The second session of the first Congress began January 8, 1790.
Agreeably to a plan submitted by Mr. Hamilton, secretary of the
treasury, Congress proceeded to make provision for discharging in full
the foreign and domestic debt, and assumed also the debts incurred by
the several States in carrying on the war. To this object the proceeds
of the public lands lying in the western territory, the surplus
revenue from the duties on imports, and a loan of two millions, were
appropriated. This measure immediately restored public credit;
certificates of public debt rose to par; and those who had purchased
low, realized immense fortunes. Business of all kinds revived, and the
country entered upon a career of prosperous activity and enterprise.
At the next session of Congress, after a protracted debate, a bill was
passed imposing a tax on domestic spirits, for the purpose of paying
the interest on the State debts assumed by the Union. A national bank
was also established, not without opposition, mainly on the ground of
its unconstitutionality. The party lines between the federalists and
anti-federalists (as they were called), which had begun to appear when
the adoption of the new constitution was under discussion, became this
session more broad and clear. A regular opposition to the
administration began to be organized.
Meantime the hostilities of the Indians northwest of the Ohio made it
necessary to send an expedition against them. Gen. Harmar was put in
command, but he was defeated with considerable loss in a battle near
Chillicothe. Gen. St. Clair, who succeeded in command, was also
totally defeated. A bill then passed Congress for raising an
additional force to the army. The measure was bitterly resisted by the
opposition, chiefly on the ground that standing armies were dangerous,
and that the proposed increase showed the existence of monarchical
designs on the part of the administration. An unsuccessful attempt was
made the next session to reduce the military establishment; and the
opposition introduced various resolutions, evincing their hostility to
the administration. The public press became also the vehicle of
vehement attacks, particularly upon the secretary of the treasury, Mr.
Hamilton; and party spirit, from day to day, grew stronger throughout
the country.
On the expiration of his term of office, however, Washington was
unanimously reëlected president, March, 1793; Mr. Adams again
vice-president. Beside the still unsettled condition of Indian
affairs, this term of Washington’s administration was embarrassed by
new difficulties, growing out of the French revolution. The French
republic had just declared war against England and Holland; and so
strong in the United States was the hatred of the people to the
British, and so lively their sympathy with the French, that the
opinion was entertained in many quarters that America was bound by
every consideration, both of gratitude to an old ally, and sympathy
with the cause of republicanism, to make common cause with France.
Immediately on receiving intelligence of the declaration of war,
Washington convened a cabinet council, and by their unanimous advice,
issued a proclamation, enjoining strict neutrality to be observed on
the part of the United States toward the belligerent powers, April 22,
1793. The opposition (anti-federalist) party, through the press,
bitterly inveighed against this proclamation, denouncing it as a
high-handed assumption of power on the part of the president, ‘a royal
edict,’ evincing his monarchical disposition, and also as dishonorable
and ungrateful towards France.
In this state of things, Mr. Genet, the new minister appointed by the
French republic, arrived in the country, with the object of engaging
the coöperation of the United States against England. Misled by the
flattering reception he met with at Charleston, where he landed, he
immediately began, even before he had been recognized as minister, to
excite the people against the government, and carried his audacity so
far as to set at defiance the proclamation of neutrality, fitting out
expeditions, and giving commissions to American vessels to cruise
against the enemies of France, and assuming the power to hold
admiralty courts, for the trial and sale of prizes thus made. In these
measures he was supported by the opposition, or as it began to be
called, the DEMOCRATIC party, which now began, under the influence of
the French minister, and in imitation of the affiliated clubs in
France, to form democratic societies throughout the country.
Washington demanded the recall of Mr. Genet. The French government
complied, and instructed his successor to express its entire
disapproval of Genet’s conduct. When Congress assembled in December
following, the proclamation of neutrality, and the conduct of
Washington towards Genet, were approved by that body, as they were
finally by the great body of the nation.
In 1794 Congress passed a bill providing for a naval force to protect
American commerce against the Algerines. The slave-trade was likewise
prohibited.
There seemed now reason to apprehend the necessity of another war with
England. In addition to severe and unjust commercial restrictions
imposed by that government, she had proceeded to capture and condemn
neutral vessels having on board French goods, or carrying corn and
other supplies to France. In anticipation of a war, Congress passed
several bills――for imposing an embargo; for organizing the militia;
and for increasing the standing army. Meanwhile information was
received that the British government was disposed to redress the
grievances complained of, and amicably adjust all differences. John
Jay was accordingly nominated and approved as envoy to Great Britain.
All attempts to make peace with the Indians having failed, the war was
renewed. Gen. Wayne was appointed to succeed Gen. St. Clair. On the
20th of August, he gained a decisive victory over a large body of the
Miamies, and then proceeded to lay waste their country. This victory
prevented a general war with the Six Nations and with the tribes
northwest of the Ohio. The ‘Whisky Insurrection’ in Pennsylvania is
one of the events of this year. It grew out of the duty on domestic
spirits; this tax pressed heavily on the inhabitants of the west, and
was besides considered unjust in principle. The proclamation of the
president being disregarded, a considerable force of militia (fifteen
thousand men), under Governor Lee of Maryland, was ordered out. On
their approach, the insurgents laid down their arms, and promised
submission to the laws.
In 1795 Mr. Jay having concluded a treaty of amity, commerce, and
navigation, with Great Britain, the senate was convoked to consider
it. Meanwhile, its contents having been disclosed, the most violent
opposition was made to it; public meetings were held, and petitions
against it were sent from all quarters of the country. The partisans
of France and the enemies of England denounced it in the most
unmeasured terms. The objections to it were, generally, that it wanted
reciprocity; that it gave up all compensation for negroes carried away
contrary to the treaty of peace, and for the detention of the western
posts; that it contravened the French treaty, and sacrificed the
interest of our ally to that of Great Britain; that it gave up in
several important instances the law of nations, particularly in
relation to free ships makings free goods, cases of blockade, and
contraband of war; that it improperly interfered with the legislative
powers of Congress, and that the commercial part gave few advantages
to the United States. The treaty was, however, ratified by the senate,
and signed by the president, August 14, 1795.
In October, after a long negotiation, a treaty was made with Spain,
settling some questions of boundary, and acquiring for the United
States the right of navigating the Mississippi. Treaties were also
concluded with Algiers, and with the Indians in the West.
On the assembling of congress in 1796, it became necessary to make
appropriations and pass resolutions for carrying these treaties into
effect. This gave occasion for a new display of hostility to the
British treaty: and it was only after a debate of seven weeks, that
the necessary resolutions passed the house of representatives, and
then only by a majority of three. Public opinion at length gradually
settled in favor of this treaty, as the only means of saving the
country from becoming involved in the wars of the French revolution;
and in the sequel it proved of great advantage to the United States.
The close of the second term of Washington’s administration was now
approaching. Signifying his intention to retire from public life, the
Father of his country took occasion to issue a _farewell address_ to
his countrymen, replete with maxims of political wisdom, and
sentiments of patriotism and virtue.
The personal influence of Washington, due alike to his wisdom, his
virtues, and his eminent services, was of the utmost importance in the
first working of the new government. During the eight years of his
administration, all differences with foreign nations had been
peaceably settled, except those with France; and at home the Indian
tribes had been pacified. Public and private credit were restored;
ample provision made for the security and ultimate payment of the
public debt; American tonnage had nearly doubled; the exports had
increased from nineteen to more than fifty-six millions of dollars;
the imports in about the same proportion; and the amount of revenue
from imposts had exceeded the most sanguine calculations. The
population had increased from three and a half to five millions; and
agriculture and all the industrial interests of the country were in a
flourishing state.
The only drawback to this picture of prosperity were the difficulties
with France. Discontented at the neutral policy of America, the French
republic continued to make demands upon the gratitude of the United
States, which could be yielded to only by surrendering the right of
self-government. Finding all attempts to involve America in its wars
with Europe ineffectual, and feeling aggrieved at the treaty with its
enemy, the French government proceeded to retaliate, by adopting
certain resolutions injurious to American commerce, under the
operation of which, moreover, several hundred American vessels were
seized and confiscated. Just before his retirement from office,
Washington had recalled Mr. Monroe, and despatched Mr. Charles
Cotesworth Pinckney to France, as minister plenipotentiary, to settle
the difficulties between the two nations. Such was the state of the
country at the close of Washington’s administration.
On the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams became president. The French
republic refusing to receive Mr. Pinckney, a subsequent mission
extraordinary to that government having also totally failed, and
spoliation upon American commerce continually increasing, congress
began to adopt vigorous measures for defense and retaliation. The
treaties with France were declared no longer obligatory on the United
States; an army was raised; and Washington was appointed
commander-in-chief. Several engagements at sea took place between
French and American vessels. The French government now signified
indirectly a willingness to treat, and envoys were again sent from the
United States. Before their arrival, the revolution of the 18th
_Brumaire_ (November 10, 1799) had taken place; the directorial
government was overthrown, and Bonaparte was at the head of affairs as
first consul. This event changed the policy of the French government;
negotiations were commenced, and a treaty was concluded September 30,
1800.
On the 14th of December, 1799, died George Washington, mourned by the
nation as no other man was ever mourned by any people. There have been
great men superior perhaps to him in particular qualities and
endowments: but in the perfect proportion and harmony of all the
qualities of his nature, intellectual and moral, in the entireness and
unity of his character, he is distinguished above all the great men
whom history presents to our contemplation. In this consisted the
secret of the repose, dignity, and grandeur, that through his whole
life made so strong an impression upon all who approached him, and
gave him such power over them.
Party spirit ran high during Mr. Adams’s administration. Its measures
were violently assailed by the opposition, particularly the ‘alien’
and ‘sedition’ laws: by the former of which, any alien considered
dangerous might be ordered to depart from the country; and by the
latter, combinations to oppose the government, libelous publications
etc. were made penal. The unpopularity of these and some other
measures gave great strength to the democratic party, and defeated the
reëlection of Mr. Adams.
On the 4th of March, 1801, Thomas Jefferson succeeded Mr. Adams as
president of the United States. At the next session of congress,
several of the most important acts of the preceding period were
repealed, particularly those imposing internal taxes, and reorganizing
the United States courts. Among the most important events of this
period was the purchase of _Louisiana_ from the French for fifteen
millions of dollars. Mr. Jefferson’s term of office expiring, he was
reëlected, and commenced a second term, March 4, 1805. The same year a
war which had been carried on for several years with Tripoli, was
brought to a close by a treaty of peace.
The interests of the United States were now becoming complicated with
the policy of the belligerent powers of Europe. The peace of Amiens in
1802 gave but a short repose from war; hostilities were soon renewed
between France and England, and all the powers of Europe became
involved in them. The United States maintained a strict neutrality and
engaged in an extensive and profitable carryingtrade. But in 1806, the
English government, by an order of council, declared the blockade of
all the ports and rivers from the Elbe to Brest. Napoleon retaliated
by the famous ‘Berlin decree,’ declaring all the British islands in a
state of blockade. This was met by another British order of council,
prohibiting all coasting-trade with France.
While these measures, which were partly in contravention of the law of
nations, operated very injuriously upon the commerce of America, and
tended to embroil her with both the belligerent powers, an old
difficulty with England was aggravated by a special outrage. Great
Britain had always claimed the right of searching American vessels,
and of impressing from them native-born British subjects. They had
also impressed some thousands of American seamen, under the pretext
that they were British born. In this course the English government
persisted in spite of the remonstrances of the United States. In June,
1807, Commodore Barron, commanding the American frigate Chesapeake,
refusing to deliver three men claimed by the British, the Chesapeake
was attacked by the British frigate Leopard off the capes of Virginia,
very much injured and crippled, and the men in question forcibly taken
away.
The public mind was greatly exasperated by this outrage. The
president, by proclamation, ordered all British armed vessels off the
waters of the United States, until satisfaction should be made, which
the American minister, Mr. Monroe, was instructed to demand forthwith,
as well as security against future impressments from American vessels.
The British government declined to treat concerning the general
question of search and impressment, but sent a special envoy to the
United States, to settle the particular injury in the case of the
Chesapeake. Mr. Rose was instructed, however, not to treat until the
president’s proclamation was revoked. This being refused, the matter
rested; and was not finally adjusted until four years later, when
satisfactory reparation was made by the British government.
Meantime, on the 17th of December, 1807, Bonaparte, in retaliation for
the British order in council, issued the Milan decree declaring every
vessel denationalized that should submit to search by the British, and
every vessel a good prize taken sailing to or from Great Britain or
its colonies, or any place occupied by British troops.
The embargo failing to compel the belligerent powers to revoke
measures so injurious to American commerce, and so subversive of the
rights of neutrals, it was repealed on the 1st of March, 1809, and a
law passed prohibiting all trade and intercourse with France and
England.
Mr. Jefferson declining a reëlection, was succeeded, March 4th, 1809,
by James Madison. The state of the country was gloomy. Her commerce
was suffering both from foreign and domestic restrictions; and it
seemed that she must indefinitely submit to this condition of things,
or make war with the belligerents. In passing the non-intercourse act
of March 1st, congress had empowered the president to repeal it by
proclamation in the event of either of the hostile parties revoking
their edicts. The British minister at Washington engaged for his
government the repeal of the orders of council, so far as the United
States were concerned. The president accordingly notified the renewal
of commercial intercourse with Great Britain. But the English
government disavowed the engagement of its minister, and
non-intercourse was again proclaimed.
On the 23d of March 1810, Napoleon retaliated the non-intercourse act
of congress by issuing the Rambouillet decree――ordering all vessels
arriving in French ports, or the ports of countries occupied by French
troops, to be seized and condemned. On the 1st of May, congress passed
an act excluding British and French armed vessels from the waters of
the United States――with a provision for renewing intercourse with
whichever nation should within a given time cease to violate the
commercial rights of neutral nations. In consequence of this act, the
French decrees were revoked, and intercourse with France was renewed.
It had been made a condition on the part of the French government, in
revoking its decrees, that the English orders of council should be
also revoked. But England affecting to question the fact of the actual
revocation of the French decrees, continued to enforce its orders,
stationing vessels-of-war just out the harbors of the United States,
searching, and in many instances capturing and condemning American
merchant vessels. In the period between 1803 and the close of 1811,
nine hundred American vessels had been thus captured.
On the 3d of April, 1812, an act was passed by congress laying an
embargo for ninety days on all vessels within the jurisdiction of the
United States. And on the 4th of June following war was declared
against Great Britain. The grounds of war alleged were the impressment
of American seamen, and the violation of neutral rights. The feeling
of the nation was by no means unanimous in favor of the war. It was
protested against by a strong minority in congress, as unnecessary,
impolitic, and immoral; and was generally condemned by the federal
party throughout the country.
Thus the United States were again at war with England. The contest
lasted for nearly three years. The limits of this history forbid any
thing but a slight sketch of its events.
In the campaign of 1812, nothing of any importance was achieved by
land. The invasion of Canada was planned: forces were drawn to the
northern frontier of the Union, and naval preparations made upon the
lakes. No footing was, however, gained in the British territory; on
the contrary, Detroit and all the forts and garrisons in Michigan fell
into the hands of the British, together with a considerable force
under the command of General Hull, who surrendered without a battle,
August 19; and the Americans were repulsed in an attack on Queenstown,
and obliged to surrender, October 13. But on the ocean the American
arms were more successful. The series of brilliant naval victories
which distinguished the war was commenced by the capture of the
British frigate Guerriere by the Constitution, Captain Isaac Hull,
August 10. This was followed (August 13) by the capture of the Alert
by the Essex, Captain Porter; of the Frolic by the Wasp (October 17);
of the Macedonian by the United States, Commodore Decatur (October
25); and of the Java by the Constitution, then commanded by Commodore
Bainbridge.
On the 4th of March, 1813, Mr. Madison was reëlected president. The
military operations of this year extended along the whole line of the
northern frontier. The Americans were signally defeated at Frenchtown
by a body of British and Indians, and five hundred men made prisoners,
who were nearly all massacred by the Indians after their surrender.
York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, was taken by the
Americans, with a large quantity of military stores. On the 1st of
June, this year, the American navy suffered a severe loss in the
capture of the frigate Chesapeake, Captain Lawrence, by the British
frigate Shannon. In the engagement, Captain Lawrence and several brave
officers were killed. This was followed by the loss of the Argus.
These losses were counterbalanced by the capture of the British brig
Boxer by the Enterprise, on the 5th of September, and by a brilliant
victory gained (September 10) by the fleet on Lake Erie, under the
command of Commodore Perry. This made the Americans masters of the
lake, and opened the way to Detroit, which was soon after taken; its
fall being preceded by the battle of the Thames, in which the British
and Indian forces, under the command of General Proctor, were totally
defeated by General Harrison. This victory had the effect of putting
an end to the Indian war in the northwest, and of giving security to
that frontier. The invasion of Canada was again attemted; but
unexpected circumstances concurred to disarrange the plan of
operations, and at length the northern army went into winter-quarters,
without having effected anything toward the accomplishment of the
object. High expectations had been formed of the success of this
campaign, and the public disappointment was proportionally great.
At the south, the Creek Indians, instigated by the British, had taken
up arms against the United States, and a sanguinary war was carried on
in that quarter during the year 1813, and until in the summer of 1814,
when General Jackson, having reduced the enemy in several engagements,
at length inflicted upon them an almost exterminating defeat at
Horseshoe Bend. The remnant of the tribe submitted, and the war was at
an end. General Jackson was soon after appointed to the command of the
forces at New Orleans.
In the spring of 1814, the American frigate Essex was captured by a
superior British force in the bay of Valparaiso. But about the same
time, the British brigs Epervier and Reindeer were captured, the
former by the United States sloop-of-war Peacock, the latter by the
sloop Wasp.
After some ineffectual movements at the north by General Wilkinson,
little was attempted by either nation until midsummer, when the
British government, free from the burden of the European war by the
abdication of Napoleon, augmented their armies in America by the
addition of fourteen thousand of the veteran troops of Wellington, and
at the same time sent a strong naval force to blockade the harbors,
and ravage the towns upon the coast.
On the 3d of July, General Brown crossed the Niagara river from
Buffalo, and took the British fort Erie; and on the 4th, after an
obstinate and bloody engagement, gained a victory over the British at
Chippewa. On the 25th, was fought the battle of Bridgewater, near the
falls of Niagara, one of the most bloody battles of modern times. The
British force amounted to nearly five thousand men; the American was
one third less. The loss of the English was eight hundred and
seventy-eight; of the Americans, eight hundred and sixty. The
Americans were left in possession of the field.
About the middle of August, a large British fleet arrived in the
Chesapeake bay. Six thousand men, under the command of General Ross,
landed and proceeded to Washington, burnt the capitol, the president’s
house, and the buildings of the executive departments; and then by
rapid marches retired to the ships, having lost about one thousand men
in the expedition. On the 12th of September, an attack was made on
Baltimore; but the place was so gallantly defended by militia and the
inhabitants, that the enemy abandoned the attempt. General Ross, the
commander-in-chief of the British forces, was among the killed. While
the English were thus repulsed from Baltimore, signal success attended
the American arms at the north. The naval force of the enemy on Lake
Champlain was annihilated by Commodore M’Donough. The engagement took
place off Plattsburgh; and while it was raging, Sir George Provost,
with a force of fourteen thousand men, commenced an assault on the
American works at Plattsburgh; but he met with such a destructive fire
from the Americans under General Macomb, that he was compelled to
retire, with the loss of twenty-five hundred men, abandoning his
military stores, his sick and wounded.
[Illustration: VIEW OF THE STATE HOUSE AND HIGH ST., COLUMBUS, OHIO.]
[Illustration: VIEW OF LAKE ERIE AND GREAT CENTRAL DEPOT, CLEVELAND.]
On the 24th of December, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent. But
before its arrival, the last and most memorable battle of the war was
fought at New Orleans. On the 8th of January, 1815, the American
forces, amounting to about six thousand, chiefly militia, under the
command of General Jackson, intrenched before the city, were attacked
by fifteen thousand British troops, commanded by Sir Edward Packenham.
After three charges, in which they were swept down with incredible
slaughter, the British fled in confusion, leaving their dead and
wounded on the field of battle. General Packenham was killed while
rallying his troops to the second charge; General Gibbs, who succeeded
in command, fell mortally wounded in the third charge. The loss of the
British in killed was seven hundred; in wounded, fourteen hundred; in
prisoners, five hundred: in all, twenty-six hundred. The Americans
lost seven killed and six wounded. The joy excited by this victory was
merged in the still livelier joy with which the news of the treaty of
peace was soon after received. On the 17th of February, the treaty was
ratified by the president and senate. This treaty made no allusion to
the causes of the war, and settled none of the matters in dispute, and
for which it was professedly declared. All parties, however, welcomed
the return of peace. At a subsequent convention, signed by
plenipotentiaries of the two countries appointed for the purpose,
various articles for the regulation of commerce between England and
the United States were adopted. Before the expiration of the time
within which, by the treaty, all vessels taken by either party were to
be held good prizes, several engagements at sea were fought, and
several captures made. Among them the American frigate President was
captured by a British squadron; and the British ships Cyane, Levant,
and Penguin, were taken by the Americans.
At the next session of congress, a bill was passed incorporating the
Bank of the United States, with a capital of thirty-five millions of
dollars. The charter was to continue in force until the third of
March, 1836. This measure was the subject of a very earnest and
protracted debate both as to its constitutionality, and as to the
principles on which the bank should be established.
Mr. Madison was succeeded in the office of president by James Monroe,
March 4, 1817. The country was now at peace, but its condition was by
no means prosperous. Commerce had not yet revived, and the
manufactures which had been carried on during the war were entirely
broken down by the influx of foreign merchandise. In 1818, a war broke
out between the Seminoles and the United States, occasioned by the
removal of some Indians from lands ceded to the United States by the
Creeks in 1814. The Indians were entirely subdued by General Jackson.
In 1819, another convention was made between Great Britain and the
United States, granting to American citizens the right to fish on the
banks of Newfoundland; establishing a portion of the northern
boundary; and extending for ten years longer the commercial convention
concluded four years before.
A treaty was also this year concluded with Spain, by which East and
West Florida, with the islands adjacent, were ceded to the United
States.
On the 4th of March, 1821, Mr. Monroe was unanimously elected to a
second term of office. Much less unanimity, however, was displayed in
the deliberations of the next congress. Some important commercial acts
were passed; revolutionary soldiers were provided for by pensions; and
the ratio of population and representation fixed at one representative
to forty thousand inhabitants.
The year 1824 is signalized in the annals of the country by a visit
from La Fayette, the friend and companion-in-arms of Washington, to
whose services in the dark day of the revolutionary war the nation
owed so much. He passed about a year in the country, visiting every
part of it, and receiving everywhere the most enthusiastic tokens of
homage and gratitude. He returned to his own country in a national
frigate prepared for the purpose, and named, in honor of him, the
Brandywine――the name of the battle in which he was wounded nearly
fifty years before. During his visit, congress appropriated two
hundred thousand dollars, and a township of land in Florida, as an
acknowledgment of his eminent services.
Mr. Monroe retired from office with the respect and good will of all
parties. His administration of affairs, both foreign and domestic, had
been uninfluenced by party spirit, and characterised by uprightness,
prudence, and good sense. The country was everywhere peaceful and
prosperous. No choice of a successor to Mr. Monroe having been made by
the electors, the choice devolved upon the house of representatives.
On the 4th of March, 1825, John Quincy Adams was inaugurated president
of the United States.
Among the noticeable events during this administration, the first to
be mentioned is a controversy between the general government and the
executive of Georgia, in relation to certain lands held by the
Cherokees and Creeks of that state. The general government had agreed
to extinguish, for the benefit of Georgia, the Indian title to those
lands――‘whenever it could be peaceably done, upon reasonable terms.’
But the Creeks, at a national council, refused to alienate their
territory. After the council had broken up, and a majority of the
chiefs had departed, a few who remained were induced to make a treaty,
ceding the lands in question to the United States. This treaty was
repudiated by the Creek nation. But the governor of Georgia determined
to act upon it as valid. To prevent a war, the president ordered
General Gaines to repair to the Creek country, for the protection of
the Indians; and directed Governor Troup of Georgia to suspend his
intended measures. Congress approved the course of the president; and
at length a treaty was formed with the Creeks, which gave satisfaction
to all parties except the state of Georgia.
The most important among the measures which occupied the first session
of the twentieth congress, was the revision of the tariff, with a view
to afford protection to American manufactures. The principle of a
protective tariff was warmly opposed by the south, and by a large
portion of the commercial body at the north; while the details of the
bill which was passed were far from satisfactory to the friends of
protection.
During Mr. Adams’ administration the prosperity of the United States
had increased to an unexampled height. Agriculture, commerce, and
manufactures, were every where flourishing. The public debt which at
the close of the war, amounted to nearly one hundred and fifty
millions of dollars, was almost extinguished. The annual revenue
largely exceeded the demands of the government; and at the close of
Mr. Adams’ term, there was a surplus of more than five millions in the
treasury.
On the 4th of March, 1829, Andrew Jackson was inaugurated president of
the United States.
[Illustration: CINCINNATI OHIO.]
[Illustration: SANDUSKY CITY, O.]
Among the most important measures which engaged the attention of the
twenty-first congress, were, the modification of the tariff; Indian
affairs; internal improvements; and the renewal of the charter of the
United States bank. It was not until 1832 that a memorial came before
congress for the renewal of the charter of the United States bank. A
bill to that effect passed both houses of congress; but on the 10th of
July it was returned by the president with objections. The policy of
making appropriations for internal improvements was adopted during Mr.
Jefferson’s term of office, and had continued through all succeeding
administrations. To this policy General Jackson was opposed, and
accordingly returned, with his veto, several bills making such
appropriations. In 1832, the hostility of the south to the protective
tariff assumed in South Carolina an attitude dangerous to the peace of
the country. A convention of delegates assembled at Columbia, November
24; pronounced the acts of congress imposing duties for protection
unconstitutional, and of no binding force in that state; and that it
was the duty of the state legislature to pass laws to prevent the
payment or enforcement of such duties. The remedy thus proposed
received the name of nullification. President Jackson immediately
issued a proclamation, containing an admirable exposition of the
principles and powers of the general government, and expressing a firm
determination to maintain the laws. This only increased the
exasperation in South Carolina: the governor of the state, by the
authority of the legislature, issued a counter-proclamation, urging
the people to be faithful to their primary allegiance to the state,
and to resist the general government in any attempt to enforce the
tariff laws. General orders were also issued to raise volunteers for
repelling invasion, and supporting the rights of the state. General
Jackson hereupon addressed a message to congress recommending such
measures as would enable the executive to suppress the spirit of
insubordination, and sustain the laws of the United States.
Everything thus betokened a civil war. But an appeal to South Carolina
by the general assembly of Virginia, and the passage of a bill
modifying the tariff (introduced by Henry Clay, and commonly known as
the ‘compromise act’), joined with a manifestation of firmness and
energy on the part of the executive, served to allay the ferment in
South Carolina, and led to a repeal of the nullifying ordinances.
On the 4th of March, 1833, Andrew Jackson entered on a second term of
office. The charter of the United States bank being about to expire,
the president who had before expressed to Congress his doubts of the
expediency of continuing that institution the depositary of the funds
of the United States, directed the secretary of the treasury, Mr.
Duane, to remove the government deposits from the bank. This Mr. Duane
declined to do. He was immediately removed from office by the
president; and Mr. Taney was appointed in his place, by whom the
deposits were removed, and placed in the custody of several State
banks. This measure was strongly censured by a resolution which passed
the senate, June 9, 1834.
The country was now disturbed with serious apprehensions of a
collision with France. By a treaty, negotiated in 1831, by Mr. Rives,
the French government had agreed to make indemnity for spoliations
committed on American commerce during the reign of Napoleon; but it
had failed to fulfill its stipulations. In December, 1834, the
president recommended reprisals upon French commerce. This was deemed
by Congress not expedient at present. Happily, however, the danger of
hostile collision was removed in the course of the next year by the
action of the French government in making provision to fulfill its
stipulations.
The most important act of the first session of the twenty-fourth
Congress, which began December 7th, 1835, was a law directing the
deposit, under certain regulations, of the moneys of the United States
in several of the State banks, and distributing the surplus revenue
among the several States.
In December, 1835, one of the most destructive fires on record
occurred in the city of New York. The amount of property destroyed is
computed not to have fallen much short of twenty millions of dollars,
without estimating the injury and loss from suspension and derangement
of business.
Near the close of this year, the Seminole Indians, refusing to remove
from Florida to the lands appropriated for them west of the
Mississippi, the country became involved in a war with them; and it
was not until 1842 that they were finally subdued and sent west.
On the 11th of July, 1836, the receivers of public money were
instructed, by a circular from the treasury department, to receive
nothing but gold and silver in payment for public lands.
On the 16th of January, 1837, the ‘expunging resolution’ (so called)
introduced by Mr. Benton, passed the senate by a small majority. By
this act the resolution of the senate passed June 9, 1834――censuring
the president for removing Mr. Duane, and ordering the withdrawal of
the United States deposits from the bank of the United States――was
expunged from the journal of the senate. Against this proceeding, Mr.
Webster, of Massachusetts, in behalf of himself and his colleagues,
read a solemn protest.
On the 4th of March, 1837, Martin Van Buren became president of the
United States. Mr. Van Buren’s administration was, in its general
policy, a continuation of that of his predecessor. Scarcely, however,
had he entered upon office, when the country was overwhelmed by one of
the most severe commercial revulsions ever known. For several years
previous, the wildest spirit of speculation had prevailed throughout
the country. Vast public works were undertaken by States and chartered
companies; immense importations of foreign goods were made; and real
estate, especially lots in cities and towns, went up a hundred fold
beyond its intrinsic value. The multitude of State banks that had been
chartered, after the expiration of the charter of the United States
bank, and the consequent excessive expansion of the paper currency,
had contributed to increase the spirit of speculation. At length a
crisis came; and the revulsion was proportionately severe. Some idea
of it may be formed from the fact that a list of failures in the city
of New York (including only the more considerable, and omitting
hundreds of less importance), shows a total amount of more than sixty
millions of dollars. All credit, all confidence was at an end. On the
10th of May, all the banks of the city of New York suspended specie
payments, and the suspension became general throughout the
country. The general government became involved in the universal
embarrassment――the banks in which its deposits were placed having
stopped in the general suspension. The government still insisted,
however, upon all postages and duties being paid in specie or its
equivalent, and even refused its own checks and drafts when offered in
payment of custom-house bonds. In this state of things, the president
convoked an extra session of Congress, which began on the 4th of
September. Agreeably to the recommendation of the executive, as
measures for the immediate relief of the general government, Congress
passed a law postponing to the 1st of January, 1839, the payment to
the States of the fourth installment of the surplus revenue; and
authorizing the issue of ten millions of treasury notes, to be
receivable in payment of public dues. The president also recommended
the ‘separation of the fiscal operations of the government from those
of corporations or individuals.’ A bill in accordance with this
recommendation――commonly called the sub-treasury bill, placing the
public money in the hands of certain receivers-general, subject to the
order and control of the treasurer of the United States――passed the
senate, but was lost in the house.
[Illustration: BATTLE MONUMENT, BALTIMORE.]
[Illustration: BOMBARDMENT OF VERA CRUZ.]
At the next regular session of congress (December, 1837――July, 1838),
a reissue of treasury notes was authorized. The sub-treasury system
was again urged upon the attention of congress, but was not adopted.
On the 13th of August, 1838, the banks throughout the country
generally resumed specie payments: but in October following, the banks
of Philadelphia again suspended, and their example was followed by the
banks in Pennsylvania, and in all the states south and west. The banks
of New York and New England continued to pay specie. The twenty-sixth
congress commenced its first session December 2d, 1839. Among its
acts, two only need be mentioned: one for taking the _sixth census_ of
the United States; the other, ‘for the collection, safe keeping,
transfer, and disbursement, of the public revenue’――being the
sub-treasury system so earnestly recommended by the president. At the
second session of this congress, nothing was done of sufficient
importance to find a place in this sketch.
The administration of Mr Van Buren was drawing to a close. He was a
candidate for reëlection; William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was the
candidate of the opposition. After a contest unprecedented for
intensity of political excitement, Mr. Van Buren was defeated.
On the 4th of March, 1841, William Henry Harrison was inaugurated
president of the United States. Scarcely had the new president entered
upon his office, and organized his administration by the appointment
of his cabinet, when he was stricken with sickness; and on the 4th
April, one month from the day of his inauguration, he expired. ‘In
death, as in life, the happiness of his country was uppermost in his
thoughts.’
By the death of General Harrison, John Tyler, of Virginia, the vice
president, became, according to the constitution, president of the
United States. The passage of a general bankrupt law was one of the
earliest measures passed by congress. This law was, however,
subsequently repealed. The tariff was modified with a view to further
protection of American industry.
Among the most memorable events of this administration is the _treaty
of Washington_, concluded in September, 1842, between Great Britain
and the United States, by Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster, by which
the differences about the boundary line between Maine and Lower
Canada, long a matter of dispute and ill-blood, were amicably and
satisfactorily adjusted.
The disturbances in Rhode Island are a less agreeable subject of
record; though happily the apprehensions they excited have been
dispelled. In 1841, a convention of inhabitants of Rhode Island framed
a new constitution, giving the right of suffrage (which under the
existing government was extremely limited) to all free white
inhabitants; and proceeded to organize a new government under this
constitution. They elected a legislative body, and chose Thomas W.
Dorr governor of the state. All these proceedings were considered as
unlawful and revolutionary by those opposed to them, inasmuch as they
had taken place without any legal warrant, and without being in any
way initiated by the lawful and actual government. A civil war seemed
inevitable. The legal government applied to the president of the
United States, who detached several companies of troops to Newport to
await events. Dorr mustered a considerable force of armed men, with
two pieces of artillery, and made an ineffectual attempt to gain
possession of the arsenal at Providence. Shortly after, he took a
position at Chepachet, where his force was increased by volunteers
from New York and other states. Upon the approach of a body of the
state militia, under General M’Neil, Dorr and his party broke ground
and fled, June 25th, 1842. His government fell to pieces.
On the 4th of March, 1845, James K. Polk was inaugurated president.
The most important event of this year was the voluntary annexation of
Texas to the American Union. In 1846, a war broke out between Mexico
and the United States. A rapid succession of brilliant victories by
the troops under Generals Taylor and Scott, soon placed the capital
and all the strongholds of Mexico in the hands of the victors; but the
power to dictate the terms of a peace were used with moderation. The
government of the United States assumed the payment of all the claims
of its own citizens against Mexico, and agreed to pay $15,000,000 for
a boundary line beginning at the mouth of the Rio Grande, then up that
stream to the southern boundary of New Mexico, then across to the
river Gila, and down to its mouth; with free navigation to the Gulf of
California, and thence across to the Pacific. The treaty was concluded
May 30th, 1848. In the same year gold was first discovered in the
newly-acquired territory of California.
On the 4th of March, 1849, Gen. Zachary Taylor was inaugurated
president of the United States. He died in July, 1850, and was
succeeded by the vice-president, Millard Fillmore. In September, 1850,
California was admitted into the Union. On the 4th of March, 1853,
Franklin Pierce was inaugurated president. The ‘Gadsden Treaty,’ by
which the Mesilla Valley was acquired from Mexico, was made Dec. 30,
in the same year. By act of June 29, 1854, $10,000,000 were
appropriated to carry out the treaty; $7,000,000 to be paid upon
exchange of ratifications, and $3,000,000 as soon as the boundary line
should be surveyed and established.
Thus have been briefly sketched the leading events, political and
civil, of the history of the United States, from the first feeble and
scattered colonial establishments to the formation of a great and
prosperous nation. The great problem of the possibility of a permanent
and well-ordered republic, on so extensive a scale, doubtless yet
remains to be solved. It depends on the INTELLIGENCE and VIRTUE of the
people, whether it shall be solved as the friends of free institutions
desire. Theoretically the most perfect of all forms of human
government, it requires, beyond any other, the presence of these
conditions to preserve it from becoming practically the worst.
[Illustration: STATE HOUSE, WISCONSIN.]