dreams, foretelling future events, and accomplishing many wonderful
things, by their superior knowledge of the secret powers of nature, of
the virtues of plants and minerals, and of the motions and influences of
the stars. And as the art of magic among Pagan nations was founded on
their system of theology, and the magi who first exercised it were the
priests of the gods, they pretended to derive these extraordinary powers
from the assistance of the gods, which assistance they sought by a
variety of rites and sacrifices, adapted to their respective natures, by
the use of charms and superstitious words, and also by ceremonies and
supplications: they pretended, likewise, in the proper use of their art,
to a power of compelling the gods to execute their desires and commands.
An excellent writer has shewn, that the Scripture brands all these
powers as a shameless imposture, and reproaches those who assumed them
with an utter inability of discovering, or accomplishing, any thing
supernatural. (See Isaiah, xlvii. 11, 12, 13. chap. xli. 23, 24. chap.
xliv. 25. Jeremiah, x. 2, 3, 8, 14. chap xiv. 14. chap, xxvii. 9, 10.
chap. i. 36. Ps. xxi. 6. Jonah, ii. 8.) Nevertheless, many of the
Christian fathers, as well as some of the heathen philosophers, ascribed
the efficacy of magic to evil dæmons; and it was a very prevailing
opinion in the primitive, that magicians and necromancers, both among
the Gentiles and heretical Christians, had each their particular dæmons
perpetually attending on their persons, and obsequious to their
commands, by whose help they could call up the souls of the dead,
foretel future events, and perform miracles. In support of this opinion,
it has been alleged that the names by which the several sorts of
diviners are described in scripture, imply a communication with
spiritual beings; that the laws of Moses (Exod. xxii. 18. Lev. xix. 26,
31. chap. xx. 27. Deut. xviii. 10, 11.) against divination and
witchcraft, prove the efficacy of these arts, though in reality they
prove nothing more than their execrable wickedness and impiety; and that
pretensions to divination could not have supported their credit in all
the heathen nations, and through all ages, if some instances of true
divination had not occurred. But the strongest argument is derived from
the scripture history of the Egyptian magicians who opposed Moses. With
regard to the works performed by these magicians, some have supposed
that God himself empowered them to perform true miracles, and gave them
an unexpected success; but the history expressly ascribes the effects
they produced, not to God, but to their own enchantments. Others
imagine, that the devil assisted the magicians, not in performing true
miracles, but in deceiving the senses of the spectators, or in
presenting before them delusive appearances of true miracles: against
which opinion it has been urged, that it tends to disparage the credit
of the works of Moses. The most common opinion, since the time of St.
Austin, has been, that they were not only performed by the power of the
devil, but were genuine miracles, and real imitations of those of Moses.
In a late elaborate enquiry into the true sense and design of this part
of scripture history, it has been shewn that the names given to
magicians seem to express their profession, their affectation of
superior knowledge, and their pretensions both to explain and effect
signs and wonders, by observing the rules of their art; and therefore,
that they are the persons, whose ability of discovering or effecting any
thing supernatural, the scripture expressly denies. The learned author
farther investigates the design for which Pharaoh employed them on this
occasion: which, he apprehends, was to learn from them, whether the sign
given by Moses was truly supernatural, or only such as their art was
able to accomplish. Accordingly it is observed, that they did not
undertake to outdo Moses, or to controul him, by superior or opposite
arts of power, but merely to imitate him, or to do the same works with
his, with a view of invalidating the argument which he drew from his
miracles, in support of the sole divinity of Jehovah, and of his own
mission. The question on this was not, are the gods of Egypt superior to
the gods of Israel, or can any evil spirits perform greater miracles
than those which Moses performed by the assistance of Jehovah? but the
question is, are the works of Moses proper proofs, that the god of
Israel is Jehovah, the only sovereign of nature, and consequently that
Moses acts by his commission; or, are they merely the wonders of nature,
and the effects of magic? In this light Philo, (de Vita Mosis, lib. i.
p. 616.) and Josephus, (Antiq. Jud. lib. ii. cap. 13.) place the
subject. Moreover, it appears from the principles and conduct of Moses,
that he could not have allowed the magicians to have performed real
miracles; because the scripture represents the whole body of magicians
as impostors; the sacred writers, Moses in particular, describe all the
heathen deities, in the belief of whose existence and influence the
magic art was founded, as unsupported by any invisible spirit, and
utterly impotent and senseless: the religion of Moses was built on the
unity and sole dominion of God, and the sole divinity of Jehovah was the
point which Moses was now about to establish, in direct opposition to
the principles of idolatry; so that if he had allowed that the heathen
idols, or any evil spirit supporting their cause, enabled the magicians
to turn rods into serpents, and water into blood, and to create frogs,
he would have contradicted the great design of his mission, and
overthrown the whole fabric of his religion; besides, Moses appropriates
all Miracles to God, and urges his own, both in general and separately,
as an absolute and authentic proof, both of the sole divinity of
Jehovah, and of his own mission; which he could not justly have done, if
his opposers performed miracles, and even the same with his. On the
other hand, it has been urged, that Moses describes the works of the
magicians in the very same language as he does his own, (Exod. vii. 11,
12. chap. v. 22. chap. viii. 7.) and hence it is concluded, that they
were equally miraculous. To this objection it is replied, that it is
common to speak of professed Jugglers, as doing what they pretend and
appear to do; but that Moses does not affirm that there was a perfect
conformity between his works and those of the magicians, but they did
_so_, or in like manner, using a word which expresses merely a general
similitude; and he expressly refers all they did, or attempted in
imitation of himself, not to the invocation of the power of dæmons, or
of any superior beings, but to human artifice and imposture. The
original words, translated _enchantments_, (Exod. vii. 11, 22. and chap.
viii. 7, 18.) import deception and concealment, and ought to have been
rendered, _secret slights_ or jugglings. Our learned writer farther
shews, that the works performed by the magicians did not exceed the
cause, or human artifice, to which they are ascribed. Farmer’s _Diss._
on Miracles, 1771, chap. 3. § 3. chap. 4. § 1. (See MAGII.)
MAGI, OR MAGEANS,
A title which the ancient Persians gave to their wise men or
philosophers.
The learned are in great perplexity about the word _magus_, μαγ ος.
Plato, Xenophon, Herodotus, Strabo, &c. derive it from the Persian
language, in which it signifies a priest, or person appointed to
officiate in holy things; as _druid_ among the Gauls; _gymnosophist_
among the Indians; and _Levite_, among the Hebrews. Others derive it
from the Greek μεγας, great; which they say, being borrowed of the
Greeks, by the Persians, was returned in the form μαγος; but Vossius,
with more probability, brings it from the Hebrew הגה _haga_, to
meditate; whence מהגים, maaghim, in Latin, meditabundi, q. d. people
addicted to meditation.
Magi, among the Persians, answers to σοφοι, or φιλοσοφοι, among the
Greeks; _sapientes_, among the Latins; _druids_, among the Gauls;
_gymnosophists_, among the Indians; and _prophets_ or _priests_ among
the Egyptians.
The ancient _magi_, according to Aristotle and Laertius, were the sole
authors and conservators of the Persian philosophy; and the philosophy
principally cultivated by them, was theology and politics; they being
always esteemed as the interpreters of all law, both divine and human;
on which account they were wonderfully revered by the people. Hence,
Cicero observes, that none were admitted to the crown of Persia, but
such as were well instructed in the discipline of the _magi_; who taught
τα βασιλικα, and showed princes how to govern.
Plato, Apuleius, Laertius, and others, agree, that the philosophy of the
_magi_ related principally to the worship of the gods: they were the
persons who were to offer prayers, supplications, and sacrifices, as if
the gods would be heard by them alone. But according to Lucian, Suidas,
&c. this theology, or worship of the gods, as it was called, about which
the magi were employed, was little more than the diabolical art of
divination; for that μαγεια, strictly taken, was the art of divination.
Porphyry defines the _magi_ well; Cicero calls them _divina sapientes_,
&c. in iisdem ministrantes; adding, that the word _magus_ implied as
much in the Persian tongue. These people, he says, are held in such
veneration among the Persians, that Darius, the son of Hystaspes, among
other things, had it engraved on his monument, that he was master of the
_magi_.
Philo Judas describe the _magi_ to be diligent enquirers into nature,
out of the love they bear to truth; and who, setting themselves apart
from other things, contemplate the divine virtues the more clearly, and
initiate others in the same mysteries.
Their descendants, the modern _magi_, or fire worshippers, are divided
into three classes; whereof the first and most learned, neither ate nor
kill animals; but adhere to the old institution of abstaining from
living creatures. The _magi_ of the second class, refrain only from tame
animals; nor do the last kill all indifferently, it being the firm
distinguishing dogma of them all, τκν μετεμχυωσιυ ειναι, _that there is
a transmigration of souls_.
To intimate the similitude between animals and men, they used to call
the latter by the name of the former; thus, their fellow priests they
called lions; the priestesses, lionesses; the servants, cows, &c.
MAGIC, MAGIA, MATEIA,
In its ancient sense, implies the science, or discipline, or doctrine,
of the _magi_, or wise men of Persia. The origin of _magic_, and the
_magi_, is ascribed to Zoroaster; Salmasius derives the very name from
Zoroaster, who, he says, was surnamed _Mog_, whence _magus_. Others,
instead of making him the author of the Persian philosophy, make him
only the restorer and improver thereof; alleging, that many of the
Persian rites in use among the _magi_, were borrowed from the Zabii,
among the Chaldeans, who agreed in many things with the magi of the
Persians; whence some make the name _magus_ common to both the Chaldeans
and Persians. Thus Plutarch mentions, that Zoroaster instituted _magi_
among the Chaldeans; in imitation whereof the Persians had theirs too.
MAGIC, in a more modern sense, is a science which teaches to perform
wonderful and surprising effects.
The word _magic_ originally carried along with it a very innocent, nay,
a very laudable meaning; being used purely to signify the study of
wisdom, and the more sublime parts of knowledge; but in regard to the
ancient _magi_, engaged themselves in astrology, divination, sorcery,
&c. the term magic in time became odious, and was only used to signify
an unlawful and diabolical kind of science, depending on the devil and
departed souls.
If any wonder how vain and deceitful a science should gain so much
credit and authority over men’s minds, Pliny gives the reason of it.
’Tis, says he, because it has possessed itself of three sciences of the
most esteem among men, taking from each all that is great and marvellous
in it. Nobody doubts but that it had its first origin in medicine, and
that it insinuated itself into the minds of the people, under pretence
of affording extraordinary remedies. To these fine promises it added
every thing in religion that is pompous and splendid, and that appears
calculated to blind and captivate mankind. And, lastly, it mingled
judiciary astrology with the rest, persuading people curious of
futurity, that it saw every thing to come in the heavens. Agrippa
divided _magic_ into three kinds, _natural_, _celestial_, and
_ceremonial_ or _superstitious_.
NATURAL MAGIC, is no more than the application of natural active causes
to passive things, or subjects; by means whereof many surprising, but
yet natural effects are produced.
Baptista Porta has a treatise of _natural magic_, or of secrets for
performing very extraordinary things by natural causes. The _natural
magic_ of the Chaldæans was nothing but the knowledge of the powers of
simples and minerals. The _magic_ which they call _theurgia_, consisted
wholly in the knowledge of the ceremonies to be observed in the worship
of the gods, in order to be acceptable to them. By the virtue of these
ceremonies, they believed they could converse with spiritual beings and
cure diseases.
CELESTIAL MAGIC borders nearly on judiciary astrology; it attributes to
spirits a kind of rule or dominion over the planets; and to the planets,
a dominion over men; and, on these principles, builds a ridiculous kind
of system.
SUPERSTITIOUS, or GEOTIC MAGIC, consists in the invocation of devils:
its effects are usually evil and wicked, though very strange, and
seemingly surpassing the powers of nature: they are supposed to be
produced by virtue of some compact, either tacit or express, with evil
spirits; but the truth is, these supposed compacts have not the power
that is usually imagined; nor do they produce half those effects
ordinarily ascribed to them.
Naude has published an apology for all the great men suspected of
_magic_. Agrippa says, that the words used by those in compact with the
devil, to invoke him, and to succeed in what they undertake, are,
_dies_, _mies_, _jesquet_, _benedoefet_, _douvima_, _enitemaus_. There
are a hundred other superstitious formulæ of words prescribed for the
same occasion, composed of pleasure, or gathered from several different
languages; or patched from the Hebrew, or framed in imitation of it.
_Magic of the Eastern nations,—a brief view of the origin and progress
of Magic, &c._
CHALDEANS AND PERSIANS.—The origin of almost all our knowledge may be
traced to the earlier periods of antiquity. This is peculiarly the case
with respect to the acts denominated magical. There were few ancient
nations, however barbarous, which could not furnish many individuals to
whose spells and enchantments the powers of nature and the immaterial
world were supposed to be subjected. The Chaldeans, the Egyptians, and,
indeed, all the oriental nations, were accustomed to refer all natural
effects for which they could not account, to the agency of Demons.
Demons were believed (See DEMONOLOGY,) to preside over herbs, trees,
rivers, mountains, and animals; every member of the human body was under
their power, and all corporeal diseases were produced by their
malignity. For instance, if any happened to be afflicted with a fever,
little anxiety was manifested to discover its cause, or to adopt
rational measures for its cure; it must no doubt have been occasioned by
some evil spirit residing in the body, or influencing in some mysterious
way the fortunes of the sufferer. That influence could be counteracted
only by certain magical rites,—hence the observance of those rites soon
obtained a permanent establishment in the East.
Even at the present day many uncivilized people hold that all nature is
filled with genii, of which some exercise a beneficent, and others a
destructive power. All the evils with which man is afflicted, are
considered the work of these imaginary beings, whose favour must be
propitiated by sacrifices, incantations, songs. If the Greenlander be
unsuccessful in fishing, the Huron in hunting, or in war; if even the
scarcely half-reasoning Hottentot finds every thing is not right in his
mind, body, or fortune, no time must be lost before the spirit be
invoked. After the removal of some present evil, the next strongest
desire in the human mind is the attainment of some future good. This
good is often beyond the power, and still oftener beyond the inclination
of man, to bestow; it must therefore be sought from beings which are
supposed to possess considerable influence over human affairs, and which
being elevated above the baser passions of our nature, were thought to
regard with peculiar favour all who acknowledged their power, or invoked
their aid; hence the numerous rites which have in all ages and countries
been observed in consulting superior intelligences, and the equally
numerous modes in which their pleasure has been communicated to mortals.
The Chaldeans were more celebrated for their skill in Astrology than
Magic; of the former, they were beyond doubt the inventors: so famous
did they become in divining from aspects, positions, and influences of
the stars, that all Astrologers were termed Chaldeans, particularly by
the Jews and Romans.
Of all species of idolatry, the worship of the heavenly bodies appears
to have been among the most ancient. The Babylonians soon perceived that
these bodies continually changed their places, and that some of them
moved in regular orbits; they concluded, therefore, that this regularity
of motion must necessarily imply some designing cause—something superior
to mere inert matter: but the primeval notion of one supreme being
presiding over the universe, was almost extinct, from a period little
subsequent to the deluge, to the vocation of Abraham. Hence arose the
belief that the stars were genii, of which some were the friends, and
others the enemies of men; that they possessed an incontrollable power
over human affairs; and that to their dominion were subjected, not only
the vicissitudes of the seasons, of the atmosphere, and the productions
of the earth, but also the dispositions and thoughts of mortals. They
were supposed to delight in sacrifices and prayers. Hence a species of
worship, subordinate to that of the gods, was established in their
honour. It was believed that no event could be foreknown, no magical
operation performed, without their aid; and they conferred extraordinary
and supernatural powers on all who sought their favour. Men eminent for
authority or wisdom, were thought, after their decease, to be
incorporated with the race of genii, and sometimes even of gods.
There is little doubt that the Baal of the Scriptures, is the same with
the Belus of profane historians. Like Atlas, king of Mauritania, he
excelled in the knowledge of Astronomy; but superstition has assigned to
the celebrated founder of the Babylonian monarchy a greater dignity than
to his western rival; the former was long worshipped by the Assyrians as
one of their chief gods, while to the latter was committed the laborious
and no very enviable task of supporting the earth on his shoulders.
Indeed all the successors of Belus enjoyed the rare felicity of being
honoured both living and dead. On leaving the globe, their souls being
transformed into genii, were distributed through the immensity of space,
to superintend the nations, and to direct the influence of the heavenly
orbs. The Chaldean magii was chiefly founded on Astrology, and was much
conversant with certain animals, metals and plants, which were employed
in all their incantations, and the virtue of which was derived from
Stellar influence. Great attention was always paid to the positions and
configurations presented by the celestial sphere; and it was only at
favourable seasons that the solemn rites were celebrated. Those rites
were accompanied with many peculiar and fantastic gestures, by leaping,
clapping of hands, prostrations, loud cries, and not unfrequently
unintelligible exclamations[25]. Sacrifices and burnt-offerings were
used to propitiate superior powers; but our knowledge of the magical
rites exercised by certain Oriental nations, the Jews only excepted, is
extremely limited. All the books professedly written on the subject,
have been swept away by the torrent of time. We learn, however, that the
professors among the Chaldeans were generally divided into three
classes; the _Ascaphim_, or charmers, whose office it was to remove
present, and to avert future contingent evils; to construct talismans,
&c.; the _Mecaschephim_, or magicians properly so called, who were
conversant with the occult powers of nature, and the supernatural world;
and the _Chasdim_, or astrologers, who constituted by far the most
numerous and respectable class. And from the assembling of the wise men
on the occasion of the extraordinary dream of Nebuchadnezzar, it would
appear that Babylon had also her _Oneicrotici_, or interpreters of
dreams—a species of diviners indeed to which almost every nation of
antiquity gave birth.
The talisman is probably a Chaldean invention. It was generally a small
image of stone, or of any metallic substance, and was of various forms.
On it were several mysterious characters, which were cut under a certain
configuration of the planets, and some believed to be powerfully
efficacious, not only in averting evils, but in unfolding the dark and
distant picture. Some learned men have lately expressed their doubts as
to the antiquity of the talisman, and have even contended that it is not
older than the Egyptian Amulet, which was probably invented but a short
time before the Christian era; but we have the authority of the sacred
writings for asserting that the Seraphim, which, according to the Jewish
Doctors, gave oracular answers, and which, both in form and use, bore a
great resemblance to the talisman, was known at an early period. There
is no slight reason for concluding that the latter is either an
imitation of the former, or that both are one and the same device.—Like
the Chaldean Astrologers, the Persian Magi, from whom our word Magic is
derived, belongs to the priesthood. But the worship of the gods, was not
their chief occupation; they were great proficients in the arts of which
we are now treating. At first they were distinguished for their ardour
in the pursuit of knowledge; they endeavoured to penetrate the secrets
of nature by the only way in which those secrets can be discovered—
experiment and reason. The former furnished them with facts; the latter
taught them how these facts might be made the foundation of higher
researches, and rendered subservient to the public utility. While they
continued in this innocent and laudable career, devoting, like the
druids, no inconsiderable portion of their time to the cure of diseases,
by means of herbs and other natural productions, they deserved and
obtained the gratitude of their countrymen; but in process of time they
became desirous of increasing the reverence with which they were
regarded by all ranks: they grew ambitious of higher honours, to direct
the counsels of the state, and to render even their sovereigns subject
to their sway. They joined therefore to the worship of the gods, and to
the profession of medicine and natural magic, a pretended familiarity
with superior powers, from which they boasted of deriving all their
knowledge. Like Plato, who probably imbibed many of their notions, they
taught that Demons hold a middle rank between gods and men; that they
(the Demons) presided not only over divinations, auguries, conjurations,
oracles, and every species of magic, but also over sacrifices and
prayer, which in behalf of men they presented, and rendered acceptable
to the gods. Hence they were mediators, whose ministry was thought
indispensable in all magical and religious rites. The magi constantly
persuaded their credulous countrymen, that to them alone was conceded
the high privilege of communicating with gods and demons, and of being
thereby enabled to foretel future events; they even went so far as to
assert that by means of their incantations, they obliged the latter to
execute all their commands, and to serve them with the same deference as
servants do their masters. The austerity of their lives was well
calculated to strengthen the impression which their cunning had already
made on the multitude, and to prepare the way for whatever impositions
they might afterwards wish to practise.
All the three order of Magi enumerated by Porphyry, abstained from wine
and women, and the first of these orders from animal food. These were
indulgences which they considered too vulgar for men who were the
favourites of Orosmades, Aremanius, and of the inferior Deities, and who
were so intimately connected with the offspring of those Deities, the
numerous hosts of Genii and Demon.