelled to pay tribute. ‘Each person above

fourteen years of age, who lived in those districts where gold was

found, was obliged to pay quarterly as much gold dust as filled a

hawk’s bell; from those in other parts of the country twenty-five

pounds of cotton were demanded.’ This was the first regular taxation

of the Indians, and served as a precedent for exactions still more

intolerable. Such an imposition was extremely contrary to those maxims

which Columbus had hitherto inculcated with respect to the mode of

treating them. But intrigues were carrying on in the court of Spain at

this juncture, in order to undermine his power and discredit his

operations, which constrained him to depart from his own system of

administration. Several unfavorable accounts of his conduct, as well

as of the countries discovered by him, had been transmitted to Spain.

Columbus saw that there was but one method of supporting his own

credit, and of silencing his adversaries. He must produce such a

quantity of gold as would not only justify what he had reported with

respect to the richness of the country, but encourage Ferdinand and

Isabella to persevere in prosecuting his plans. The necessity of

obtaining it forced him not only to impose a heavy tax upon the

Indians, but to exact payment of it with extreme rigor; and may be

pleaded in excuse for his deviating on this occasion from the mildness

and humanity with which he uniformly treated that unhappy people.

The task of reducing the island to order occupied Columbus till

towards the end of the year 1495. Meanwhile the representations of his

enemies in Spain had gained such weight over the cold and jealous

Ferdinand, and even over the generous soul of Isabella, that they

resolved to send out a commissioner to investigate into his conduct.

The person chosen for this office was Aguado, a groom of the king’s

bed-chamber. On arriving in Hispaniola, Aguado’s behavior was so

arrogant, and had such a bad effect upon the interests of the colony,

that Columbus determined to proceed to Spain, and vindicate his

conduct personally to the sovereigns. Accordingly, appointing his

brother Bartholomew adelantado, or lieutenant-governor, of the island,

and Francis Roldan chief-justice, he set sail in the spring of 1496,

and arrived safely in Spain.

THIRD AND FOURTH VOYAGES――ILL-TREATMENT OF COLUMBUS――DEATH. The

appearance of Columbus in Spain, his manly and candid defense of his

conduct, his glowing exposition of the value of his discoveries, and

the best means of prosecuting them, had the effect of silencing his

detractors for a time. A third expedition was fitted out at his

solicitation. It was not, however, till the beginning of 1498 that all

was in readiness. This delay arose partly from the dilatoriness of

officials, and partly from the unwillingness of men to engage in an

enterprise which did not now appear so captivating as it did at first.

‘To supply the want of voluntary recruits,’ a measure was adopted, at

the suggestion of Columbus, which shows the desperate alternatives to

which he was reduced by the great reaction of public sentiment. This

was to commute the sentences of criminals condemned to banishment, to

the galleys, or to the mines, into transportation to the new

settlements, where they were to labor in the public service without

pay. This pernicious measure, calculated to poison the population of

an infant community at its very source, was a fruitful cause of

trouble, and misery and detriment to the colony. It has been

frequently adopted by various nations whose superior experience should

have taught them better, and has proved the bane of many a rising

settlement. It is assuredly as unnatural for a metropolis to cast

forth its crimes and its vices upon its colonies, as it would be for a

parent willingly to engraft disease upon his children.

On the 30th of May 1498, Columbus set sail on his third voyage, with a

squadron of six vessels. Sailing much farther south in this voyage

than he had done in the two former, he landed on the coast of Paria,

in the South American continent. The circumstances of this third

voyage, part of which lay within the tropics, and the appearance of

the new coasts to which it conducted him, made a strong impression on

the mind of Columbus, which had a natural bent for theorising upon

every phenomenon presented to it. Among other theories which he

started about this time, was one by which he attempted to explain the

variation of the compass, and other extraordinary changes which

occurred in passing from the old world to the new. According to this

theory, he supposed that the earth, instead of being spherical, as

hitherto imagined, was elongated or pear-shaped, with one end bulbous,

and the other produced and tapering――a theory which, however absurd it

may seem, was really a step in advance of the science of the day.

After coasting along the South American continent, acquiring

information which he thought all tended to show that he was on the

track of the long-desired Indies of Marco Polo, Columbus was obliged,

by the shattered condition of his ships, to make for Hispaniola. Here

he found all in confusion. Roldan, whom he had appointed chief

justice, had rebelled against the authority of the adelantado, and was

living in another part of the island as the head of a band of

insurgents. Bartholomew had governed the colony vigorously and well;

but being a foreigner, and not of high birth, he was unpopular with

the Spaniards. It required all Columbus’ skill and command of temper

to restore the semblance of order. By a seasonable proclamation,

offering free pardon to such as should merit it by returning to their

duty, he made impression upon some of the malcontents. By engaging to

grant such as should desire it the liberty of returning to Spain, he

allured all those unfortunate adventurers who, from sickness and

disappointment, were disgusted with the country. By promising to

reëstablish Roldan in his former office, he soothed his pride; and, by

complying with most of his demands in behalf of his followers, he

satisfied their avarice. Thus gradually, and without bloodshed, but

after many negotiations, he dissolved this dangerous combination,

which threatened the colony with ruin, and restored the appearance of

order, regular government, and tranquillity.

Meanwhile Columbus’ enemies were again undermining his popularity in

Spain. The accounts which Roldan and others sent home of the arrogance

of Columbus and his brothers, received more credit than the admiral’s

own despatches. Owing also to the cessation of labor in the colony,

Columbus was unable to send home so much wealth as the sovereigns

expected. Private adventurers were likewise fitting out expeditions of

discovery to the new world; and Ferdinand began to be of opinion that

it would be more for the interests of the crown to deprive Columbus of

his great and exclusive privileges as his viceroy in the new world,

and to place the colonial government on a new footing. Isabella alone

seemed to befriend the admiral. At length, however, on the arrival of

some ships from Hispaniola freighted with natives, whom Columbus had

been forced to permit some of the refractory colonists to take with

them on their return to Spain, to be sold in the slave market, her

queenly soul, abhorring the idea of making wealth by the sale of human

beings, took fire, and she indignantly exclaimed, ‘What right has the

admiral to give away my vassals?’ She no longer opposed Ferdinand’s

desire to send out a person to examine into the conduct of Columbus,

and, if necessary, to order him home. The person chosen as

commissioner was Don Francisco de Bovadilla, an officer of the royal

household.

On arriving at Hispaniola, Bovadilla reversed the order of his written

instructions. He superseded Columbus before investigating into his

conduct. Entering the admiral’s residence at Isabella, he seized all

his furniture, books, and papers; and by his orders Columbus, with his

brothers Diego and Bartholomew, were put in irons. What a burlesque on

national gratitude was this outrage! The man who had led Europeans to

an acquaintance with America, actually put in manacles by a miserable

instrument of the Spanish government! Overcome with emotion, Columbus

was thus led on board a ship which waited to receive him. On arriving

on board, an officer charged with the duty of attending on him and his

brothers offered, with considerate humanity, to remove the irons from

his prisoners; but the admiral refused, saying that they were put on

by the command of their majesties, and should remain till removed by

the same authority. These irons Columbus afterwards preserved as

relics.

The rumor had no sooner circulated at Cadiz and Seville that Columbus

and his brothers had arrived, loaded with chains, and condemned to

death, than it gave rise to a burst of public indignation. The

excitement was strong and universal; and messengers were immediately

despatched to convey the intelligence to Ferdinand and Isabella. The

sovereigns were moved by this exhibition of popular feeling, and were

offended that their name and authority should have been used to

sanction such dishonorable violence. They gave orders for the

immediate liberation of the prisoners, and for their being escorted to

Granada with the respect and honor they deserved. They annulled,

without examination, all the processes against them, and promised an

ample punishment for all their wrongs. At his first interview with the

sovereigns after his arrival, Columbus was so overcome that he threw

himself at their feet, where he remained for some minutes drowned in

tears, and unable to speak from the violence of his sobbings.

Columbus, however, was not reäppointed to his command in Hispaniola.

Bovadilla, it is true, was superseded; but his successor was Don

Nicholas de Ovando, a Spanish cavalier. It was represented to Columbus

that this appointment was only temporary, and that as soon as the

colony was in an orderly condition, he would be reinstated in his

privileges. In the meantime, he was to undertake a fourth voyage of

discovery. In consequence of the knowledge which he had obtained on

his previous voyages――as well as from the voyages of the numerous

adventurers who followed him――of the extent of the American continent,

connected with the announcement with which Europe was then ringing, of

the final accomplishment of the great feat of the circumnavigation of

Africa by Vasco de Gama in 1497, the genius of Columbus had conceived

a new project, or rather a modification of his former one. This was

the discovery of some strait lying somewhere between Honduras and

Paria, in about the situation of what is now known as the Isthmus of

Darien, and leading into the Indian Ocean. Having discovered this

strait, he would sail through it, coast along the Indies to the shores

of Arabia, and either sail up the Red Sea, and travel overland to

Spain; or repeat Vasco de Gama’s feat the reverse way, and reach Spain

after having circumnavigated the world. Such was the gigantic scheme

with the thoughts of which the great old man regaled his declining

years. We mistake the character of Columbus if we suppose him merely

to have been a man of extraordinary courage, coupled with what we

usually understand by the term intellect. He had perhaps one of the

most daring and fanciful imaginations. He regarded himself as a

personage expressly predestined by heaven to discover a new world, and

prepare the way for the recovery of the holy sepulchre, and the

conversion of the whole world to Christianity. These three events he

conceived to be linked to each other by prophecy; and he considered

that he was the instrument in God’s hands for bringing them all about.

On the 9th of May 1502, Columbus again set sail from Cadiz on a fourth

voyage of discovery. During this expedition he touched at some parts

of the South American continent, and also at some of the

formerly-discovered islands; but he failed in making any important

discoveries, in consequence of the bad state of his vessels, which

were old, and unfit for sailing. With a squadron reduced to a single

vessel he now returned to Spain, where he heard with regret of the

death of his patron Isabella. This was a sad blow to his expectations

of redress and remuneration. Ferdinand was jealous and ungrateful. He

was weary of a man who had conferred so much glory on his kingdom, and

unwilling to repay him with the honors and privileges his

extraordinary services so richly merited. Columbus, therefore, sank

into obscurity, and was reduced to such straitened circumstances, that

according to his own account, he had no place to repair to except an

inn, and very frequently had not wherewithal to pay his reckoning.

Disgusted and mortified by the base conduct of Ferdinand, exhausted

with the hardships which he had suffered, and oppressed with

infirmities, Columbus closed his life at Valladolid on the 20th of May

1506. He died with a composure of mind suitable to the magnanimity

which distinguished his character, and with sentiments of piety

becoming that supreme respect for religion which he manifested in

every occurrence of his life.

Columbus experienced the fate of most great men――little esteemed

during his life, but almost deified after his decease. Fedinand, with

a meanness which covers his memory with infamy, allowed this great man

to pine and die, a victim of injustice and mortification; but no

sooner was he dead, than he erected a splendid monument over his

remains in one of the churches of Seville. The body of Columbus was

not destined, however, to be indebted to Spain for even this

posthumous honor; it was afterwards according to the will of the

deceased, transferred to St. Domingo, and buried in the cathedral

there; but on the cession of that island, to the French, in the year

1795, it was transferred to Havana, in the island of Cuba, where we

hope it will rest in peace.

The discoveries of Columbus laid open a knowledge of what are now

termed the West India Islands, and a small portion of the South

American continent, which this great navigator, till the day of his

death, believed to be a part of Asia or India. About ten years after

his decease the real character of America and its islands became known

to European navigators; and by a casual circumstance one of these

adventurers, _Amerigo_ Vespucii, a Florentine, had the honor of

conferring the name _America_ upon a division of the globe which

ought, in justice, to have been called after the unfortunate COLUMBUS.