Transcriber’s Notes
Text printed in italics and bold face have been transcribed _between
underscores_ and =between equal signs= resspectively. Single
superscript characters are preceded by ^, multiple superscript
characters by ^{...}. Small capitals have been replaced with ALL
CAPITALS.
More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.
THE AUTOMOBILE
OWNER’S GUIDE
THE AUTOMOBILE
OWNER’S GUIDE
BY
FRANK B. SCHOLL
[Illustration]
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
NEW YORK LONDON
1920
COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PREFACE
The automobile has taken its place as one of the most successful and
useful inventions of the day. It is equaled only by the internal
combustion gas engine, which is a factor in making it practical and
efficient.
Gasoline-propelled vehicles have become one of man’s greatest aids in
business efficiency, but nevertheless it is very important that we
consider the facts, that the adoption of the automobile by man for
business, commerce and pleasure is on a very large scale, and that the
production by manufacturers is so great that very little thought is
given to proper care, which is an ever-present factor in economical
operation and a fair return for the investment.
The purpose of this book is to serve as a practical guide for those who
own, operate, or contemplate purchasing an automobile.
The contents of this book cover the entire field that would be of
value to the owner or chauffeur in making his own repairs. The parts
and expressions are given in their simplest form; technical terms,
tables and scales have been entirely eliminated, as they mean little or
nothing to the average owner, and are of value only to the mechanical
engineer and draftsman.
The illustrations, drawings and diagrams are intended only for the
purpose of bringing out points that are more readily understood and
explained in this manner. No attempt has been made to conform to
proportionate exactness or scale accurateness.
Since there are many different makes of cars, motors, and equipment,
the functional action of all is practically the same, therefore we
use for illustration only those which are used by the majority of
manufacturers.
While, as a general rule, you will find all automobiles efficient and
reliable, troubles and conditions are bound to arise that are somewhat
puzzling; therefore, to assist the owner, we have written a chapter on
trouble hints conveniently arranged in three columns, headed troubles,
cause, and remedy.
The entire book is worked out along such lines, and so arranged, that
a man or a boy with a common school education can easily master it and
become an efficient mechanic.
INTRODUCTION
After twelve years’ experience with the automobile, I find that
only one-third of the present-day owners understand the mechanical
operation, care and proper upkeep of their cars; the other two-thirds
know little or nothing of their cars, and are unable to locate
or detect trouble, or make the slightest adjustment necessary to
remedy it. This fact remains as the chief cause of the present high
depreciation in cars, and the loss of millions of dollars annually to
automobile owners.
After two years of observation and close investigation, I find the
vast majority of the present owners are eager to acquire mechanical
knowledge, but they have not accomplished their aim, chiefly because
the available books to attain that end are too technical, dry, and
overdescriptive for the average owner and beginner in mechanics.
The automobile is not an individually constructed piece of machinery,
but a combination of individual inventions, each adapted to a
functional purpose, which is necessary to the harmony of successful
operation. A great many of these mechanical achievements are of
delicate construction, and very apt to get out of adjustment. This,
however, is not always the case, as grease, dirt and foreign matter
with which the various parts come in contact often prevent them from
operating properly.
Therefore a little common knowledge of operation and a little care
will enable an owner to operate his car successfully, thereby avoiding
unnecessary trouble, damage and expense.
One of the chief aims of the writer is to make this book interesting
and thorough, in order to hold the reader until he understands the
entire contents, after which he should be able to make any necessary
repairs and adjustments, or to hold a position as automobile mechanic.
In order to accomplish the foregoing and prevent a student from
becoming discouraged we use functional principle as the base for
explanation whenever possible.
The instructions set forth in this book are not taken merely from
theory, but have been put into successful operation by the writer,
who for several years sold cars in outlying districts where garage
facilities were limited, and where it was necessary to make a
mechanic of every purchaser in order to sustain the high reputation
of the car sold. Later on his plan of instructions was used in an
automobile school where he was chief instructor, and still later they
were developed into a note system which he used in establishing an
automobile school in the city of Toledo, Ohio.
The students turned out by this school were very efficient and
successful, and finished the course in less than one-half the time
usually required for the average automobile course.
This book was written during the twenty months that the writer spent in
the U. S. Army, from the note system used in his automobile school.
F. B. S.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE v
INTRODUCTION vii
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
HISTORY OF THE GASOLINE ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION 1
Purchasing a new car 3
Purchasing a used car 4
Selecting and testing a used car 5
Driving instructions 6
Road rules for city and country 9
What to do in case of accident 10
CHAPTER I.
GASOLINE ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS 12
The engine block castings, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods,
bearings, crank shaft, cam shaft and fly-wheel.
CHAPTER II.
VALVE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION 21
Valve construction. Types and operation of the valves in an
8-cylinder V-type engine. Valve locations and valve grinding.
Valve care.
CHAPTER III.
THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE 4-CYLINDERED GASOLINE ENGINE 29
Explaining the cycle. The 4-, 6-, 8-, 12-cylindered engine --
The Knight sleeve valve engine -- S. A. E. Horse Power Scale --
Displacement-Engine charts -- Lubrication oils and greases --
Lubrication systems -- Care -- Cleaning -- and adjusting of
lubrication systems.
CHAPTER IV.
BRIEF TREATISE ON CARBURETION 45
The Stromberg plain tube Model M carburetor. Principle of action
-- Installation -- Adjustment and maintenance -- Stromberg Model
L adjustment.
CHAPTER V.
NITRO SUNDERMAN CARBURETOR 60
Principle of action, action of venturi, adjustment and general
care.
The Schebler Model R carburetor, action and adjustment points.
CHAPTER VI.
STEWART CARBURETOR 65
Principle of operation -- Adjustment and maintenance.
CHAPTER VII.
CARTER CARBURETOR 70
Operating principle -- Adjustment and care.
CHAPTER VIII.
SCHEBLER PLAIN TUBE CARBURETOR 72
Operation -- Instructions for installing, adjustment and
maintenance.
CHAPTER IX.
KEROSENE CARBURETORS 76
Operating principle -- Installation and adjustment.
CHAPTER X.
HEATED MANIFOLDS AND HOT SPOTS 79
Action -- Advantage and design.
CHAPTER XI.
COOLING SYSTEMS 82
Purpose of cooling system -- Circulating systems -- The force
pump circulating system -- Overheating -- Radiator cleaning --
Freezing -- Freezing solutions -- Radiator repairing -- The air
cooling system.
CHAPTER XII.
MUFFLER CONSTRUCTION 86
Purpose -- Advantage -- Type -- Assembly and Maintenance.
CHAPTER XIII.
VACUUM SYSTEMS 89
Operating principle -- Purpose of the air vent -- Failure to
feed gasoline to carburetor -- Removing top -- Cleaning
gasoline strainer screen -- Operating principle and general
maintenance.
CHAPTER XIV.
ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY OF PARTS, UNITS AND TERMS 95
Voltage -- Amperage -- Ohms -- Current -- Circuit -- Low Tension
Current -- High Tension Current -- Induction Coil -- Commutator
-- Insulation -- Shunt or choking coil -- Fuse -- Condenser --
Dynamo -- Voltaic cell -- Accumulator -- Storage battery --
Electrolyte -- Hydrometer -- Ammeter -- Circuit breaker --
Switch -- Generator -- Regulator -- Contact-breaker --
Non-vibrating coil -- Distributors.
CHAPTER XV.
THE MAGNETO 101
Parts -- Assemblage -- Operating principle.
CHAPTER XVI.
BOSCH HIGH TENSION MAGNETO, TYPE ZR 105
Operating principle -- Primary or low tension circuit --
Secondary or high tension circuit -- Timing magneto gears --
Timing magneto with engine -- The condenser -- Safety spark gap
-- Interrupter timing range -- Cutting out ignition -- Caution
-- Care -- Maintenance.
CHAPTER XVII.
MAGNETO WASHING, REPAIRING AND TIMING 111
Magneto cleaning -- Magneto repairing -- Magneto assembling --
Magneto timing to engine.
CHAPTER XVIII.
NORTH EAST IGNITION SYSTEM 114
Wiring ignition distributor -- Ignition coil -- Breaker box and
distributor head assembly -- Condenser -- Breaker contacts --
Breaker cam -- Distributor head -- Automatic spark advance
mechanism -- Manual spark control -- Timing the distributor --
General care.
CHAPTER XIX.
ATWATER KENT IGNITION SYSTEMS 126
Type CC system -- Operating principle -- Setting or timing --
Adjustment -- Oiling -- General care.
CHAPTER XX.
ATWATER KENT BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM 132
Type K-2-Operating principle -- Operation of contact maker --
Contactless distributor -- Wiring diagram of current flowage --
Setting and timing the unisparker -- Timing with engine --
Automatic spark advance -- Contact point adjustment -- Oiling
diagram -- Condenser -- Testing for ignition trouble.
CHAPTER XXI.
PHILBRIN SINGLE SPARK, AND HIGH FREQUENCY DUPLEX IGNITION
SYSTEMS 141
Operation of contact maker -- Current induction -- Duplex system
-- Duplex switch -- Duplex switch action -- Wiring diagram --
Adjustment of contact points -- General care.
CHAPTER XXII.
ELECTRICAL STARTING AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS 147
The generator -- The regulator -- The automatic cut-out -- One
unit system -- Two unit system -- Three unit system -- The
starting motor -- Lubrication -- Maintenance.
CHAPTER XXIII.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND STARTING SYSTEMS 154
Wiring diagram Bijur system -- Operation of Bijur system --
Starting motor -- Operation of starting motor -- Wiring circuits
-- Fuse -- Ground fuse -- Lamp controller -- Oiling -- Battery
testing -- General care.
CHAPTER XXIV.
NORTH EAST STARTER USED ON DODGE BROTHERS’ CARS 161
Model G starter-generator operation -- Wiring diagram --
Starter-generator action -- Mounting -- Drive -- Charging rate
adjustment -- Fuse -- Locating trouble -- Starting switch and
reverse current cut-out -- Running with battery disconnected.
CHAPTER XXV.
THE DELCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 167
Motoring the generator -- Cranking the engine -- Generating
electrical energy -- Diagram of motor generator operation --
Lubrication -- Ignition switch -- Circuit breaker -- Ignition
coil -- Distributor -- Contact breaker and timer -- Care.
CHAPTER XXVI.
STORAGE BATTERY 180
Construction -- Chemical action -- Cells -- Electrolyte solution
-- Battery charging -- Care and maintenance -- Hydrometer
testing -- Battery idle -- Battery freezing -- General care.
CHAPTER XXVII.
SPARK PLUGS AND CARE 186
Type -- Construction -- Connections -- Assembling -- Repairing --
Cleaning -- General care.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION, TYPE AND CARE 189
Clutch operation -- Gear shifting -- Change speeds -- Cone
clutch -- Cone clutch care -- Cone clutch adjustment -- Multiple
disc clutch -- Borg and Beck clutch -- Borg and Beck clutch
adjustment -- Disc clutch cleaning, wet plate, dry plate -- Cone
clutch leather -- Cone clutch leather patterns -- Cutting --
General care.
CHAPTER XXIX.
TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 198
Operation of -- Planetary type -- Progressive type -- Selective
type -- Gear shifts -- Unit-power-plant -- Transmission cleaning
-- Lubrication -- Care.
CHAPTER XXX.
UNIVERSAL JOINTS 204
Universal joints -- Slip joints -- Operation -- Construction
diagram -- Tightening -- Lubrication -- Care.
CHAPTER XXXI.
DIFFERENTIAL GEARS 207
Bevel gear action -- Construction -- Adjusting -- Gearless
differential -- Action -- Adjustment -- Advantage -- Worm gear
drive differential -- Operation -- Adjustment -- Lubrication --
General care.
CHAPTER XXXII.
AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 212
Dead axles -- The semi-floating axle -- Adjustment --
Lubrication -- The full-floating axle -- Construction --
Adjustment -- Lubrication -- The I-beam front axle -- The
spindle -- Steering knuckle -- Care of all types.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE 218
Brake adjustment -- Brake re-lining -- Brake care -- Brake
cleaning.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
SPRINGS AND SPRING CARE TESTS 223
Spring types -- Spring lubrication -- Weekly spring care --
Bi-monthly spring care -- Spring wrapping.
CHAPTER XXXV.
ALIGNMENT 229
Wheel alignment -- Lengthwise -- Crosswise -- Axle alignment --
Lengthwise -- Alignment tests -- Mechanical alignment --
Lengthening wheelbase.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
STEERING GEARS, TYPE AND CONSTRUCTION 232
Operation of worm and sector type -- Adjustment of worm and
sector type -- Worm and nut type -- Adjustment of worm and nut
type -- Rack and pinion type -- Connections -- Drag link --
General care.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE 236
Plain bearings -- Bushings -- Roller bearings -- Flexible roller
bearings -- Radial ball bearings -- Thrust ball bearings -- End
thrust -- Double thrust -- Cleaning -- Care -- Maintenance.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
CAR ARRANGEMENT 243
Showing location and names of parts -- Adjustment -- General
care.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
OVERHAULING THE CAR 247
Instructions showing how to go about it -- And how to give the
car a thorough overhauling.
CHAPTER XL.
REPAIR EQUIPMENT 251
Road repair necessities -- Shop repair necessities.
CHAPTER XLI.
CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE 253
Body construction -- Body washing -- Running gear washing --
Engine cleaning -- Cleaning upholstering -- Rug cleaning --
Windshield cleaning -- Sedan or closed body cleaning -- Tire
cleaning -- Rim cleaning -- Light lens cleaning -- Caution.
CHAPTER XLII.
TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY AND CARE 256
Tire care -- Tire chains -- Cross chains -- Tube care -- Tube
repairing -- Tire and tube storage.
CHAPTER XLIII.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 259
General overhauling and tuning hints.
CHAPTER XLIV.
AUTOMOBILE PAINTING 262
CHAPTER XLV.
CARBON REMOVING 263
TROUBLE HINTS 264
FORD SUPPLEMENT.
I The car -- its operation and care 269
II The Ford Engine 277
III The Ford Cooling System 287
IV The Gasoline System 290
V The Ford Ignition System 295
VI The Ford Transmission 301
VII The Rear Axle Assembly 307
VIII The Ford Muffler 310
IX The Ford Running Gear 311
X The Ford Lubrication System 316
XI Care of Tires 320
XII Points of Maintenance 323
XIII The Ford One Ton Truck 325
XIV The F. A. Starting and Lighting System Installed on Sedans
and Coupés 328
INDEX 335
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE PAGE
1. Typical Four-Cylinder Block 13
2. Cylinder Block with Head Removed 13
3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed) 14
4. Typical Cylinder Piston 15
5. Typical Piston Ring 15
6. Typical Connecting Rod 16
7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft 17
8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft 17
9. Cam Shaft 18
10. Flywheel 19
11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement 22
12. Poppet Valve 23
13. Valve Types, Location and Operation 24
14. Valve Timing Marks 25
15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks -- 4-Cylinder 27
16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks -- 8-Cylinder 28
17. 4-Stroke Cycle 29
18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine 31
19. Power Stroke Diagram 32
20. Buick Engine -- Parts Assembly 36
21. Buick Engine -- Location Inside Parts Assembly 37
22. Buick Motor -- End View 38
23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine 39
24. Splash Oiling 41
25. Plunger Pump Oiling System 42
26. Stromberg Model M Carburetor -- Sectional View 46
27. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Air Bleeder Action 47
28. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Accelerating Well 49
29. Stromberg Carburetor Model M -- Idling Operation 51
30. Stromberg Carburetor -- Throttle ¹⁄₅ Open 52
31. Stromberg Carburetor -- Throttle Wide Open 53
32. Stromberg Model M -- Adjustment Points 55
33. Stromberg Model “L” -- Adjustment Points 58
34. Sunderman Carburetor 60
35. Sunderman Carburetor 61
36. Sunderman Carburetor 62
37. Sunderman Carburetor 63
38. Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled 64
39. Stewart Carburetor 66
40. Carter Carburetor 70
41. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A -- Sectional View 72
42. Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A -- Adjustment Points 73
43. Holley Kerosene Carburetor 76
44. Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment 77
45. Hot Spot Manifold 79
46. Holley Vapor Manifold -- Ford Cars 80
47. Thermo-Syphon Cooling System 82
48. Muffler -- Three Compartment 86
49. Muffler 87
50. Vacuum System -- Top Arrangement 89
51. Vacuum System Installation 90
52. Vacuum System Diagram -- Stewart Warner 91
53. Vacuum System -- Inside View of Parts 94
54. Coil Diagram 96
55. Dynamo -- Diagram of Action 98
56. Magnets -- Pole Blocks 101
57. Armature Core -- Wound Armature 102
58. Primary and Secondary Winding and Current Direction 102
59. Breaker -- Slip Ring -- Distributor 103
60. Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor -- Housing Removed 106
61. Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4 107
62. Wiring Diagram, North-East System -- on Dodge Car 115
63. North-East Distributor -- Model O -- Ignition 116
64. North East Breaker-Box 118
65. Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism -- North East 121
66. Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram -- Type C. C. 127
67. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Type C. C. 128
68. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block 128
69. Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor 129
70. Atwater Kent Type C. C. Wiring Diagram 130
71. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type
K-2 System 133
72. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type
K-2 System 133
73. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type
K-2 System 134
74. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Diagram of Action -- Type
K-2 System 134
75. Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block 135
76. Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2 136
77. Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring 137
78. Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism -- A-K Type
K-2 138
79. Atwater Kent Contact Breaker -- Oiling Diagram -- A-K Type
K-2 139
80. Philbrin Contact Maker -- Point Adjustment 141
81. Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade 142
82. Switch Case 143
83. Duplex High Frequency Switch 144
84. Philbrin Wiring Diagram 145
85. Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine 149
86. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action 151
87. Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action 152
88. Wiring Diagram Model N -- Hupmobile 153
89. Wiring Diagram -- Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six 155
90. Wiring Diagram -- Jeffrey Four 158
91. Hydrometer Syringe 159
91¹⁄₂. Dodge Wiring Diagram 162
92. North East Model G Starter Generator 164
93. Delco Motor Generator -- Showing Parts 168
94. Delco Motor Generator -- Diagram of Operation 170
95. Delco Ignition Switch Plate 173
96. Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker -- Mounted 173
97. Delco Ignition Coil 175
98. Delco Wiring Diagram -- Buick Cars 176
99. Delco Ignition Distributor 177
100. Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer 178
101. Storage Battery, Sectional View 180
102. Storage Battery, Sectional View 182
103. Hydrometer Syringe 183
104. Spark Plug 187
105. Cone Clutch and Brake 190
106. Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmission 192
107. Borg and Beck Clutch 193
108. Cone Clutch Leathers -- Pattern -- Cutting 196
109. Friction Transmission 199
110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts 200
111. Sliding Gear Transmission -- Sectional View 201
112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly -- Unit Power Plant 203
113. Slip Joint and Universal 204
114. Universal Joint Construction Diagram 205
115. Differential Action Diagram 207
116. Differential Assembly 208
117. Differential Adjusting Points 209
118. Allen Gearless Differential 210
119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle 213
120. Full-Floating Axle -- Wheel-End Arrangement 214
121. Full-Floating Axle 214
122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts 215
123. I-Beam Front Axle 216
124. Brake -- Types and Adjustment 219
125. Brake -- Showing Toggle Arrangement 220
126. Transmission Brake -- Equalizer 220
127. Brake -- Arrangement and Adjustment -- “Buick” 221
128. ¹⁄₂-Elliptical Front Spring 226
129. Full-Elliptic Spring 226
130. ³⁄₄-Elliptical Rear Spring 227
131. Platform Spring 227
132. Cantilever Spring, Front 228
133. Cantilever Spring, Rear 228
134. Wheel Alignment Diagram 230
135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear 233
136. Worm and Nut Steering Gear 234
137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear 234
138. Steering Wheel 235
139. Plain Bearings or Bushings 236
140. Shims 237
141. Bock Roller Bearing 237
142. Hyatt Roller Bearing 238
143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing 239
144. Double Row Thrust Bearing 241
145. End Thrust Bearing 241
146. Car Arrangement 245
147. Ford Motor -- Sectional View 278
148. Ford Motor -- Valve and Cylinder Assembly 279
149. Ford Fuel System 290
150. Ford Transmission Assembly 303
151. Ford Rear Axle System 308
152. Ford Brake 309
153. Ford Spindle 311
154. Ford Chassis Oiling Chart 317
THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
HISTORY OF THE GAS ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION
A great many experiments were conducted with the explosive type of
motor between 1840 and 1860. These motors were very heavy and crude
affairs and furnished little or no power. They were either abandoned
or given up by those conducting the experiments, and had all but
disappeared in the later 50’s. The chief difficulties that they could
not overcome were, the finding of a suitable and combustible fuel, a
way to distribute it to the explosion chambers in proper proportion,
and a device to ignite it at the proper time. Many of these early
inventions used coal tar gases and gunpowder as fuel.
The first designs for an internal combustion engine of the four
stroke cycle type were devised in 1862 by M. Beau de Rochas. These
designs were taken in hand by a German by the name of Otto, and many
experiments were conducted by him and two other Germans, Daimler
and Benz, which resulted in a fairly successful engine. The Otto
Gas Engine Co., of Deutz, Germany, was then formed with Daimler as
general manager. Experiments were carried on which resulted in many
improvements, such as valve adjusting and electrical spark ignition.
Many other smaller improvements were worked out which overcame many of
the difficulties of the former and cruder devices.
The first gas engines were all of the single cylinder type, very
heavily constructed and produced from three to five horse power. In
1886, Daimler conceived the idea of constructing the multiple type
of engine with water-jacketed cylinders. Benz also completed a very
successful motor in the late fall of 1886, which embodied the water
cooling idea. The practical beginning of the gas engine as a factor
in vehicle propulsion began in the fall of 1886, when Daimler applied
his motor to a two-wheeled contrivance, which greatly resembled our
present-day motorcycle. While this machine ran, it was not considered a
very great success. Benz in the early part of 1887, connected his motor
to a three-wheeled vehicle with which he was able to travel at the rate
of three miles per hour.
The real beginning of the present-day automobile took place in Paris,
France, in 1890, when M. Panhard secured the patent rights from Daimler
to use his engine. He then built a four-wheeled vehicle, which carried
some of the ideas of present-day construction, such as a steering
device and brakes. To this he applied his engine and was able to travel
at the rate of six miles per hour. In 1891 Peugeot Frères completed
their vehicle and installed a Benz engine. This vehicle or car, as
it was then called by the French government on account of its being
mechanically driven, was able to make from seven to eight miles per
hour.
The perfecting of the automobile was hampered very much between the
years 1891 and 1898 by stringent laws that had been enacted by the
French government, which all but prohibited the driving of a car on the
public thoroughfare.
The first American-made automobile of the gas propelled type was
completed in the year 1892 by Charles Duryea. This car embodied
many of our present-day ideas but was very lightly constructed and
under-powered.
In 1893 another car made its appearance in America. This car was built
by Edward T. Haynes and was the beginning of the present-day Haynes’
line of famous cars.
The first automobile club was organized in Paris, France, in the year
1894 with the Marquis de Dion as president. The purpose of this club
was to secure a reformation of the laws that had been enacted when the
automobile made its first appearance on the public thorough-fare, and
to make laws and rules to govern automobile racing.
At that time it was necessary when driving on a public highway to
have some one run seventy-five feet in advance of a car waving a red
flag, and to shout a warning at street intersections. These stringent
laws, however, were repealed by the government through influential aid
brought to bear on it by the automobile club assisted by the rapid
progress of the automobile industry.
PURCHASING A NEW CAR
THINGS TO BE CONSIDERED TO MAKE THE INVESTMENT SAFE
When you are going to buy a new car go about it in this manner and
protect your investment.
First.--Choose the car that suits you best in regard to cost,
operation, and appearance.
Second.--Inquire as to the financial status of the manufacturer. If
there is anything wrong with the car, or the management of the company,
it will show up here.
Third.--Orphaned cars may run as well and give as good service as
anybody could ask for, but when a company fails or discontinues to
manufacture a model, the car immediately loses from one-third to
one-half of its actual value. That is, providing you wish to trade it
in or sell it as a used car.
Fourth.--What kind of service does the agency in your vicinity give?
Do they take any interest in the cars they sell after they are in the
hands of the purchaser?
Fifth.--The amount of interest taken in your purchase by the agent or
service station usually determines the amount of depreciation at the
end of the season.
Sixth.--If you are purchasing your first car some little adjustments
will be required, and conditions will arise that require understanding
and attention. You, therefore, must acquire either a functional and
mechanical knowledge of the operation, or depend on the agent or
service station for help.
Seventh.--You will probably say that you can get along without such
help. You probably can, but what will be the results? Will you be
required to stand a loss in the long run resulting from excessive
repair bills and depreciation which could have been prevented to a
great extent?
Eighth.--Remember that an agent can fool you when you are buying, but
that you cannot fool him if you wish to sell or trade in.
Ninth.--Remember that this book, _The Automobile Owners’ Guide_, was
written to assist you in just such cases as we have presented, and that
by spending a little time in study you can acquire a working knowledge
of your car, and become independent of the service station and the
agent, which will result in a big saving in both repair bills and
depreciation.
PURCHASING A USED CAR
HOW TO ESTIMATE ITS VALUE
The question is often asked, Does it pay to invest money in a
second-hand car? The answer may be either yes or no, and depends
entirely upon the condition of the car.
For example, A and B purchase a new car at the same time. A is rather
conservative. He is also a careful driver and gives his car the best of
attention. B is a careless driver and pays little or no attention to
adjustments and lubrication.
A has seen to proper lubrication and has kept the parts properly
adjusted and tightened up, and his careful driving has kept the
alignment in perfect condition. His car at the end of the first season
requires a little overhauling which will put it in as good condition as
it was when it was new as far as service is concerned, and it is worth
85 to 90 per cent of its original value.
B has not seen to proper lubrication and has allowed his motor to
overheat. The cylinders and pistons are scored and worn, and the valves
are warped and do not seat properly. He drove into deep ruts and
chuck-holes, and bumped into curbs and posts while turning around. His
axles and wheels are out of line; the frame and all the running parts
which it supports are out of alignment. Overhauling will not put this
car in A-1 condition, and it is not worth more than 30 per cent. of the
original cost price. It would be a poor investment at any price to an
owner who is buying it for his own use.
=Selecting and Testing a Used Car.=--First.--If you are buying from
a dealer who trades in cars, judge his statement of the condition of
a car according to his ability as a mechanic and according to his
reputation for accuracy. If you are buying from a reputable used
car dealer his word can usually be taken as a correct statement of
conditions as his business depends upon the accuracy of his statements
and he knows the condition of a car before he buys it.
Second.--See the former owner. Get his statement of the condition of
the car and the care it has had, and judge it by his appearance, and
the general appearance of his home and property.
Third.--If the car is listed as _Rebuilt_ or _Overhauled_, see if the
oil-pan, differential, and transmission covers have been removed. If
this has been done the old grease will either have been cleaned off
or show marks of the removal. If these marks are found the proper
adjustments and replacements have probably been made.
Fourth.--Don’t judge the mechanical condition of a car by its outward
appearance.
Fifth.--Examine the tires and figure the cost of replacement if any are
found in poor condition.
Sixth.--Jack up the front axle and test the wheels for loose or worn
bearings.
Seventh.--Grasp the wheel at the top and bottom and wiggle it to
determine whether the spindle bolts or steering device connections are
worn.
Eighth.--Jack up the rear axle, set the gear shift-lever into
high-speed, move the wheel in and out from the bottom to discover worn
bearings, and move the wheel, forward and backward, to determine the
amount of back-lash in the differential and universal joints.
Ninth.--Test the compression of the cylinders while the engine is cold
using the hand crank. If one cylinder is found weak, a leak exists and
the escaping compression can be heard.
Tenth.--Run the motor until it is warm. If any weakness in compression
is noticeable the cylinders are probably scored, or the rings may be
worn. The valves may also be warped, thereby preventing them from
seating properly.
Eleventh.--Examine the shoulders of the cross-members supporting the
engine, radiator, or transmission to see if they are cracked or broken.
Twelfth.--The battery may have deteriorated through improper attention.
Test the solution with a hydrometer. If it is found well up, it can be
passed as O. K.
Thirteenth.--Don’t judge the condition of the car by the model, as a
two or three-year-old model may be in better mechanical condition than
a six-month or year-old model.
DRIVING INSTRUCTIONS
A new driver should remain cool and take things in a natural way as a
matter of course. There is nothing to get nervous or excited about when
learning to drive a car. Any one can master the art of driving quickly
by remaining cool and optimistic.
First.--Acquire some definite knowledge of the operation of the engine
and its accompanying devices.
Second.--Have some one explain the operation of the accelerator, spark,
and throttle levers.
Third.--Study the relative action of the clutch and gear-shifting
pedal.
Fourth.--The new driver takes the wheel and assumes a natural and calm
position with the muscles relaxed.
Fifth.--He adjusts the motor control levers. The throttle lever is
advanced one-fourth its sliding distance on the quadrant. The spark
lever is set to one-half the sliding distance on the quadrant.
Sixth.--Push the ignition-switch button, IN, or ON, and press the
starter button, letting it up as soon as the engine begins to fire.
Seventh.--Not all gear-shifts are marked, consequently it is a good
idea to let the new driver feel out the different speed changes. This
is accomplished by pushing out the clutch and placing the shift-lever
into one of the four slots. Now let up the clutch pedal until it starts
to move the car, continue the feeling-out process until the reverse
speed gear is located, and at this point impress on him that first
and reverse speeds, are always opposite each other, lengthwise either
on the right or left side of neutral, while second speed is always
crosswise opposite reverse, and high-speed is opposite first on the
other side of neutral.
Eighth.--Starting the car with engine running, advance the spark-lever
three-fourths the distance on the quadrant, advance the throttle until
the engine is turning over nicely (not racing). Place one hand on the
steering-wheel and with the other grasp the gear-shift-lever, push in
the clutch pedal, hold it for five seconds, in order that the clutch
brake may stop rotation. Place the shift-lever into the first-speed
slot and let up on the clutch pedal. The car should be driven four or
five hundred feet on this speed until the driver acquires the “nack” of
steering.
Ninth.--To shift to second speed advance the gas throttle until the car
gathers a smooth rolling motion, press in the clutch pedal and allow
three to five seconds for the brake to retard the speed of the clutch,
then shift the lever to second speed and release the clutch pedal
easily.
Tenth.--To shift into high-speed retard the throttle lever a trifle (to
prevent the engine from racing), throw out the clutch and shift the
lever into the high-speed slot. Perform these operations slowly but
without hesitation.
Eleventh.--To shift to reverse speed go through the same operation that
you followed when first was used, except that the shift-lever is placed
in the reverse slot.
Twelfth.--The reverse speed-gear is never engaged unless the car is at
a “stand-still,” as this gear turns in an opposite direction.
Thirteenth.--Always test the emergency brake lever and the speed
shift-lever, to be sure that they are in a neutral position before
starting the engine.
Fourteenth.--Remember that in case of emergency the car can be stopped
quickly by pushing in both foot-pedals. Pressure on the clutch pedal
disconnects the engine from the car, while pressure on the “foot” or
service brake pedal, slows up the motion of the car and will bring it
quickly to a stand-still.
Fifteenth.--Always push the clutch out when using the service brake to
check the rolling motion of the car.
Sixteenth.--When you wish to stop the car and motor kick out the clutch
and hold it in this position while you stop the rolling motion of the
car with the service brake and shift the gears to neutral. Then set the
emergency brake and turn off the switch to stop the motor.
If the engine cannot take the car up a steep grade in low speed (due to
defective motor or gravity fuel feed) stop, engage reverse speed, turn
off the ignition switch, and let the car back down to level or a place
where you can turn around, and back up the hill. The reverse speed is
geared from one and a half to two times lower than first speed.
Nineteen.--To stop the back wheels from skidding turn the front wheels
in the direction which the back wheels are sliding and release the
brakes. Turning away or applying the brakes adds momentum to the
sliding motion.
Twenty.--If for any reason you must or cannot avoid driving into the
ditch unless the ditch is very shallow, turn the car directly toward
the opposite bank. The front or rear springs will lodge in the bank
and prevent the car from rolling over and crushing the occupants, and
the car can be drawn out more easily from this position.
ROAD RULES FOR CITY AND COUNTRY
1.--Be courteous to all whom you meet and give your assistance if
necessary.
2.--When encountering a bad stretch of road, with the track on your
side, don’t drive in and force another machine coming towards you to
get out of the track. WAIT.
3.--Never block a track. In case you wish to stop and talk to some one,
drive to one side.
4.--Keep on the right hand side of the road at all times, whether
moving or standing, except as prescribed in Paragraph 5.
5.--In passing vehicles traveling in the same direction, always pass on
the left and blow the horn.
6.--In passing a vehicle that has just stopped, slow down and sound the
horn.
7.--In changing your direction, or stopping, always give the
appropriate hand signal.
8.--Hand signals, straight up or up on 45° angle, STOP. Straight out or
horizontal, TURNING TO THE LEFT. Down at an angle of 45°, TURNING TO
THE RIGHT.
9.--The distance between vehicles outside of towns and cities, 20
yards; between vehicles passing through towns and cities, 5 yards;
between vehicles halted at the curb, 2 yards.
10.--Bring all vehicles under easy control at street and road
intersections.
11.--A maximum driving speed should not exceed 7 miles in business
sections of cities, 15 miles in residential sections, 25 miles on
country roads.
12.--Form the habit of slowing down and looking both ways before
crossing tracks.
13.--Always pass a street car on the right side.
14.--Always stop 8 feet from a street car when passengers are getting
off, unless there is a safety zone, then drive slowly.
15.--Never drive over the side-walk line while waiting for signal of
traffic officer.
16.--Notify traffic officer which way you wish to turn with hand signal.
17.--Always stop and wait for an opening when driving from a side
street or road into a main thoroughfare.
18.--Make square turns at all street corners unless otherwise directed
by traffic officer.
19.--If you wish to turn from one street into another wait until
the traffic officer gives the straight ahead signal, then give the
appropriate signal to those in the rear.
20.--Always drive near the curb when you wish to turn to the right, and
to the right of the center line of the street when you wish to turn to
the left.
21.--Drive straight ahead at 42nd St. and 5th Ave., N. Y., and at
Market and Broad St., Newark, N. J. These corners handle more traffic
than any two corners in the United States. No turns are made at either
corner.
22.--Exercise care not to injure road ways.
23.--Do not damage improved roads by the use of chains when unnecessary.
24.--In case the car is not provided with chains, rope wrapped around
the tires will make a good substitute.
25.--In case of fire, do not try to put it out with water as the
gasoline will only float and spread the fire. Use a fire extinguisher
or smother with sand or with a blanket.
WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENT
1.--In case of injury to person or property stop car and render such
assistance as may be needed.
2.--Secure the name of person injured or of owners of said property.
3.--Secure names and addresses of witnesses to the accident.
4.--Draw diagram of streets as shown in Fig. A. Show relative
positions of the colliding vehicles and the object of pedestrian just
before the accident.
5.--Label streets and every object depicted and add measurements and
line showing course followed by vehicles, etc., and any explanatory
statements which would aid an understanding of the occurrence.
[Illustration:
Main St.
Side St.
Fig. A. Street Intersection]
6.--File this report at police headquarters.
CHAPTER I
GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS
We will use for purposes of illustration the common four-cylinder,
four cycle, cast en bloc, “L”-head type of motor, as this type is used
probably by 90% of the automobile manufacturers. The block of this type
of motor is cast with an overlapping shoulder at the upper left hand
side which contains a compartment adjoining the combustion chamber in
which the intake and exhaust valves seat, and the casting is made, in
the shape of the Capital letter L turned upside down. This arrangement
allows both valves to seat in one chamber and to operate from one cam
shaft.
The operation of each cylinder is identically the same whether you have
a one or a many cylindered motor, consequently when you have gained a
working knowledge of one cylinder, others are a mere addition. This may
sound confusing when the eight or twelve cylindered motor is mentioned,
but is more readily understood when we consider the fact that an eight
or twelve cylindered motor is nothing more than two fours or two sixes,
set to a single crank-case or base in V-shape to allow the connecting
rods of each motor to operate on a single crank shaft. This arrangement
also allows all the valves to operate from a single cam shaft, thereby
making the motor very rigid and compact, which is an absolute necessity
considering the small space that is allowed for the motor in our
present-day designs.
Fig. 1. The casting or block, which is the foundation of the whole
motor or engine, usually has a removable head which allows for easy
access to the pistons and valves. The block is cast with a passage or
compartment through the head and around the cylinders through which
water circulates for cooling the adjoining surfaces of the cylinders.
This alleviates the danger from expansion and contraction caused by
the tremendous heat generated in and about the combustion chambers.
This block also contains the cylinders and valve seats. The pistons
and valves are fitted to their respective positions as construction
progresses.
[Illustration:
Exhaust Pt.
Intake Pt.
Re. Plate
Det. Head
Cyl. Block
Upper Crankcase
Lower Crankcase
Fig. 1. Typical Four-cylinder Block]
Fig. 2. The block with head removed shows the smooth flush surface of
the block face and the location of the cylinders in which the pistons
operate or slide, with each power impulse or explosion. When the piston
is at its upper extreme it comes within a sixteenth of an inch of
being flush with the top of the block, while the valves (also shown in
Fig. 2) rest on ground-in seats, in their respective chambers, and are
operated by a stem which extends downward from the head through a guide
bushing in the block to the cam shaft.
[Illustration:
Pistons
Water Vents
Intake Valve
Exhaust Valve
Fig. 2. Cylinder Block With Head Removed]
The location of the water vents is also shown, through which water is
circulated to prevent the cylinders from overheating which would cause
the pistons to “stick” from expansion.
Fig. 3. The top or head of the motor is removed, exposing the
combustion chambers. These chambers must be absolutely air-tight as
the charge of gas drawn in through the inlet valve is compressed here
before the explosion takes place, and low compression means a weak
explosion, which causes the motor to run with an uneven-jumpy motion,
and with an apparent great loss of power. A copper fiber insert gasket
is placed between the top of the block and the head before it is bolted
down. This gasket prevents any of the compression from escaping through
unevenness of the contact surfaces, as metal surfaces are prone to warp
when exposed to intense heat. It is necessary to turn the bolts in the
head down occasionally, as the heat causes expansion. The following
contraction, which loosens them, results in a loss of compression and a
faulty operation of the motor.
[Illustration:
Combustion Chamber
Spark Plug Vent
Water Circulating Vent
Bolt Holes
Fig. 3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)]
The spark-plug vents through the head are usually located directly
over the piston although in some cases they are over the valve head
and in some motors which are cast without a removable head they may be
at one side of the combustion chamber. The location of the spark-plug
does not materially affect the force of the explosion, although when
it is located directly over the piston a longer plug may be used, as
the pistons do not come up flush with the top of the block, and a
spark-plug extended well into the combustion chamber will not become
corroded with carbon or burnt oil as is usually the case with a plug
which does not extend beyond the upper wall surface of the combustion
chamber.
Fig. 4. The plunger or piston is turned down to fit snugly within the
cylinder and is cast hollow, with two shoulders extending from the
inside wall.
[Illustration:
Head
Ring
Wrist Pin
Oil Ring
Ring Groove
Bushing
Wrist Pin
Set Screw
Ring Groove
Set Screw
Bushing
Wrist Pin
Fig. 4. Typical Cylinder Piston]
Fig. 4A shows a split piston. Three grooves are cut into it near the
head to receive the piston rings. The width and depth of these grooves
vary according to the size of the piston. A hole is bored through the
piston and shoulders about half way from each end. The bushing or plain
bearing shown in Fig. 4B is pressed into this hole and forms a bearing
for the wrist pin also shown in Fig. 4B. Wrist pins are usually made
of a much softer metal than the bearing, and are subjected to severe
duty, which often causes them to wear and produce a sharp knock; this
may be remedied by pressing out the pin, giving it a quarter turn, and
replacing it in that position.
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Typical Piston Ring]
Fig. 5 shows a split joint piston ring. Piston rings are usually made
from a high grade gray iron, which fits into the grooves in the piston
and springs out against the cylinder walls, thereby preventing the
compressed charge of gas from escaping down the cylinder, between the
wall and the piston. Fig. 5A shows a piston equipped with leak-proof
rings; this type of piston ring has overlapping joints, and gives
excellent service, especially when used on a motor which has seen
considerable service. Fig. 5B illustrates how piston rings may line up,
or become worn from long use, or from faulty lubrication. This trouble
may be easily detected by turning the motor over slowly. The escaping
charge can usually be heard and the strength required to turn the motor
will be found much less uniform on the defective cylinder.
The motor should be overhauled at least once every year, and by
applying new rings to the pistons at this time new life and snappiness
may be perceived at once.
The connecting rod shown in Fig. 6 has a detachable or split bearing
on the large end, and takes its bearing on the crank pin of the crank
shaft. The small or upper end may have either a hinge joint or press
fit to the wrist pin. This rod serves as a connection and delivers
the power stroke from the piston to the crank shaft. These rods are
required to stand very hard jars caused by the explosion taking place
over the piston head. The bearings are provided with shims between the
upper and lower half for adjusting. Piston or connecting rod bearings
must be kept perfectly adjusted to prevent the bearings from cracking
or splitting which will cause the rod to break and which may cause
considerable damage to the crank case.
[Illustration:
Wrist Pin Bearing
Upper Half Crank Pin Bearing
Lower Half Bearing End Overlaps
Shims
Bushing
Rod
Shims
Bolts
Fig. 6. Typical Connecting Rod]
Fig. 7 shows a counter balanced crank shaft. This type of crank-shaft
is provided with weights which balance the shaft and carry the momentum
gathered in the revolution.
[Illustration:
Rear Main Bearing
Weight
Center Main Bearing
Front Main Bearing
Fly Wheel Attached to this Ring
Timing Gear Attached Here
Crank Pin
Crank Pins
Fig. 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft]
[Illustration:
Main Bearings
Fig. 8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft]
Fig. 8 shows the plain type of crank shaft with the timing gear
attached to the front end and the fly-wheel attached to the rear end.
The crank shaft shown is carried or held by five main bearings, which
is an exception, as the majority of motor manufacturers use only three
main bearings to support the crank shaft, while in some of the smaller
motors only two are used. These bearings are always of the split
type, the seat for the upper half is cast into the upper part of the
crank-case, and the lower half is usually attached to the upper half by
four bolts which pass through the flange at each side of the bearing.
Small shims of different sizes are employed between the flanges of
each half of the bearing in order to secure a perfect adjustment which
is very essential, as these bearings are subjected to heavy strains
and severe duty. A shim may be removed occasionally as the bearing
begins to show wear. A worn main bearing can be detected by placing the
metal end of a screw-driver or hammer on the crank-case opposite the
bearing and the other end to the ear. If the bearing is loose or worn a
dull bump or thud will be heard. This looseness should be taken up by
removing a shim of the proper thickness.
[Illustration:
Cam Gear
Bearings
Cams
Cams
Fig. 9. Cam Shaft]
Main bearings run loose for any length of time will be found very hard
to adjust as the jar which they are subjected to invariably pounds
them off center which makes readjustment a very difficult task to
accomplish with lasting effect. New main bearings in a motor should
always be scraped to secure a perfect fit. A loose piston or connecting
rod bearing will produce a sharp knock which can easily be determined
from the dull thud produced by a loose main bearing. (Fig. 9.) The
cam shaft revolves on bearings and is usually located at the base of
the cylinders on the left hand side looking toward the radiator and
carries a set of cams for each cylinder. The cam pushes the valve open,
and holds it in this position, while the piston travels the required
number of degrees of the cycle or stroke.
The cam shaft is driven from the crank shaft usually through a set of
timing gears, and operated at one-half the speed of the crank shaft in
a four cycle motor, as a valve is only lifted once, while the crank
shaft makes two revolutions or four strokes. The cam-shaft bearings,
and the timing gears are usually self-lubricating and require very
little attention. Timing of the cam shaft is a rather difficult matter
and will be treated in a following chapter under the head of valve
timing.
[Illustration:
Start Gear
Key-Seat
Shaft-Seat
Cone Clutch Seat
Disc Clutch Small Disc Bolt on Here
Fig. 10. Flywheel]
The oil pan or reservoir forms the lower half or base of the crank
case. The lubricating oil is carried here at a level which will allow
the piston rods to dip into it at each revolution of the crank shaft.
The timing gears receive their lubrication from the supply carried in
the reservoir by means of a plunger or piston pump which is operated
from the cam shaft. The balance of the motor is usually lubricated by
a splash system taken up in a later chapter on lubrication. The oil
is carried at a level between two points marked, high and low, on a
glass or float gauge which is located on the crank case. A gasket made
of paper or fiber is used between the union or connection of the oil
reservoir and the upper half of the crank case to prevent the oil from
working out through the connection.
Fig. 10 represents the flywheel. The flywheel is usually keyed to
the crank shaft directly behind the rear main bearing. This wheel is
proportionate in weight to the revolving speed of the motor, which
it keeps in balance by gathering the force of the power stroke. The
momentum gathered by it in this stroke carries the pistons through the
three succeeding strokes called the exhaust, intake, and compression
strokes. The flywheel also serves as a connection between the
power-plant and the running gear of the car, as a part of the clutch is
located on it, and the connection takes place either in the rim or on
the flange.