_The Pleasures of the Natural Sciences—Interior of the Earth—Thickness
of the Crust—Origin and Cause of Mountains—Their Age and Slow
Growth—System in Mountain Arrangement—The Cordilleran System—The
Canadian Rockies—Comparison with Other Mountain Regions—Climate—Cause
of Chinook Winds—Effect of High Latitude on Sun and Moon—Principal
Game Animals—Nature of the Forests—Mountain Lakes—Camp
Experiences—Effect on the Character._
Those who have spent a few weeks or months in a mountain region, such as
that of the Canadian Rockies, must soon come to feel an interest in
those more striking features of the wilderness which have been
constantly revealed. The special character of the mountains, which have
given so much pleasure; the climate, on which, in a great measure, every
action depends; the fauna, which adds so much of interest to the
environment; and the flora, which increases the beauty of every
scene—must all excite some degree of interest in those who have passed a
short period of time surrounded by nature in her primeval state.
They spend their time to little advantage who do not thus become
interested in the wonders of nature. A very slight knowledge of the
habits and kinds of birds and animals, the principal characteristics of
trees and plants, the nature of minerals, the structure and formation of
the earth’s crust, and the laws which govern the circulation of currents
in the atmosphere will, in every case, offer wide and boundless fields
of research and pleasure. The camper, the huntsman, the explorer, and
the mountaineer, armed with such information, will be prepared to spend
the many hours of enforced idleness, which frequently occur by reason of
fickle weather or a smoky atmosphere, in an interesting and profitable
manner.
In the preceding chapters, the details of the flora and fauna, together
with digressions on other topics, have been, from time to time, set
forth in connection with various exploring excursions.
It is the purpose of this chapter, however, to discuss, in a general and
very brief manner, such questions as have a special interest, and to
present them in a somewhat more systematic manner than was possible, or
natural, in connection with accounts of adventures.
To begin then with the foundation of things, the question first arises
as to the origin and cause of mountains.
Astronomy teaches us that the earth is a mass of molten or semi-viscid
matter, covered with a crust which has formed from the cooling of the
exterior. As to the relative or absolute thickness of this crust, there
is much diversity of opinion, but the great majority of estimates ranges
between the limits of one hundred and one thousand miles.
The general features of the earth and the formation of
mountains—subjects which lie in the province of geology—likewise point
to a comparatively thin crust covering a molten interior. Some
geologists contend that the centre is likewise solid, and that there is
a partially molten layer between the centre and crust. Now as the earth
gradually cools by radiation, its volume diminishes, and the solid crust
not having the strength to hold up its own weight, is forced to adapt
itself to the contracting interior. The pressure thus brought to bear on
the thin shell causes wrinkles or folds, so that the earth’s surface is
raised in some places and depressed in others. Moreover, the strata are
folded, fractured, and thrown one over another as they are compressed,
till at length lofty mountain ranges are formed, with all the phenomena
of faults, flexures, and the wonderful contortions of the originally
horizontal beds, that are to be observed in all mountain regions.
In some respects the mountains on the earth are comparable to the
wrinkles on a drying apple, but in size, the highest peaks of the
Himalayas and Andes have been compared more justly to the minute
roughness on an egg shell.
Thus the mountain ranges of the world which appear so vast and lofty are
exceedingly small and insignificant as compared with the great mass of
the earth. The strength of the earth’s crust seems incapable of
supporting the weight of even these relatively small masses, for the
highest peaks in the world never exceed an altitude of five and one half
miles, a height which, if represented on a globe of ordinary size, would
hardly be observable.
All the great mountain ranges of the world have been raised to their
present altitude since the Tertiary Age, but, nevertheless, we must
conceive of mountain growth as a very slow and gradual process, a few
feet or yards of elevation each century. That mountain chains have been
upheaved at one or two violent convulsions of nature, is not in
accordance with reason or geological facts. Faults are often found with
a displacement of the strata through several thousand feet, a fact that
has been used to prove a sudden catastrophe. But it should be held in
mind that, after the strata were once fractured and made to slide one on
another, the sliding would tend to be repeated at long intervals in this
same place. Even then a yielding of but a few inches would be attended
by a violent earthquake.
Beside the comparatively low altitude and very slow growth of mountain
chains, there is a system in their arrangement which adds simplicity to
the study of this subject. Dana calls attention to the fact that the
great mountain chains of the earth are arranged along the borders of
continents, and are proportional in height to the size of the oceans
near them. The continents of North and South America reveal this law in
a striking manner. The stupendous chain of the Andes in South America,
and the more extensive Rocky Mountains in North America, stand opposite
to the vast Pacific Ocean, and run nearly parallel to its shores, while
the lesser systems on the eastern borders of each continent face the
lesser area of the Atlantic Ocean. Moreover, almost all mountain chains
show evidence of a pushing force from the direction of the sea, and a
resisting force from the direction of the land.
The erosion of valleys commenced as soon as the strata were elevated
above the sea-level, and thus the valleys of the world, being mostly
those of erosion, are older than the mountains themselves.
Turning now to the Rocky Mountains or the Cordilleran System of North
America, we observe that the chain extends from the region of the City
of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, and westward into the Alaskan Peninsula
and the Aleutian Islands, a total distance of about five thousand miles.
The Rocky Mountain system attains its greatest width in the latitude of
Colorado, where it extends one thousand miles from east to west. Thence
northward, the range becomes narrower toward the International boundary.
From this point the system is only about four hundred miles in width,
and the eastern range follows a line parallel to the Pacific Coast,
nearly to the Arctic Circle.
Having thus very briefly glanced at the cause of mountain chains, the
system in their arrangement, and the area covered by the Rocky Mountains
of North America, let us turn our attention more particularly to the
main features of the chain in its extension through Canada. In all,
there are four ranges of mountains composing the Canadian Rockies. The
most easterly is the highest and most important, and is, besides, the
watershed between the Atlantic and Pacific drainage. Next to the west
lie the Selkirk and Gold ranges, which must be grouped together. Near
the Pacific Coast is a third range called the Coast Range, while
Vancouver Island and the chain of islands extending north represent a
fourth range of mountains. Between the two inner of these four ranges,
there is a plateau region with an average altitude of 3500 feet.
Our attention centres with peculiar interest on the watershed or Summit
Range, as in these mountains are found the grandest scenery and the most
lofty peaks, and they are withal the most accessible to the traveller.
On the eastern side, the Rocky Mountains rise abruptly from the plains
and reach altitudes of 9000 to 11,000 feet. The plain is here, according
to Dr. Dawson, about 4350 feet in altitude, while on the western side of
the range the altitude of the Columbia valley is only 2450 feet, or
nearly 2000 feet lower. The Summit Range is from forty to fifty miles
wide in this portion of its course, and is made up of about five
sub-ranges. The rivers and streams follow the valleys between these
ranges, and find their way out of the mountains by occasional,
transverse valleys, cutting through the ranges at right angles, so that
every stream has a zig-zag course.
It would lead us too far to discuss the formations represented in the
strata, and it is more important to learn the altitudes of the mountains
above the valleys, and their other physical features, since these
characteristics have a more direct bearing on the scenery and on the
general nature of the mountains. The highest peaks of the Canadian
Rockies rise from 5000 to 7000 feet above the valleys, and rarely
surpass 11,000 or 12,000 feet altitude above sea-level. Thus they cannot
compare in magnitude with the Himalayas, the Andes, or even the Swiss
Alps. They, however, are more accessible than the Himalayas, are far
more attractive than the Andes, and afford much greater variety of
scenery, together with more beauty of vegetation, than the Alps. No
picturesque hamlets adorn these valleys, no herds of cattle with
tinkling bells pasture on these hillsides, and no well-made roads or
maps guide the tourist to every point of interest; but, on the other
hand, the climber may ascend mountains never tried before, the explorer
may roam in wild valleys hitherto practically unseen by white men; and
the camper may fish or hunt where no one besides the savage Indian has
ever lowered a baited hook or joined in the stealthy chase.
Before leaving the discussion of geology, it would be well to call
attention to the wonderful effects of ancient glacial action, everywhere
in evidence among these mountains. The countless lakes were, almost
without exception, formed in the Quaternary ice invasion. A few of the
lakes occupy rock basins, and more are dammed by old terminal moraines,
while the vast majority are held in by ridges of drift formed underneath
the glaciers where they joined together at the confluence of valleys.
Mention has already been made of the evidence of ice action on the
summit of Tunnel Mountain, near Banff, showing that the ice was at least
1000 feet in thickness, but on the neighboring mountains there are
further evidences that the ancient glaciers flooded this valley to a
depth of 2700 or 2800 feet. Such evidences may be traced up the valley
of the Bow to its source, where the upper surfaces of the glaciers were
no less than 8500 or 9000 feet above sea-level, though these ice streams
were about the same thickness as at Banff, because the valleys are much
higher at this point. Throughout the eastern range, all the valleys were
flooded, while only the mountain tops rose above the fields of ice, and
the creeping glaciers moved slowly down the valleys and discharged in a
great sheet of ice upon the plains to the east.
The climate of the Canadian Rockies is exceedingly cold in winter and
temperate in summer, but the air is at all times so dry that changes of
temperature are not felt as in lowland regions. The rainfall in summer
is light, and rarely attended by heavy showers. The amount of snow and
rainfall varies locally in a remarkable manner, by reason of the
mountains themselves. Thus the maximum winter depth of the snow in the
Bow valley may be two or three feet, when up in the higher regions, only
five or six miles distant, the depth will approach fifteen or twenty
feet. That mountains have a great influence on the climate and the
amount of rainfall, is universally admitted. In fact, climate and
mountains are mutually dependent one on the other. A range of mountains
near the sea coast, if the circulation of the atmosphere carries the
moist air over them, will cause a great precipitation of rain and snow,
and, vice versa, the amount of precipitation decides the erosive power
of streams, and consequently, the altitude and form of the mountains.
One of the most interesting features of the Canadian Rockies is the
Chinook wind. These peculiar winds occur at all seasons of the year but
are most noticeable in winter. At such times, after a period of intense
frost, a wind springs up from the west, directly from the mountains, the
temperature rises, and the snow disappears as if by magic. The air is so
dry that the snow and moisture evaporate at once, leaving the ground
perfectly free of moisture, where a few hours before was a deep covering
of snow. Identical winds called Foehn winds occur in Switzerland, and in
other mountain regions of the world. The explanation of these winds has
been stated by Ferrel and others, but it is difficult of demonstration
to those who do not understand the laws governing condensation and
evaporation of moisture in our atmosphere. Most of these laws may be
clearly illustrated by an experiment not very difficult to perform. A
stout glass cylinder, closed at one end, is fitted with a closely
fitting plunger. Now if a tuft of cotton, moistened with ether, be
placed in the cylinder, and the plunger be suddenly and forcibly pushed
in, the cotton will take fire. The compression of the air raises the
temperature so that the cotton ignites. The experiment might have been
reversed, and the plunger pulled suddenly outwards so as to rarefy the
enclosed air. In this case the temperature of the air would have been
much reduced, and, if there were sufficient moisture, it would condense
on the sides of the cylinder or form a cloud of vapor. These experiments
are exceedingly valuable, as they demonstrate the laws of temperature
under changing pressure. Moreover, it shows how cold air discharges its
moisture in the form of a mist, and thus illustrates the formation of
the clouds in the upper cold regions of our atmosphere. Now the
circulation of the air in the Canadian Rockies is, in general, from the
Pacific Ocean across the mountains in an easterly direction. It is, of
course, interfered with by the circular cyclonic storms which, from time
to time, pass over the mountains. But when one or both causes of air
motion compel the wind to blow from the west towards the east, the moist
currents are forced to ascend and flow over the mountains. In this case
the air becomes colder as it rises, mist and clouds are formed, and rain
or snow falls, especially on the mountains themselves. As the air
descends on the eastern side it becomes warmer in the increasing
pressure, and the clouds evaporate and disappear. Now this air is much
drier than when it left the other side of the mountains, because a great
deal of rain and snow have been precipitated from it. Moreover, the
latent heat given out as the clouds form, raises the temperature of the
air above the normal temperature of those altitudes. This air gains heat
as it descends, and is subjected to the increasing pressure of lower
altitudes, and it finally appears as a warm and very dry wind on the
east side of the mountains. Such a wind evaporates the snow, and causes
it to disappear in a remarkably rapid manner.
The cause of Chinook winds is thus not difficult of explanation, if one
understands the effects of atmospheric pressure and condensation. The
latent heat given out by the condensing vapors and falling rain is of
course equal to the heat furnished by the sun, when it was evaporating
the surface waters of the ocean, and rendering the air full of invisible
water vapor.
The aspect of the sky and clouds is one of the most beautiful features
of the mountains. Except when obscured by the smoke of forest fires, the
sky is at all times of that deep hue rarely seen near the sea-coast or
in lowland regions. The dark blue extends without apparent paleness to
the very horizon, while the zenith is of such a deep color, especially
when seen from the summit of a lofty mountain, as to suggest the
blackness of interstellar space. Against such a background, the
brilliant cumulus clouds stand out in striking contrast, and every
internal movement of the forming or dissolving vapors, as they rise, and
descend, or curl about, is distinctly seen, because the clouds are so
near.
The high latitude of this region has, of course, a considerable effect
on the length of the days. Near the summer solstice the twilight is
faintly visible all night, and the sun is below the horizon only a
little more than six hours. The moon, however, is rarely visible in the
summer months, because when near the full it occupies that part of the
ecliptic opposite the sun, which, in this latitude, is much depressed.
In consequence, the full moon runs her short arc so near the horizon
that the high mountains shut out all view of her. In winter, these
conditions are reversed, and the moon shines from the clear and frosty
sky with unusual brilliancy, for many hours continuously, while the
low-lying sun leaves many of the deeper mountain valleys without the
benefit of his slanting rays for several months together.
It would be impossible to enumerate even the principal varieties of game
animals, birds, and fish that inhabit this region. The mountain goat and
sheep have been mentioned in previous chapters, and many of the
interesting animals frequently met with have been described in more or
less detail. The ordinary explorer or camper will see very little of the
larger game, as he moves along with a noisy train of pack-horses and
shouting men to drive them. He may occasionally see a bear, or catch
sight of an elk or caribou, but the wary moose and the other members of
the deer tribe will rarely or never be seen without an organized hunt.
The camper will come to rely on the smaller game to give variety to his
camp fare. Chief among these will be the grouse, of which there are six
species in the Canadian Rockies. One variety is tame, or rather very
stupid, and may be knocked down with stones, or snared with a strong
elastic noose at the end of a pole. These birds are so numerous in the
forests that one may always rely on getting a brace for dinner, after a
little search, and I have even seen them walking about on the main
street of Banff, where, of course, they are protected by law. Most of
the mountain streams abound in trout, except where a high waterfall
below has intercepted their coming up the stream. The larger lakes
likewise afford fine fishing, and in many cases swarm with lake trout of
a remarkable size. The camper will often obtain wild fowl, the black
duck, mallards, and teal, in his excursions. Outside of these game birds
and fish, there is little left for him to rely on, unless he chooses to
dine on marmots and porcupines. These are often extolled by travellers
as most excellent eating, but I have tried them both, and would prefer
to leave my share to others, while there is anything else on hand.
The vegetation of the Canadian Rockies deserves a few remarks. The
principal trees are all conifers. There are about six or seven species
of these in the eastern range, and several more in the Selkirks. The
paucity in the variety of deciduous trees in the Rocky Mountains, and
the great number of conifers on the Pacific slope of North America, are
in striking contrast to the wonderful number of deciduous species in the
forests east of the Mississippi River. In the latter region, the number
of species of forest trees is nowhere exceeded in the world, outside of
tropical regions. Another remarkable fact in this connection was stated
by Gray. He calls attention to the fact that there is a greater
similarity, and affinity of species, between the Atlantic Coast trees
and those of far distant Japan, than with those of the Pacific slope.
[Illustration: Upper Bow Lake.
Looking south.]
In the Canadian Rockies, trees cease to grow at altitudes above 7500
feet, under the most favorable circumstances, and the average tree line
is in reality about 7000 feet. Bushes of the heath family and Alpine
plants, however, reach much higher, while dwarfed flowering herbs may be
found in blossom as high as 8700 or 8800 feet. I once found a small mat
of bright yellow sedums on the summit of a mountain, 9100 feet above
sea-level, but this was an exceptional case. Above this altitude,
various stone-gray, bright yellow, or red lichens, are the only sign of
vegetable life. Nevertheless, in such cheerless regions of high
altitudes, one sees a considerable variety of insect life—butterflies,
wasps, mosquitoes, and spiders. The latter insects may sometimes be seen
crawling about on the snow after winter has commenced, and naturalists
have often described them as one of the most abundant insects on barren,
volcanic islands of the Atlantic Ocean, where there is scarcely a trace
of vegetation.
The pleasures of camping in the Canadian Rockies are almost infinite in
their variety. They vary with the locality and the scenic interest of
the surroundings, and suffer a constant change of mood and aspect with
the changing weather. There is an exhilarating buoyancy in the mountain
air that conspires to make all things appear as though seen through some
cheerful medium, and where nature is so lavish with countless things of
rare interest on every side, one comes at length to regard all other
places unworthy of comparison. The formation of these mountains is such
as to present an infinite variation of outline and altitude, such as one
observes in almost no other mountain region of the world. The
mountaineer may stand on the summit of a lofty peak and behold a sea of
mountains extending fifty or one hundred miles in every direction, with
no plains or distant ocean to suggest a limit to their extent. Such a
vast area, nearly half a thousand miles in width, and thousands of miles
in length, presents an extent of mountain ranges such as are found in no
other part of the world.
The exquisite charm and beauty of the lakes, so numerous in every part
of the mountains, is one of the chief delights of the camper. Some are
small and solitary, perched in some amphitheatre far up among the
mountains, surrounded by rocky walls, and hemmed in by great blocks of
stone. Here, no trees withstand the Alpine climate, and the water
surface is free of ice only during a short season. A few Alpine flowers
and grasses wave in the summer breezes, while the loud whistling
marmots, and the picas ever sounding their dismal notes, live among the
rocks, and find shelter in their crevices.
Other lakes, at lower altitudes, are concealed among the dark forests,
and, with deep waters, richly colored, appear like gems in their
seclusion. Here the wild duck, the diver, and the loon resort in search
of food, for the sedgy shores abound with water rice, and the waters
with fish.
Most of the mountain lakes are small, and hide in secluded valleys, but
many are large enough to become rough and angry in a storm, and have
beaten out for themselves narrow beaches of gravel and shores lined with
sand.
[Illustration: Emerald Lake and Mount Field.]
Even the sounds of the mountains and the forests give constant pleasure.
There is every quality and volume of sound, from the loud rumble of
thunder, or the terrible crash of avalanches, re-echoed among the
mountains, to the sharp, interrupted report of falling rocks, the roar
of torrents, or the gentle murmur of some purling stream. The sighing of
the wind in the forests, the susurrant pines and spruces, the drowsy hum
of insects, the ripple of water on the shores of a lake, and the myriad
sounds of nature—half heard, half felt—conspire to make up the sum of
the camper’s pleasure; though in a manner so vague and indescribable
that they must needs be experienced to be understood.
Nor are all the experiences of camp life attended by pure enjoyment
alone. Mountain adventures comprise a multitude of pleasures, mingled
many times with disappointment and physical suffering. They comprise all
the scale of sensations, from those marked by the pains of extreme
exhaustion, physical weakness, hunger, and cold, to those of the
greatest exhilaration and pleasure. Fortunately, the sensations of
pleasure are by far the more abundant, while those of pain almost
invariably follow some rash act or error in judgment.
The effect on the health and strength is, of course, one of the chief
advantages of camp life. But there is another beneficial result brought
about by this manner of life that is more important, though less often
taken into consideration. This is the effect that camp life has on the
character. In the first place, one learns the value of perseverance, for
without this quality nothing can be accomplished in such a region as the
Canadian Rockies. The explorer will realize this when he comes to a long
stretch of burnt timber, where his horses flounder in a maze of
prostrate trees; and the climber will feel the need of continued
resolution when, after a long and arduous climb to an apparent summit,
he reaches it only to find the slope extending indefinitely upwards.
The quality of patience under toil and aggravation while on the
march—patience with tired horses and weary men—patience under the
distress of wet underbrush, or uncomfortable quarters, or, indeed, when
tormented by mosquitoes, is one of the prime requisites of life in the
wilderness.
While these qualities are more or less common to every one, they are
much developed in mountain camp life. But, perhaps, the ability to judge
quickly and well is that characteristic which is most needed among the
mountains, and the one which is attended by the most suffering if it is
not brought into play. If the explorer or mountaineer decides on the
time of day when he must turn back, and then, under the temptation of
seeing a little more, or of reaching another summit, delays his return,
let him not bewail his fate if he is caught by darkness in the forest
and is compelled to pass a sleepless, hungry night. The laws of nature
are inexorable, and while we obey them there is abundant opportunity of
pleasure, but if we expose ourselves to the grinding of her vast
machinery, one must suffer the consequence. The storm will not abate
merely because we are exposed to it, nor will our strength be renewed
merely because we are far from camp.
Let the camper surround himself with all the luxuries that are possible
without trespassing on the bounds of reason. Let him have a good cook
and a good packer; horses that are used to the trail; a fine camp
outfit; comfortable blankets and good tents; a full supply of cooking
utensils, knives, forks, and spoons; above all, let him take an abundant
supply of provisions, comprising a large variety of dried fruits and the
various cereals, and let each article be of the best quality.
Under such circumstances there is no risk of danger, no opportunity for
discomfort, especially if every action is controlled by a moderate
amount of judgment; but, on the other hand, the rich experiences among
the mountains will prove a store of physical and mental resources, the
memory of which will tempt him to revisit these regions year after year.
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
INDEX.
A
PAGE
Abbott, Mount 130
Agnes, Lake 42
” ” depth of 43
” ” in winter 118
” ” solitude of 42
Air circulation in Canadian Rockies 267
Alders in Selkirks 125
Alpine insects, varieties of 271
” plants 271
American Fur Company 238
Anemones 107
Assiniboine, another name for Stoneys 53
Assiniboine, Mount, altitude of 177
” ” features of 178
” ” first circuit of 168
” ” ” view of 153
” ” outline 156
” ” south side of 174
Astley, Mr 61
Athabasca Pass 244
Atmosphere, eastward movement of 123
Avalanche from Mount Lefroy 33
B
Balsam fir 38
Banff, altitude 11
” climate 11, 15
” location 1
” population 2
” Springs Hotel 3
” surroundings 3
” topography of 4
Barometer, diurnal minima of 113
Bean, Mr 72
Bear’s Paw, chief of Stoneys 49
Beehive, the 41, 44
” altitude of 44
Blackiston, Lieut. 246
Blind valleys 172
Bourgeau, M. 246
Bow Lakes 201
” ” future popularity of 211
” Lake, Lower 191
” ” Upper 195
” River 2
British Columbia 253
Brown, Mount, altitude of 184
Bull-dog flies 25
Butterflies, habits of 72
C
Caledonia, New 238
Calypso borealis 143
Cambrian Age, reference to 42
Canada, highest point reached in 115
Canadian National Park 1
” Pacific Road, cost of 255
” Rockies, comparisons of 264
Cannibalism, anecdote of 242
Canoe River 240
Caribou mining region 256
Cascade Mountain, ascent of 14
” ” description of 5
” ” origin of name 6
Castilleias 107
Castle Crags 65
Cave and basin at Banff 159
Chalet at Lake Louise 22
” old 26
Character, effect of camp life on 273
Cheops, Mount 130
Chiniquy, Tom 49
Chinook winds, cause of 266
Chipmunks 106
Cirque 77
Climate of Canadian Rockies 265
Cloud effects 29, 82
Coast Range 262
Condensation of clouds 267
Condition, physical 89
Continental watershed 18, 37
Contrast of surroundings 95
Cold weather in September 13
Colorado, altitude of mountains in 37
Color, sunset and sunrise 30
Columbia River 120
Columbine, yellow 19
Cook, Captain 230
” ” explorations of 237
Cordilleran System 262
_Coureurs des bois_ 221
Cox, Ross 240
Crees, Mountain 52
Crevasses, dangers of 203
Cross River 171
D
Daly Mountain 193
Dawson, Dr., on Stoney Indians 52
Desolation Valley 107
Devil’s Club 125
” Head 7
” Lake 6
” ” Indian legend of 8
Diamond hitch 142
Dominion of Canada 252
E
Eagle Pass 254
” Peak 126
” ” later attempts on 129
Earth, interior of 259
Edith, Mount, Pass 219
Epilobium 107
Experiences in camp 273
Exploration, pleasure of 75, 96
F
Forbes, Mount, altitude of 184
Forest fires, ancient 188
” ” causes of 188
” fire smoke 11
Forests, near Lake Louise 38
” of Pacific Coast 135
” regeneration of 190
” Selkirk 125
Forest trees, replacement of 190
Fraser, Simon 239
” River, first exploration of 238
Fur trade, origin of 220
G
Glacier, House 121
” debris 55
” thickness of ice in 78
Glissading, method of 70
Goat, Rocky Mountain 117, 163, 164
Gold, discovery of 245
Golden-rod, Alpine species 72
Gold Range 262
Great Mountain 77, 80
” Slave Lake, origin of name 231
Green, Dr. 124
Grouse 269
H
Hazel Peak, altitude 108
Hector, Dr. 10, 246
Hector, Mount 216
Heely’s Creek 139
Hermit Range 127
Hooker, Mount, altitude of 184
Huber and Sulzer 124
Hudson Bay Company 224, 226
I
Ice Age 5, 264
” pillars 56
Indian, ability to follow trails 49
” frankness 63
” gratitude 51
” habits of 50
” idea concerning weeping 234
” Kootanie 247
” loquacity 8
” pathos 51
” sarcasm 100
” summer 29
” trails 152, 212
K
Kananaskis Pass, legend of 246
Kicking Horse Pass, discovery of 250
” ” River, origin of name 249
Kootanie River, direction of flow 120
L
Laggan, distance from Banff 62
” distance to Lake Louise 24
” ” ” Mount Temple 79
Lake Louise, altitude of 22
” ” depth of 17
” ” early morning at 26
” ” forests about 23
” ” highest recorded temperature at 22
” ” in October 31
” ” past history of forests at 24
” ” prevalent wind at 24
” ” size and shape of 16
” ” summer temperature of water 26
” ” topography of region near 36
” ” visitors at 22
Lakes in Canadian Rockies 272
Lake trout, size of 6, 202
Laurel, sheep 19
Lefroy, Mount, avalanche from 90
” ” description of 18
” ” precipices of 34, 90
Linnea borealis 175
Little Fork Pass, altitude of 208
Lyall’s larch 39
M
Mackay, Alexander 232
Mackenzie, Sir Alexander 226
” River, discovery of 231
Mackenzie’s plan for an overland route 238
Maple trees 175
Marion Lake 130
Mariposa Grove 135
Marmots 43, 106
Milton and Cheadle 252
Minerals on mountain sides 173
Minnewanka Lake 8
Mirror Lake 42, 45
Moon, effect of latitude on 268
Morley 51
Mosquitoes, annual disappearance of 25, 199
Mountains, age of 261
” altitude of 263
” comparative size of 260
” origin and cause of 259
” system in arrangement 261
Mountaineers, tribulations of 113
Mounted Police, Northwest 2
Murchison, Mount 207
Muskegs 46
N
_Névé_ regions 56
Northwest Company 224
” ” downfall of 225
” Mounted Police 2
O
Outfit for camp 275
P
Pacific Coast reached by Mackenzie 234
Pack-horses, difficulties with 102
” ” nature of 214
” ” remarkable experience with 105
Palliser expedition 245
Paradise Valley 91, 105
” ” discovery of 91
” ” in winter 117
” ” location 84
Patience, need of, in camp life 274
Peace River, origin of name 231
Peechee 8
Perseverance, need of, in camp life 274
Peyto, William 140
Phlox, alpine 72
Pica, tailless hare 105
Pinnacle Mountain 92, 97
Plateau region 263
Pleasure of camp life 271
Ptarmigan 76
Q
Quesnel, Jules 238
R
Rat, wood 106
Rhododendron 20
Roger’s Pass 254
Rundle Mountain 5
Rundle’s early visit to Banff region 9
Rundle the missionary 9
Rupert, Prince 224
S
Saddle, the 77
Saskatchewan 206
Scenery at high altitudes 45, 89, 108
_Schrunds_, cause of 87
Selkirk Range, humidity of 123
Selkirks, early popularity of 124
” forest trees 132
” geographical position 119
Sheep, mountain 10
Simpson Pass 144
” River 145
” Sir George 244
Simpson’s, Sir George, expedition 7
Sky, color of, in mountains 268
Smoke of forest fires 81
Snow line, determination of 56
” ” in Colorado and the Andes 57
” patches, effect on vegetation 67
” storm in June 12
Solitude of high altitudes 215
Sounds, forest and mountain 273
Spray River 4
Spruce trees 38
Stones, loose, danger of, in Canadian Rockies 59, 69
Stoney Indians, characteristics of 51
” ” dress of 52
” ” nature of 9
” ” Palliser’s account of 53
” ” religion of 52
Storms, approach of 27, 81
” mountain 156
St. Piran, flowers and butterflies 72, 73
” summit of 71
Stuart, John 239
Sullivan, Mr. 246
Sulzer and Huber 124
Surveys for railroad 253
T
Temple, Mount, altitude 78
” ” first ascent of 115
” ” avalanches from 78
” ” first attempt to ascend 109
” ” maximum temperature on summit 116
” ” north side of 110
” ” strata of 79
” ” summit of 116
Thirst, method of quenching 74
Thunderstorms in mountains 28
Tourists at Banff 2
Tree line 270
Trees, age of 135
” ” at Lake Louise 23
Tunnel Mountain 4
Twilight, length of 11
Twin, William 48
V
Valleys, age of 262
” blind 212
Van Horne, Sir William 254
Vegetation of Canadian Rockies 270
Vermilion Pass 181
” Plain 248
” River 179
Vitality of mountain trees and herbs 12
Voyageurs 221
W
Waputehk Range 183
Wasps and bull-dog flies 25
Wildman, Enoch 48, 119
Wilson, Tom 138
Transcriber’s Notes
--Copyright notice provided as in the original—this e-text is public
domain in the country of publication.
--Silently corrected palpable typos; left non-standard spellings and
dialect unchanged.
--In the text versions only, delimited italicized text with
_underscores_.