The retaliation of France, for the interferences of other powers with
its Revolution, even supposing such retaliation justifiable, was now
more than completed. Further measures could only appear as dictated by
a desire of aggrandizement. But France was now given up to the
direction of a military genius, who had other ends to serve than the
defense of the country against foreign aggression or interference. The
amazing successes of Napoleon had inspired him with the idea of
universal empire: and so great was the influence he had acquired over
the French, and so high their military spirit, that the attainment of
his object seemed by no means impossible. There was a difference,
however, between the opposition which he met with before this period,
and that which he subsequently encountered. In the earlier periods of
the war, the military operations of the European powers were chiefly
dictated by views concerning the interests of governments, and in
which the people at large felt little sympathy. Henceforth a more
patriotic spirit rose everywhere against Napoleon: he was looked upon
in England and elsewhere as the common enemy of humanity and of
freedom; and every exertion made for the humiliation of France was
animated by a sentiment of desperation, in which the governors and
governed alike participated.
The Spanish peninsula was the first part of the prostrated continent
where the people could be said to have taken a decidedly hostile part
against Napoleon. He had there gone so far as to dethrone the reigning
family, and give the crown to his elder brother Joseph. A sense of
wrong and insult, mingled with religious fanaticism, raised the
Spanish people in revolt against the French troops; and though their
conduct was barbarous, it was hailed in Britain as capable of being
turned to account. In terms of a treaty entered into with a
provisional government in Spain, a small army was landed, August 8,
1808, in Portugal, which had been taken possession of by the French.
Sir Arthur Wellesley, who afterwards became so famous as Duke of
Wellington, was the leader of this force. In an engagement at Vimeira,
on the 21st, he repulsed the French, under Junot, who soon after
agreed, by what was called the Convention of Cintra, to evacuate the
country. Sir Arthur being recalled, the British army was led into
Spain under the command of Sir John Moore; but this officer found the
reinforcements poured in by Napoleon too great to be withstood, and
accordingly, in the end of December, he commenced a disastrous, though
well-conducted retreat towards the port of Corunna, whither he was
closely pursued by Marshal Soult. The British army suffered on this
occasion the severest hardships and losses, but did not experience a
check in battle, or lose a single standard. In a battle which took
place at Corunna, January 16, 1809, for the purpose of protecting the
embarkation of the troops, Sir John Moore was killed.
Much of the public attention was about this time engrossed by
circumstances in the private life of the eldest son of the king. The
Prince of Wales had been tempted, in 1796, by the prospect of having
his large debts paid by the nation, to marry the Princess Caroline of
Brunswick, for whom he entertained no real affection. Almost ever
since the marriage, he had shown the most marked disrespect for his
consort, who consequently lived separate from him, and was herself
considered by many as not altogether blameless in her conduct as a
matron.
In 1809, Austria was induced once more to commence war with France.
Upwards of half a million of men were brought into the field, under
the command of the Archduke Charles. Bonaparte, leaving Spain
comparatively open to attack, moved rapidly forward into Germany, and,
by the victory of Eckmühl, opened up the way to Vienna, which
surrendered to him. After gaining a slight advantage at Essling, the
archduke came to a second decisive encounter at Wagram, where the
strength of Austria was completely broken to pieces. The peace which
succeeded was sealed by the marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa,
daughter of the emperor of Austria, for which purpose he divorced his
former wife Josephine.
In the autumn of 1809, the British government despatched an army of
100,000 men, for the purpose of securing a station which should
command the navigation of the Sheldt. The expedition was placed under
the command of the Earl of Chatham, elder brother of Mr. Pitt, a
nobleman totally unacquainted with military affairs on such a scale.
The army, having disembarked on the insalubrious island of Walcheren,
was swept off in thousands by disease. The survivors returned in
December without having done anything towards the object for which
they set out. This tragical affair became the subject of inquiry in
the House of Commons, which by a majority of 272 against 232,
vindicated the manner in which the expedition had been managed.