Envoi
“_Tho’ world on world in myriad myriads roll round us
Each with different powers and other forms of life than ours._”
I have spent sixty years in qualitative experiments in geology. I began
with old volcanoes and geysers in the Yellowstone and the far west,
and ended with experiments on the active Hawaiian volcano, Kilauea.
Based on these experiments, I have written books about evolution of
craters, and about distinct peculiarities of explosive eruptions from
underground water.
The accusation that I am not orthodox in professional geology is false.
Professional geology is largely continental because its field work has
been on continents. My work has been oceanic; my field, seventy percent
of the earth’s surface, extending over a thick crust down to the earth
core. The earth core is fluid and massive and hot, as all geology
agrees. Isostasy, which postulates a thin flexible shell, is violated
by the ocean deeps and the volcanic ridges. Volcanic rift echelons like
the Cordillera and the Hawaiian ridge are too long to be generated as
the fracture of a crust fifty miles deep. The circularity and graduated
size in linear stretches of the Pacific arcs are functions of a
fractured thick-shell sphere. Similar gradation of arcs is on the lunar
surface. Arguments, based on the knowledge of meteors, for an iron core
and for large lunar craters are without analogy. Substratum theories,
from Stübel to Daly, do not agree with oceanic volcanism. Gravitational
crust balance applies better to a primitive thick fault block crust
than to a thin shell. Earth lavas, as natural experimental models,
imitate lunar features on small and large scales. Both make consistent
history for two similar globes. Volcanology has to stand as global and
ancient, and any geologist may accept the reasonings here enumerated
without being unorthodox.
The unquestioned certainties of modern seismology, the transmission of
elastic waves through the globe to sensitive recording pendulums,
are that the crust is 1,800 miles thick, that the core is a heavy ball
of white hot fluid, and that its temperature at crustal contact has
been estimated by Verhoogen at 2200° Centigrade. The deep crust is less
dense than the core, and is commonly conceded to be basic heavy rock
not unlike stony meteorites. The outside shell under oceans, and over
three-quarters of the earth, is covered by basaltic lava, and wherever
igneous rock has been formed by volcanic action, intrusive or extrusive
black basic lava recurs as dikes and outflows.
[Illustration:
ARMOR PLATE AT OCEANS
ARMOR PLATE AT CONTINENTS
EXTERIOR OF FUNDAMENTAL GLOBE TO WHICH ADJUSTMENT
TENDS
CORE LIMIT TO WHICH ADJUSTMENT TENDS
VOLC. OCEAN CHAINS OF OCEAN VOLCANOES
VOLC. CONT. CHAINS OF CONTINENTAL BORDER VOLCANOES
ON THE PAGE OPPOSITE _is a diagram of a hypothetical
globe section near the equator, showing oceans and continents
in true surface ratio; fault block segments of rigid crust
isostatically supported on a liquid core; sixteen volcanic
partitions, oceanic and continental; and Stübel’s “armorplate”
from pristine volcanic eruption. Possibly the profile is
tetrahedral. My argument for this globe section is based on the
following_:
A globe of core, siliceous shell, and armorplate was formed by
primitive volcanic eruptions.
The shell resulted from external aggregation of solids and gases
and internal segregation about a molten core.
The fault blocks came from shrinkage of the shell over a liquid
core, adjusted by luni-solar gravitation and rotation through
the pre-geologic ages.
The continental and oceanic boundaries of the fault blocks were
determined by elevated and sunken blocks with core volcanism of
escaping gas melting walls and laying down an exterior siliceous
armorplate on the earliest solidified globe. This in continents
is the seismologists’ lighter exterior layer underlaid by denser
rock at the armorplate bottom.
Continental volcanism (VOLC.-CONT.) became differentiated from
oceanic volcanism, by light atmospheric pressure over the raised
blocks and much greater water pressure over three-quarters of
the earth, the sunken blocks.
The subdivision is represented in the diagrammatic section on
the globe by three-quarters of the section being ocean, namely
twelve-sixteenths.
The section shows twelve-sixteenths as sunken blocks,
four-sixteenths as raised blocks. The four sixteenths by the
tetrahedral hypothesis of Lowthian Green and Michel-Lévy make
the four continental protuberances.
Twelve-sixteenths of the surface is broken by fundamental rifts
of irregular shapes, some of them north-south, controlled by
centrifugal stresses and corresponding to the north-south deeps
and heaps and known rifts. These have persisted since the first
volcanism of primitive time.
Circum-continental volcanism is represented on the diagram by
VOLC.-CONT., oceanic volcanism is represented by VOLC.-OCEAN.
Both are shown as interblock rifts, adjusted through the
ages (exaggerated on the drawing) and always tensional over
expansional core pressure, with exothermal heating agencies.
The sixteen fundamental block boundaries correspond
approximately to sixteen fundamental volcanic fault blocks known
vaguely on the globe. Something similar is known on the moon.
The rifts are the boundaries of sixteen blocks, some polyhedral,
some elongate. Some are oceanic like New Zealand-Tonga, some
are ancient and continental like Arabia. The imperfectly
mapped ocean deeps are boundary lines. The rifts of Africa and
Chile-Patagonia are boundary lines. The great arcs of Himalaya,
Java-Sumatra, and Aleutian ridges are boundary lines of circular
blocks. Possibly they were circular calderas of engulfment on
the primitive spheroid. The edge of Mare Imbrium on the moon
shows fault rifts. The straight alignment of lunar calderas
hints at moon rifts under an unmapped mosaic. The blocks of the
theory of continental drift, are guesses at a mosaic of crust
blocks. But the possibility drift theory omitted is that the
blocks are deep. Except for the Lowthian Green, Wegener, Holmes,
and Daly speculations, based on thin crust blocks of continents,
no mapping of the shell mosaic exists. It is not feasible until
we map the detail of ocean bottoms. Primitive blocks require
acceptance of a thick crust and justify new speculation. The
cracks between blocks are the volcanic partitions of the earth,
which I call ignisepts.
There are many points for speculation, some of them subject
to mathematical inquiry. Does surface water penetrate the
partitions? Is it high pressure and saline under oceans? How
do deep earthquakes stem from friction 300 miles down under
the Cordillera and the west Pacific? Do earth and moon spheres
as rounded tetrahedra crack similarly? Because of rotation
are north-south cracks dominant? Are the core fluids changing
volcanism through the ages?]
The twenty-eight percent of earth surface which lies above the sea in
continents is made up of siliceous sediments of shallow water basins,
with quartz as the dominant mineral, their strata wrinkled, and eroded
into mountain ranges. Desert and lake or river bottoms make up most of
the remainder. This material, when ancient, was changed by heat and
infiltration into what are called gneisses, schists, and granites; and
the process of granitization is among the metamorphic processes. It
is a process of deep burial, heat, gases, and water which has always
been a puzzle, and may affect ancient volcanic lavas wherever they
have covered the land. It is a process of solution of silica, and its
deposition is by steam and other vapors.
In the same way volcanic action by the outpouring of lava through
cracks is a process of solution of the deeper crust of the earth by hot
gases, largely burning hydrogen. Lavas emerging from Etna or Mauna Loa
are melted earth crust, dissolved and brought up by this same hydrogen
and by other gases from the walls of profound cracks leading down to
the earth core. Volcanism and metamorphism are thus the same process,
namely the action of gases up cracks through deep earth crust. But
metamorphism acts on continental sediments, whereas modern volcano
eruption acts through sea bottom and sea shore faulting, very ancient
features of the earth and distinct from continents. In Hawaii no
metamorphic rock fragments have been found.
Such primitive oceanic fault fissures extend under continents remnant
from the time of evolution of continents. They bring up the metamorphic
hot gases, which in siliceous sediments, make granites and gneisses and
schists with the aid of groundwater. Geology has no knowledge whatever
of whether this metamorphic process affects the hard rock under the
oceanic muds, because geology has never collected a piece of that rock.
Geology however knows inclusions and explosive fragments from oceanic
volcanoes, and it does not find there granite and gneiss and schist.
However, generalization does not apply to continental volcanoes like
those of Italy and Africa.
The beginning of fossils on continents is commonly considered to have
been 500 million years ago, and this may be extended another 1,500
million years for the most ancient identifiable continental rocks,
and an estimated total thickness of 120,000 feet to the bottom of the
most ancient sediments on earth. We know nothing of thickness of most
ancient volcanic deposits under the oceanic mud.
This brings us to the great German explorer Stübel, who mapped
volcanoes of the Andes, founded a museum of his work in Leipzig, and
published monographs on the Andes. He wrote a final book, including
material on Mount Pelée, on the “genetic differences of volcanic
mountains.” But such modern continentalists as Daly and Bucher in
America have disregarded Stübel. Daly is the authority on a shallow
earth shell and substratum of basalt, and Bucher of Columbia University
is a specialist on continental sediments and granitization.
The point is that Stübel made a profound generalization which nobody
has proved wrong. The earth is at least 3,000 million years old, and
when oceanic fault blocks sank and received condensing atmospheric
water and continental fault blocks remained high and became eroded,
there was already a thick shell of volcanic lavas. For volcanism
was the most ancient process on the earth’s surface. It had always
brought gases up cracks from the core, making atmosphere, water, and
extrusions. Stübel, called the extrusive shell on the outside of the
primitive crust the globe’s armorplate. The primal gas escape, whatever
the ancestral turbulence inside, had to come up cracks and make
volcanic deposits. It is commonly presumed that the very thick inside
crust formed rapidly by cooling and solidifying from outside the core
inward, and from inside the atmosphere outward. The latter surface
was eventually under water cooling over most of the earth and under
air cooling over the small continental area, a marked difference of
temperature and pressure for the two areas.
Seismometry teaches that most of the crust is of fairly uniform
density. Therefore, presumably, a thick crust was arrived at early.
There was obviously a time of conflict between the weighting of the
crust by its heavier accumulations next to the core, by its lighter
accumulations exteriorly under water and air, and finally by its
external armor plate of unknown comparative weight, made of volcanic
lava. For all we know, this might have been volcanic pumice. Rapidity
of crust thickening is speculative.
Right here there is an element of mystery in speculation as to which
has to accommodate comparison with the moon, the merging of atmospheric
condensation with volcanism, and the merging of suboceanic condensation
of lava with pristine eruption. This is too hard a nut to crack, in
our current ignorance of rock under sea bottom muds. But Stübel’s
insistence on a coating of lava armor plate over both continents and
sea bottoms as the earlier volcanism, and an external veneer on the
earth, is unavoidable. If it were all basalt like the present oceanic
volcanoes, we should find basalt in continents underneath the granites.
We do not do so. If it were all light weight granitizing by segregation
of silica, we should find commonly granite and obsidian fragments
within oceanic lavas. We do not do so. We have to conclude then that
our sections, topographic and geologic, do not go deep enough. And
as for the ocean bottoms, we have no sections at all. But Stübel was
right. An unknown volcanic eruption period had to precede geologic
volcanoes.
The question of ancient greenstones in Africa, Scandinavia, and Canada
is much discussed, for there were old volcanic lavas in many places;
mixed with gneisses, schists, and granites. They were not a deep
layer, but presumed to be ancient remnants of interspersed lavas among
sediments. They are one more evidence that volcanic eruption goes
back to the time of the most ancient rocks on continents and that its
lavas were affected by metamorphism. But no continuous deep stratum of
greenstones is known. At depths of fifty miles, under continents only,
is the Mohorovicic change to denser rock. This is an echo surface in
earthquake waves, but it is absent over the whole Pacific. It may be
the top of the armor plate.
Justice Holmes wrote that the Constitution of the United States
was an experiment. That all law of the nation works salvation by
prophecy based on experiment. The experiments were extended to the
Bill of Rights and all the amendments to the Constitution. I feel
that geology--in view of its extreme ignorance of submarine rocks,
ores, metals, oils, spring waters, temperatures, magnetism, gravity,
and gases for most of the earth--needs a bill of rights and numerous
amendments to its constitution. Its salvation by prophecy needs to
be based on experiments with instruments, drill rigs, and anchored
laboratories in this vast area. These experiments, superficially,
have been conducted by oceanographic sampling of bottom materials, by
gravity pendulums operated in submarines, by cameras on sea bottoms,
and collections of bottom waters, by tests of radioactivity of
bottom materials, by echo sounding to determine thickness of muds,
by volcanology on oceanic islands, by topographic surveying of the
bottom, and by all the excellent work of the oceanographic and geologic
stations and their seismographs, with some studies of marine chemistry,
physics, and biology. The conclusions in this book amount to only one
small prophecy based on experiments with volcanoes. But the rock under
deep ocean mud is still uncollected.
My volcano experiments are not influenced by any consensus of text
books. I was educated on textbook opinions and found geologic science
deficient in experimental measurement of the field progress of
erosion, sedimentation, deformation, and eruption. I expended most of
my teaching in a plea for field observatories of time measurement of
these four processes. The plea has done some good, and in this century
we have seen grow up the International Geophysical Union. Experiment
stations have multiplied, to make geophysics and geochemistry pure
quantitative sciences. But they are generally commercial and have not
extended to deep boring under oceans.
While working from volcano observatories for the extension of geology
in Alaska, Japan, Hawaii, Tonga, the Caribbean and Italy, and on the
mainland of California, Central America, and New Zealand, I have found
myself on the outskirts of vast oceans, engaged in a science almost as
unsatisfactory as the textbook science of historical and continental
geology. It is always a compromise, for we are up against a crying need
for maps of the bedrock under the muds of the vast oceans. Volcanism
cries out for a knowledge of the globe, and it is helped by such work
as that of Gutenberg and Richter. These men compiled critical maps of
earthquakes, measured by elastic theory the world over. Their work
necessarily made many contacts with volcanoes. The same may be said
of the geophysical summaries of gravity, magnetism, climatology,
hydrology, and oceanography. But all our sciences stop at the immense
sea bottoms, and need salvation through experiment.
Science is not doing all it can. Finances and engineering are competent
to contact sea bottom directly with expensive machines not yet invented
and to create oceanic rock science. Offshore boring for oil is not
enough. Pure science needs an example by financiers like Carnegie and
Rockefeller who are not seeking profit. Engineering advice positively
can reach under the few hundred feet of mud, find the rock, and bore
into it in 2,000 fathoms. The first man who does it will open a
new frontier. All honor to Shepard, Ewing, Piggot, Pettersson, and
Kullenberg, men who have barely broken ground in this science. The
whole of volcanology depends on collecting the crustal rock under the
mud.
Hoyle’s book “The Nature of the Universe” takes us one step farther.
It shows that all science is essentially cosmology, and science deals
with the origin and progress of all nature. I would go farther than the
universe. I would include the science of life and of our brains. We
need an imaginative picture starting with the outer universe. We end on
the earth with volcanoes and the birth of life.
Hoyle and Lyttleton of Cambridge have presented a condensation of
current astrophysics, which includes earth, moon, and planets; sun
and stars; origin and future of stars; and origin of solar systems. A
most gratifying conclusion is that the background material of space
creates hydrogen. This is proved by precise mathematical equations.
This accounts for the expanding universe under the pressure of such
creation. The outermost nebulae continually pass beyond the speed of
light. The galaxies move out into infinite space endlessly. They are
renovated endlessly by gravitation from hydrogen eternally created.
The sun, by knowledge built up from the days of Jeans and Eddington,
contains more than ninety percent of hydrogen, and the small remainder
is helium, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and iron. It maintains its surface
temperature by nuclear reactions from within outward, at a rate
suitable to make helium out of hydrogen, so as to compensate for the
energy which the sun radiates.
This dominance of hydrogen inside the solar star makes it impossible
that the earth should be solar. Rather, it was a product of a companion
star, a supernova which exploded and, with excessive heat, created
elements atomically. The sun was a binary pair of stars, and the
companion occupied the place of the four greater planets. The remnant
body, after explosion, moved away.
A gaseous ring formed around the sun condensing from many molecules
to rotating superplanets. These broke up many hundred million years
ago into Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Small blobs escaped to
become the inner planets including the earth. The earth captured small
solids and acquired the moon as a satellite. It got radioactive matter
exteriorly, plus nitrogen, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
There is a hundred times more hydrogen per unit of mass in the sun than
in the planets. Its supply will last for 50,000 million years. The
solar system is tunneling through variable interstellar gas. It picks
up more or less material, and so changes climates occasionally. This
makes such episodes as the ice ages on earth. Lyttleton estimates that
the dust clouds encountered form bundles of particles captured by the
sun to make comets.
The mathematics of the interior of the sun, applied by Bethe to the use
of carbon and nitrogen as catalysts and changing hydrogen to helium, is
a model of experimentation. It should be imitated to explain Hawaiian
basalt. The core of the earth produces gas reactions up cracks. The
gases act on deep crust. The surface product is olivine basalt.
What are the reactions between gas and crust to make Mauna Loa foam
fountains? This problem has not been tackled. Geologists have clung to
a theory of shallow reservoirs.
The astronomers of Cambridge, successors of the American experimenter
George Ellery Hale and of Eddington and Jeans, are not the final word
in cosmology. There will be a final word. The picture created from
background material to gas, from gas to galaxies, and from galaxies to
solar systems ends for us in our planet with a white hot liquid core.
Nuclear reactions created this from the superheat of an exploding
supernova. Our erupting volcanoes are the end product. We can sit
beside erupting lava fountains and watch hydrogen flames, the same gas
that was made of the background material in the universe.
All this is outcome of gravitation. It extends from the first eddies of
hydrogen in outer space to the final rotation of the earth. The final
hydrogen, with carbon, made life on the earth. The five elements of
volcanic gas are identical with the five elements of organic chemistry.
Dr. Hoyle mistakenly concludes that we have no clue to our own fate.
But he points out that the universe is continuous creation. Our picture
is one instant of time in an everlasting now. Mind is an everlasting
unit beyond which we cannot go.
It is illogical to pay any attention to existence after death unless
we pay equal attention to existence before birth. All is continuous
creation. The making of hydrogen is just as true within the creation
of life as within the universe. Life is under gravitation. Gravitation
controls the instantaneous moving picture, even the emergence of life
from volcanic gases under enormous water pressure at sea bottom. It
is just as much subject to experiment as the outer boundary of the
universe.
Life is an end product; and it thinks, worships, and experiments.
Treating life and volcanoes as end products of Hoyle’s universe makes
science fundamentally cosmology.
One final comment, after looking at sea bottom eruptions through all
the ages. Continental life came out of the sea, and original life comes
continually from the earth core. This gives new dignity to the future
search for global action on the sea bottom.
The “emergent evolution” of Lloyd Morgan makes much of mutation as
accounting for progress from unconscious life to consciousness,
consciousness to memory, memory to reasoning, and reasoning to
spirituality. Each one of these is a new mutation, in the same sense as
a new fruit by Burbank. The first unconscious life may be considered
a mutation from the inorganic of the globe. The totally unknown
pressure-temperature conditions of volcanic eruption through the
cracking earth of ocean bottom, and the ground waters under the ocean,
lend a final dignity to exploration of that frontier.
Hoyle writes that the ultimate goal of the New Cosmology is continuous
creation in outer space. The ultimate goal of the New Volcanology is
continuous creation in oceanic depths.
INDEX
A
=aa=, 54, 67, 78, 104, 121, 124, 125, 129, 148, 174
Abbot, 159
Absaroka Range, 8
Adak Harbor, 141
Adams, C. E., 110
Africa, 181, 182
Agassiz, Alexander, 20, 25, 55, 65, 72, 164
Agassiz Museum, 17, 19
Aghileen Pinnacles, 140
Agricultural Experiment Station, Kodiak, 138
Agua cone, 81
Akutan Island, 154
Alaska, 30–31, 55, 72–75, 81, 82, 84, 110, 114, 117, 127, 137–145,
154, 169, 172, 173, 183
-- expeditions to, 55, 72–75, 84, 138
Alaska Commercial Company, 141
Albatross (ship), 170
Aleutian arc, 82
Aleutian eruptions, 169
Aleutian Geographical Observatory, 142
Aleutian Islands, 55, 75, 84, 110, 114, 127, 137–145, 154, 172, 173
-- expeditions to, 55, 72–75, 84, 138
Aleutian trench, 31
Alfaro, Anastasio, 79
Algonkian, 28
Allen, E. H., 12, 112, 115, 129
Alps, the, 103, 116
Alyea, Hubert, 5
Amazon River, 82
Amchitka Island, 141
Amerada Company, 112
American Journal of Science, 113
American Museum, 56
American Relief Committee, 63
amphibian vehicles, 74, 138, 142–143, 168
Anderson, C. A., 137
Anderson, J., 111
Anderson, Tempest, xii, 65, 71, 76, 84
Anderson, the cook, 8
Andes, the, 78, 82, 116, 181
Andrews, E. C., 112
Angaha, 147–149
Antigua, 157
Appalachian basin, 50, 52
Appalachian Mountains, 18, 46–49, 51–52, 116
Archean granites, 8
Arizona, 25–28
arrowroot, 160
Asama Volcano, 78, 107–108
Asama-Bandai system, 108
Ascutney Mountain, 7, 40, 53
Asia, mountain ranges of, 117
Aso Volcano, 108
astronomy, 6, 30, 147–150, 172–173, 184–185
Atka, 72, 75
Atlantic Ocean, 53, 170
-- deeps of, 53
Attu, 140–141
Auckland, 109–110
Audubon, J. J., 3, 4
Australia, 132, 163
-- science congress in, 132
B
Bad Lands of South Dakota, 23, 24, 37–38
Baker, Ruth, 155, 168, 169
Baker Island, 135–136
Baldwin, R. G., 172
Ballard, Stanley S., 173
Ballou, Howard M., 91
Bandai Volcano, 42–43, 45, 106–108, 110
Barbados, 61–62, 158, 160
Barnard, Mr. and Mrs., 159
Barrios, 81
Barton, G., 18
Bartrum, J. A., 110
Barus, Carl, 54
bat, giant, 149
Bay of Plenty, 110
bear hunts, 72, 139–140, 143
Beecher, C., 19
Belcher, ...., 156
Belize, 79
Bellingham, Wash., 143–144
Bergen, 12
Bergson, H., xii
Bering Sea, 74, 140
Berkshire Hills, 46
Bermel, Colonel, 156
Bermuda, 161
Bernhardt, Sarah, 5
Berry, Robert, 56
Bethe, H. A., 185
Big Horn expedition, 8
Bingham, Hiram, 147
Bird, Isabella, 91
birds, 135, 141, 148–149
-- gannets, 135
-- goonies, 135
-- malau, 148–149
-- man-of-war, 135
-- murres, 141
-- terns, 135
Birdseye, Claude H., 89, 111, 129–130
Bishop Estate, 89
Bishop Museum, 135
Black Forest, 14
Black Growler, 10
Black Hills, xii, 21, 22, 23–25, 28, 46–47, 78
-- surveys of (1898, 1899), 23–25
Bloch, C. C., 168
Blue Beard’s Castle, 157
Blue Hill, Mass., 77
Bluff, the, 134
Bogoslof, 74, 75, 78, 110, 140–141
-- eruption of 1907, 75, 141
Bohemia, 14
Boiling Lake, 11
boiling lake, 80
boiling springs, 40, 42
bombing of Mauna Loa, 153–154, 161
Bonin Islands, 109
Boscotrecase, 65–68
Boshu Peninsula, 133
Boston, 16–17, 19, 37, 43, 56, 77, 85, 91, 161
-- mapping of, 16–17
Bottoms, the, 157
Boulder Dam, 169
Boutwell, John Mason, 21–22, 24
Bowie, William, 112
Boynton, H. C., 19, 168, 172
Boyrie, W., 142
Bradford, Alex, 138, 142
Bradshaw Mountains, 25–28
Brazil, 40
Brigg, J. J., 65
Brigham, W. T., 91, 164
Bright Angel fault, 30
Bristol Bay, 140
Brock, R. W., 14
Brontotherium, 24
Brooklyn, 56
Brooks, Alfred, 18
Brown, E. W., 100
Brown, William Garrott, 20
Brun, Albert, 88, 92
Brush, G. J., 21
Bucher, W., 181
Bund, Yokohama, 132
Burkland, Albert, 89, 111, 129
C
Cache Creek, 11
California, 39, 89, 103, 110, 111–113, 114–116, 136–137, 154
-- University of, 89, 137
-- volcanoes, 136
California Institute of Technology, 111
Calumet and Hecla, copper company, 72
Camiquin Island, 76
Cambrian, 6, 9, 22, 23, 28
-- fossils, 22
-- shales and limestones, 23
Cambridge, Mass., 164
Campbell, Archibald, 163
Canada, 6, 136, 182
Canadian Rockies, 23
Canary Islands, 131
Canna (arrowroot), 160
Canoe Bay, 142
Cape Nome, 141
Carib cones, 71
Caribbean Sea, 79, 117, 157, 183
-- expeditions to, 55
-- islands of, 55–65, 67, 76, 108
Carribee line, 66
Carisso (ship), 150
Carnegie, Andrew, 184
Carnegie Institution, 78, 86, 90, 111, 112
-- Geophysical Laboratory of, 76, 86, 111
Carnegie Palace, Costa Rica, 79
Cartago earthquake of 1910, 78–84
Cartago expedition, 84
Cartwright, Bruce, 135
Cascade Mountains, xii, 82, 136
catastrophes, 55–84, 103–106, 132–134, 156
Catskills, 43
Central America, 55, 78–84
-- expedition to, 55
Chadron Formation, 22
Chain of Craters, 118, 125, 154–155
Challenger (ship), 170
Charleston, 43, 45, 103
-- earthquake, 43, 45
Charlotte Amalie, 157
Chateau Belair, W. I., 59, 61, 159
Chernofski village, 141
Cherry Island, 103
Chicago, 72
Chicago Natural History Museum, 24
Chilean coastal plain, 82
Chilton, C., 112
China, rivers of, 41
Chourré, ...., 122
Christchurch College, 110
Christiansand, Norway, 12
Christophersen, Erling, 135
Chugul, 141
Church, Dr., 57
Cincinnati, 53
Cincinnati arch, 50
clams, 135
Clark, W. O., 111
Clive, ...., 11
Coal Measures, 28
Coan, Titus, 91
Coast Survey, 137, 170
-- station at Sitka, 137
Cody, Frank, 73, 123
Colby, F. T., 72–73
Collins, George, 135
Colorado, 28, 169, 173
Colorado River, 26, 38
Comstock Lode, 18
Congresses, 12, 112, 132, 134
-- Australia Science, 132
-- Hawaii, 112
-- Japan, 134
-- London Geography, 12
-- Pacific Science, 112, 134
-- Zurich Geological, 12
Connecticut River, 7
Constitution, U. S., 182
continental divide, 36
continental mediterranean sea, 22, 53
continental volcanoes, 181
Cook Channel, 109
Cook Strait, 110
Cooke, C. Montague, 135
Cooke, Joshiah, 5
copra, 148–149
coral islets, 135
Cordillera, 21, 49, 67, 78–84, 137, 177
Cosequina, 80
cosmology, 185–186
Costa Rica, 55, 79, 80, 108
-- earthquake, 55
-- rocky mountains of, 55
Costa Rica-Mexico line, 108
Cotton, C. A., 110
crabs, 149
Cramton, Louis C., 114, 136, 162
Crandall Creek mining claim, 8
crater lake, 80
Crawford, David L., 162
Croney, J. E., 63
Crooks Canyon, 26
Crooks Complex, 26–27
Crosby, W. O., 18, 72
cross-country cars, 131–132, 138
Crusoe, Robinson, 120
Culebra Cut, 82
Curtis, G. C., 56, 59, 159
Curzon, G. N., 12
Custer, G. A., 8
D
Daly, R. A., 7, 9, 18, 92, 177–181
Dana, Edward, 113
Dana, James D., 21, 91, 113, 116, 164
Darton, N. H., 21, 22
Darwin, C. R., 6
Darwin, George, 4, 32
Daubrée, A., 16, 30
Davis, W. M., 7, 16, 40, 165
Day, A. L., 12, 86, 92, 112, 115, 124
De Candolle, C., 4, 35
de Vis-Norton, L. W., 111
Deadwood, 23–25
Dean, Arthur L., 162
Death Gulch, 11–12
deformation, 32, 76
deltas, leaf, 43
Denmark, 12
Denver, 169, 173
Devil’s Tower, 23, 25
Diamond Head, 122
Dillingham, Walter F., 114
disasters, 55–84, 103–106, 111, 132–134, 156
Dixie (ship), 56–59
Dodge, Francis, 90
Doelter, C., 16, 53
Dominica, 11, 66, 158
Dominion Museum, 109
Dorsey, E. W., 43
Dranga, Ted, 135–136
Drexel Institute, 73
Dunedin, 109–110
Dutch Harbor, 72, 74, 141, 144
Dutton, C. E., 7, 29–30, 48, 116
E
Eakle, A. S., 72–74
Earhart, Amelia, 125
earth core, 185
earth crust theory, 115–117
earthquake centers, 169
earthquake frequency, 131
earthquakes, 30–31, 45, 55–84, 92, 103–106, 111, 114, 132–134, 137,
145–147, 154–165, 168–169
-- Cartago, 80
-- Charleston, 43, 45
-- Costa Rica, 55
-- Hawaii, 145–147
-- Kapoho, 154, 165
-- Kingston, 83–84
-- Messina, 55, 71
-- Montserrat, 156–161
-- Napier, 45, 111
-- Sakurajima, 103–106
-- San Francisco, xii, 45, 55, 134, 137
-- Tokyo, 103, 114, 132–134, 168
-- Valparaiso, 55
-- Yakutat Bay, 30–31, 37, 45
East Indies, 170
Eastman Kodak Company, 91
eclipse of sun, 147–150
Ecuador, 78
Eddington, A. A., 5, 184–185
Eddy, Johnny, 62
Eggleston, Julius W., 17
Einstein, Albert, 5
“elevation craters”, 131
Eliot, C. W., 18, 55, 63
Emden (ship), 140
Emerson, Oliver, 54, 100, 123, 129
Emmons, Delos C., 153
Emmons, Samuel Franklin, xi, 21, 22
English, T. S., 158
English Channel, 34
English strata, 21
Eocene Tertiary, 46
erosion, 10, 30, 32, 38, 43, 48, 76
-- model, 43
eruption cycles, 166–167
eruption index, 77
eruptions, 32, 45, 55–84, 120–125, 130–131, 169, 173–176
-- Alaska, 75, 141, 169
-- Halemaumau, 120–124, 130–131
-- Irazu, 79–80
-- Mauna Loa, 125, 173–176
-- Lassen, 136
-- Pelée, 45, 56–65, 71
-- Tarumai, 77–78
-- Vesuvius, 65–72
Europe, mountain ranges of, 117
Europe, study in, 12–16
evolution, 6, 116, 186
-- theory of, 6
Ewing, M., 184
expeditions, 55–84, 103–111, 114, 132–150, 154–161
-- Alaska, 55, 72–75, 84, 114, 138, 143, 154
-- Cartago, 84
-- Howland and Baker, 135–136
-- Japan, 55, 77–78, 84, 104–109, 114, 132–134
-- Kilauea-Tarumai, 84
-- Martinique, 55–65, 156–161
-- Montserrat, 161
-- New Zealand, 103, 109–111
-- Niuafoou, 114, 147–150
-- Pelée-Soufrière, 55–65, 84, 156–161
-- Tokyo, 114
-- Vesuvius, 55, 65–72, 84
experiments, 4–5, 17, 32–54, 76, 78, 85–113, 125–132, 138, 142–143,
154–156, 168, 171–173, 176–177, 182–186
-- field, 76, 85–113
-- laboratory, 4–5, 32–54, 168, 171–172
F
Falcon Island, 110
Faraday, M., 16, 29
faulting, 28–29
Ficus, 60
field experiments, 76, 85–113
field work, 7–12, 21–31, 55–84, 138, 142–143, 177
Fiji, 147
Finch, R. H., 99, 120–121, 132, 136–137, 144, 154, 162, 168, 173
Firehole River, 39
Flett, J. S., 76
“floating islands”, 92, 96
flying fox, 149
Foerster, Captain, 140
folding, model of, 50–52
foot prints in lava, 120
Forbes, John, 173
Fort de France, 56
Fortieth Parallel Survey, 8, 22, 25
fossa magna, 109
fossils, 181
Fouqué, F., 16, 53
Frank Landslip, the, 45
Franklin, Benjamin, 71
Frear, Walter F., 89
Freiberg, 14
Friedlaender, I., 76, 103, 162
Fujiyama, 81, 109, 134–135
fumaroles, 11–12, 62, 65, 68, 80, 108, 129, 156, 158, 160
Futu, 147, 149
G
gannets, 135
Gardner, John, 139–142
gas-heat theory, 59
Geikie, Archibald, xi, 12, 116
Geodetic Survey of India, 157
Geological Congress, Zurich, 12
Geological Society of America, 76, 164, 166
Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, 12
Geological Survey, U. S., 17–22, 50, 54–56, 64, 89–90, 111–114,
129–131, 136–138, 142, 154, 157, 169, 172–173
Geophysical Laboratory, Wash. D. C., 112
Georgetown, W. I., 159–160
Geovision Ltd., 163
Germany, 12–16
geyser basins, 10
geysers, 9, 39–40, 42, 48
-- as eroders, 39–40
geyser-spring experiments, 41
Geyserville, 112, 137
Giacometti, Guido, 153, 163
giant bat, 149
Giant’s Causeway, 23
Gilbert, Grove Karl, 7, 64
Gillie, Miss, ...., 157
glacial periods, 6, 10, 45
glaciers, 44, 48
Glass Mountain, 136
Goethals, General, 82
Goldschmidt, Victor M., 14, 16
Goodrich, ...., 18
goonies, 135
Gordon-Cumming, C., 91
Göteborg, 13
Grabau, Amadeus, 17
Grand Canyon, 24, 26, 28–30, 37
-- model of, 30, 38
Grand Hotel, Japan, 132–133
Grange, L. I., 111
granitization, 181
Grant, Willie, 3
gravitation, 185–186
Great Britain, 12, 162
-- Geological Survey of, 12
Great Lakes, 25, 45
Great Plains, 10, 22
Green, W. L., 91
Green River, 30
greenstones, 182
Greenwell, Mr. and Mrs. Frank, 146
Gregory, H. E., 112, 135
Grodzinski, P., 172
Grosvenor, Gilbert, 142–143
Groth, P. G., 13
Guadeloupe, 66
guano diggings, 135–136
Guatemala, 55, 80–82
Gulf of Alaska, 138, 171
Gulf of Mexico, 10, 36
Gummeré, Harry, 12, 33, 72–73
Gutenberg, B., 183
H
Hague, Arnold, xi, 8
Hakamagoshi, 105
Hakone, 134
Hale, George Ellery, 185
Haleakala, 164, 165
Haleakala, Kohala, Kea line, 165
Halemaumau, 77, 86, 89, 92–93, 95, 112, 115, 117–119, 120–124, 127,
128, 131, 147, 151–155, 166
-- eruption, 117–124, 130–131
Hammond, W. H., 168, 172
Hannon, Arthur, 112
hardness tests, 168, 171–172
Harney Peak, xii
Hart, F. R., 79
Harvard, xi, 3–7, 16–19, 32–56, 72, 89, 92, 101
-- laboratory experiments, 32–54
-- study at, 3, 32–54
-- teaching at, 55–56, 72
Hawaii, island of, v, 28, 77, 78, 112, 142, 143, 154, 164, 165
Hawaii Channel, 123
Hawaii earthquake crisis (1929), 145–147
Hawaii Geological Survey, 30, 111–112
Hawaii National Park, 86, 89, 113–114, 128, 152, 155, 168, 173
Hawaii tidal wave (1946), 156
Hawaii, University of, 101
Hawaiian Is., 55, 69, 77–78, 112, 117, 164, 171, 177, 183
-- journey to, 55
Hawaiian Ridge, 49
Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association, 112
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, v, 54, 75, 78, 84–103, 111–112,
114–130, 135, 137, 142, 151–156, 162–164, 168, 173
Hawaiian Volcano Research Association, v, 71, 78, 91, 103, 111,
113–114, 155, 171
Hawaiian volcanoes, 42, 85–113, 145–147, 151–176
Hayden, F. V., 7, 17
Haystack Basin, 39
Heidelberg, 12
Heilprin, A., 76
Henderson, John Brooks, 127, 162
Hermann, A., 5
Herschel, Arthur, 83
Hiatt, R. W., 171
High Plateaus of Utah, 67
Hill, R. T., 56
Hilo, 130, 143, 151–153, 155, 161, 162, 169
-- merchants of, 89
Hilo Tribune Herald, 162–163
Hilo Wharf, 123
Himalayas, 48, 116
Hind, Mrs. Robert, 145
Hinkley, Vern, 162
Hitchcock, C. H., 91, 164–166
Hobart, A. H., 128
Hodges, Richmond, 154
Hokkaido, 77
Holmes, Justice Oliver Wendell, 182
Honduras, 80
Honjo district, 133
Honolulu, 77, 78, 85, 91
Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 162
Honshu, 107
Honukai, the, 142–143
Hookena, 174
Hoopuloa village, 125
Hosmer, Ralph, 78
hot springs, 9, 39, 42, 137
Houston, David F., 112
Hovey, E. O., 56, 59, 76, 112, 159, 173
Howe, Ernest, 17
Howland Island, 135–136
Hoyle, Fred, xii, 5, 184, 186
Hualalai Volcano, 145, 146, 154, 164–165, 167
Hubble, E. P., 5
Hudson River, 42, 43
Humuula, 151, 153
Hunt, Walter Frederick, 173
Huntington, Ellsworth, 17
Huntington, Oliver, 5
Hyatt, A., 19
I
ice ages, 43, 185
Iceland, 39, 103
Imperial Hotel, Japan, 133
Indian Ocean, 170
index of eruption, 77
index volcanoes, 75, 79, 80
industrial diamonds, 172
Ingalls, Albert, 126
Ingerson, Earl, 172
injections, lava, 46–48
International Geophysical Union, 183
intrusions, 53
inventions, 19–20, 125–132, 157–158, 160, 162, 172
Irazu Volcano, 79
Ireland, 12, 23
-- Geological Survey of, 12
Irving, John Duer, 21, 25
Ischia, 66
isostasy, 116–117, 131, 177
Italy, 55, 65–72, 78, 103, 110, 117, 127, 181, 183
Ivanpah, 27
Izalco Volcano, 80
J
Jack, R. L., 110
Jackson, R. T., 5, 19, 165
Jaggar, Isabel, v, 100, 101, 109, 111, 118, 119, 121, 122, 140,
142, 145, 147, 153, 156, 157, 175
Jaggar, Rev. Thomas Augustus, 3
Jaggar inventions, 19–20, 158, 160, 172
Jamaica, 83–84, 157, 160
Japan, 42, 45, 55, 65–68, 77–78, 81, 84, 102, 103–106, 109, 110,
117, 132–134, 169, 183
Japanese earthquakes, 103–106, 114, 132–134, 168
Japanese engineers, 131
Java, 11
Jeans, J. H., 5, 184–185
jeep, forerunner of, 131–132, 138
Jim, Samuel, 62
Jimenez, President of Costa Rica, 79–80
Johanssen, Captain, 138, 140
Johnson, Douglas, 18
Johnston, F., 25
Jones, Austin E., 142, 144, 152, 169
Jordalsknut, the, 12
Jupiter, 184
K
Kagoshima, 103–106
Kahuku, 174
Kahului, 169
Kailua, Hawaii, 143
Kaimon, 108
Kaiser Wilhelm, 13–14
Kamakura, 134
Kamchatka arc, 82
Kamuela, 146
Kansas, 40
Kapoho, 118, 125, 154, 164
-- earthquake (1924), 154, 165
Karuizawa, 107–108
Katmai, 140
Kau Desert, 93, 115, 117, 120, 124, 125, 130, 132, 155
Kaunakakai, 123
Kawaihae, 143
Keewatin, 6
Kellar, H., 5
Kellers, H., 147, 149
Kelvin, W. T., 6
Keoua’s army, 120
Keppel Island, 150
Keppler, C. H. J., 147
Kew Observatory, 157
Kiholo, 143
Kilauea, v, xi, 59, 62, 68, 71, 76, 77, 86–103, 111–115, 117–125,
127–128, 130–132, 142–147, 151–155, 162, 164, 165, 167, 172,
176, 177
Kilauea Iki, 124
Kilauea Military Camp, 97, 113
Kilauea Mountain, 99, 118, 121
King, Clara, 62–64
King, Clarence, xi, 6, 7, 8, 17, 21, 22, 25, 32
King, F. P., 11
King, Samuel W., 135
King Cove, 138, 139, 140, 144
Kingston, Jamaica, 83–84, 159, 160
Kirishima, 108
Kobandai, 106–108
Kodiak, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144
Kohala, 165
Kona, 92, 93, 125, 142, 145–146, 152–154, 169, 173–174
-- North, 145
-- South, 92, 93, 125, 173
Korovinski Volcano, 75
Koto, B., 106
kou trees, 136
Kullenberg, B., 170, 184
Kumamoto, 109
Kyushu, 103, 108, 109
L
laboratories, 17, 32–54, 76, 78
-- Carnegie Institution geophysical, 76, 86, 111
-- Harvard, 32–54
-- Hawaii Volcano Observatory, 78
-- Naples, 76
-- Rockefeller, 29
Labrador, 3
Lacroix, Alfred, 16, 76, 134
La Forge, Laurence, 17
Lahaina, 123
Lake Superior, 6
Lake Taupo, 110
Lake Toya, 106
Lamar River, 36
Lancaster, Alex, 86, 90, 97, 118
Lane A., 18
Laramie, 46
Lassen National Park, 112, 114, 136–137, 154
-- survey of, 137
Lassen Peak, 136
lava injection model, 46–48
lava tides, 166–167
lava, analyses of, 129
lava, constituents of, 166
lava, moon, 172
Laudat, 11
Lehigh, 22
Leipzig, 181
Lenox-Conyingham, Gerald, 156, 157
Lewis Lake, 36
Lewis River, 36
Limon, 79
Lincoln, Gatesford, 132, 147
Lincoln, Joseph, 174
Lingula, 6, 7
Lipari, 66
Lisbon, 103
London, 12
Long Island Sound, 43
Los Angeles, 103
Loucks, Burton, 168, 173
Lower Silurian, 7
Lurline (ship), 175
Lycurgus, Demosthenes, 89, 111
Lycurgus, George, 111
Lydia (ship), 72, 74
Lyell, Charles, xii, 45
Lynn, 3
Lyttleton, ...., xii, 184, 185
M
Maclaurin, R., 55, 85
Macdonald, Gordon A., 111, 154, 166, 173–175
MacDonald, T. M., 59, 61, 159
MacGregor, A. G., 157, 161
MacMillan-Brown, J., 110
Madison limestone, 8
Maine, 3
Makalawena, 143
Makaopuhi, 118, 121
Makushin, 75
malau bird, 148–149
Mammoth Hot Springs, 9, 12, 42
man-of-war bird, 135
Mansfield, G. R., 18
Maoris, 110
Marlowe, Julia, 5
Marsden, Ernest, 110
Marsters, V. F., 17, 53
Martinique, 11, 55–66, 71, 76, 84, 129, 134, 156, 158, 160, 161,
167
-- expedition to, 55–65, 156–161
-- museum and observatory, 71
Marvin, Charles F., 111, 112, 137
Massachusetts, 18, 44, 71
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 7, 55–56, 72, 77–79, 85, 90,
91, 113, 129
-- teaching at, 55–56, 72, 78
Mato Tepee, 23
Matson, a guide, 11
Matsumoto, Jack, 174–175
Matteucci, R. V., 15, 67, 71
Matthes, Francois, 18
Maui, 122–123, 169, 170
Mauna Kea (ship), 123
Mauna Kea, 115, 146, 153, 164–165
Mauna Loa, 59, 62, 64, 67–69, 92–95, 99, 102, 112–115, 125,
145–146, 151–154, 162, 164–166, 169–170, 172, 173–176, 180, 185
-- bombing of, 153–154, 161
-- eruption of, 124, 173–176
Mauna Loa Mountain, 99
McCord, Jack, 140, 141
McKinley, C. P., 143
measurements, 129–131
medaños, 34
Mediterranean Sea, 45, 70, 116
“Mediterranean Sea” of North America, 22, 53
Mees, C. E. K., 91
Meinzer, O., 111
Mendenhall, W. C., 18, 112, 138
Mercalli, G., 76, 131
Messina, 55, 71, 77, 81, 103
-- earthquake of, 1908, 55, 71
metamorphism, 180
Meunier, Stanilas, 16
Mexico, 80, 82, 108
Michel-Lévy, A., 16, 53
Michelson, A. A., 99
microsclerometer, 19–20, 172
Midway Island, 99, 103, 164, 165
Mihara Volcano, 133–134
Mineral, Calif., 136, 137
Miocene, 46, 49
Mississippi delta, 41
Mississippi River, 8, 10, 36
models, 30, 38, 41–42, 43, 46–48, 50–52
-- erosion, 43
-- folding, 50–52
-- Grand Canyon, 30, 38
-- lava injection, 46–48
-- Old Faithful, 41–42
Mohokea, 165
Molokai, 122–123
Molokai Channel, 122
Molokai volcano, 165
Monte Somma, 66
Montserrat, xii, 66, 71, 126, 129, 156–161
-- earthquake (1933), 71
Moody, William H., 55–57
Moody, William Vaughn, 20
moon, 182
moon craters, 93–94, 172, 176
moon lava, 172
Morgan, Lloyd, 186
Morozewicz, J., 16
Morss, Everett, 162
motorcar amphibians, 168
Mount Baker, 136
Mount Dana, 143
Mount Etna, 66, 68, 71, 77, 81, 103, 180
Mount Hibokhibok, 76
Mount Lamington, 76
Mount Makushin, 73
Mount Misery, 62, 66
Mount Monadnock, 40
Mount Pelée, 56–65, 76, 134, 158, 161, 167
Mount St. Elias, 31
Mount St. Helena, 137
Mount Shasta, 18, 137
Mount Washburn, 36
Mount Wrangell, 138
Munro, George, 135
murres, 141
museum, Kilauea Crater, 114–115
Museum of Comparative Zoology, 164
mutation, 186
Myers, D. B., 72, 74
Mystic River, 37
N
Nagasaki, 103, 109
Nahant, 3
Nakamura, D., 115
Naknek Lake, 140
Napau Crater, 118, 121
Napier earthquake, 45, 111
Naples, 65, 71, 76
National Geographic Society, 55–56, 142, 143
-- expedition (Alaska), 143
Natural History magazine, 170
Nature magazine, 161
Naughton, J. J., 173
Naumann, E., 109
Navaho (ship), 123
Neckar, the, 14
Nelson, Sven, 20
Neptune, 184
Nevada, 26–30
New Crater, 10
New England, 7, 28, 37, 40, 43, 44, 46
New Haven, 46
New Jersey, 43
New Orleans, 79
New York, 42, 43, 56, 72, 121
-- New York City, 42, 72
-- Wall Street, 72
New Zealand, 39, 75, 103, 109–111, 114, 117, 126, 161, 162, 183
-- expedition to, 103, 109–111
--Geological Survey, 110
New Zealand-Tonga volcanic chain, 114
New Zealand, University of, 110
Ngauruhoe Volcano, 110
Nicaragua, 80
Nicaragua-Salvador line, 80
Nikolski, 141
Niles, W., 72
Niuafoou, 110, 147–150
Niuatoputapu, 150
No Man’s Land, 132
Nobel Prize, 157
Norris Geyser Basin, 10
North Island, N. Z., 109
North Kona, 145
Norway, 12, 13
Nova Scotia, 3, 175
O
Oahu, 170
Oberhansley, F. R., 173
Oberwald, the, 14
Observatories, 76, 86, 114–130, 135–137, 142, 144, 155, 162, 163,
168, 173
-- Alaska, 136, 137, 142, 144
-- California, 136, 137
-- Hawaii, 76, 114–130, 135, 137, 142, 155, 162, 168, 173
-- Kew, 157
-- Vesuvius, 76, 86
Ocean Island, 99
oceanic volcanoes, 182
Oceanographic Institute of Sweden, 170
oceanographic sampling, 183
Ogasawara Islands, 109
Ohia Lodge, Hawaii, 174
Ohiki, the, 142–143
Okinawa, 103
Olaa, 154
Old Faithful, 10
-- model of, 41–42
“Old Faithful,” Hawaii, 86–87, 90
Oldham, R. D., 116
Oligocene, 24
Omori, F., 77, 84, 102, 104–106, 109, 112, 115, 131, 132, 162
Oregon, 82
Osaka, 134
Osann, A., 14, 15
Oshima, 103, 109, 133, 134
Osumi Strait, 104
Otago University, 110
Ottajano, 65, 66, 68
P
Pacific Commercial Advertiser, 77, 86
Pacific Commercial Company, 143
Pacific journey, 77–78
Pacific Ocean, 36, 53, 82, 170, 171
-- arc, 82
--deeps of, 53
Pacific oceanography, 170–171
Pacific Science Congresses, 112, 134
Pago Pago, 147
pahoehoe, 67, 97, 120, 124, 125, 129, 135, 148, 151, 153
Palache, C., 14, 15
Palisades, Hudson River, 42
Palmieri, P., 76
Panama, 80, 82, 83, 157
Panama Canal, 82, 157
Papua, 76
Parker Ranch, Hawaii, 143, 146
Pasadena, 111
Pasteur, Louis, 16, 161
Patagonia, 81
Pavlof, 139, 142–143
Pearl Harbor, 122, 123, 168, 169, 172
Pelée, 11, 45, 56–65, 67, 68, 78, 103, 104
-- eruption, 45, 56–65, 71
Pelican (ship), 123
Pennsylvania, 37, 53
Perkins, Commander, ...., 140
Perret, Frank Alvord, xi, 32, 68, 71, 84, 86–89, 92, 96, 101, 103,
156, 157, 160, 162, 167, 171, 173
Peru, 34
Pettersson, Hans, 170, 171, 184
Philadelphia, 53
Philippine Islands, 72, 76
Phoenix, Arizona, 25
Piggot, C. S., 184
Planck, M., 5
Pliocene, 43
Plug Ugly (ship), 139
Plymouth, W. I., 156
Poas Crater, 80
Pohoiki, 118
Polynesian rats, 136
Ponte, S. C., 68
Porteus, Stanley, 162
Postal Card Crack, 77, 127, 128
Potomac (ship), 56–58
Powell, C. F., 156, 157, 161
Powell, George, 143
Powell, J. W., 7, 17, 22
Powers, Howard, 142, 154, 169, 173
Powers, Sidney, 112
Pozzuoli, 66
pre-Cambrian, 47
Prescott, Arizona, 25
Pribilof Island, 144
Prince of Wales, 110
Princeton University, 5
Pritchett, H. S., 55, 72
Puako, 143
Puget Sound, 143, 144
Puna, 130, 154
Purington, C., 133
Puu Oo Ranch, 153
Puuwaawaa, 145, 146
Q
quakeproof engineering, 132
Quartette Gold Mine, 27
Queen Charlotte, 150
Quensell boys, 149
R
range finders, 125–127
rats, Polynesian, 136
Red Beds, 8, 47
Redlands, 103
Reyer, H., 16
rhythmic periods, 166–167
Richmond plantation, W. I., 159
Richter, C. F., 183
Rieber, Frank, 162–164
ripplemarks, 3–4, 32–54
Roberts, Sumner, 100
Rockefeller, John D., 184
Rockefeller laboratory and observatory, 29
Rocky Mountains, 7, 10, 18, 23, 46, 47, 48
Romberg, Arnold, 101–102
Rome, 103
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 17
Roraima (ship), 62, 160
Roseau, 11
Rosenbusch, H., 12–16
Rotorua, 109, 111
Royal Society of London, 72, 156
Ruapehu Volcano, 110
Rushforth, Paul, 171–172
Russell, I. C., 56
Rutherford, E., 110
Ryukyu Archipelago, 103, 106, 109
Ryukyu-Sakurajima line, 108
S
Saba, 157
Sagami Bay, 133–134
St. Helena, 103
St. Kitts, 62, 157
St. Lucia, 160
St. Martin, 157
St. Pierre, 55–65, 71, 160, 161
St. Vincent, 56–66, 68, 158–160
Sakurajima, xi, 71, 81, 103–106
-- earthquake (1914), 103–106
Salvador, 80
Samoa, 147, 150
San Andreas rift, 137
San Francisco earthquake (1906), xii, 45, 55, 134, 137
San Jose, Costa Rica, 79
San Sebastiano, destruction of, 69
Santa Ana, 80
Santa Maria peak, 81
Sarana Bay, 141
Saratoga Springs, 18
Sato, Sutejiro, 155, 166, 168
Saturn, 184
Saxony, 14
Scandinavia, 12–13, 182
Schneeberg granite, 14
Schrader, F., 18
Schweitzer, A., 161
Scientific American, 126
scratch tester, 172
sea level, 130
sea lions, 141
seals, 144
Searchlight, Nevada, 26–30
Seattle, 72, 138, 142
Secretary of the Interior, 155
Section of Volcanology created, 136
sedimentation, 32, 38, 76, 181
Seeley, George, 72, 74
seismic recorders, 125–126, 143, 144
Shaler, Nathaniel S., xi, 3, 5, 19, 28, 172
Shepard, F. P., 170
Shepherd, E. S., 86–89, 92, 112, 115, 166, 167, 184
Shimonoseki Strait, 109
Shipman, Herbert, 153
Shishaldin Volcano, 154
shock recorder, 126, 158, 160
Shumagin Islands, 143
Sierra Nevada, 28, 116, 136
Sinclair, Gregg M., 162, 170, 171
Sinton, Bill, 122, 147
Smith, George Otis, 112, 137
Smith Philip Sidney, 18, 21, 22
Smith, William, 21
Smithsonian Institution, 112
Snake River, 36
Snedeker, James, 168
Solfatara, Italy, 127
solfataras, 11–12, 62, 65, 68, 80, 108, 129, 156, 158, 160
Soufrière, 56–55, 72, 159
South Dakota, 21–25, 28, 37, 38, 46, 47, 55, 78
South Island, N. Z., 109
South Kona, 92, 93, 125, 173
Spalding, Walter, 95
Spearfish, Arizona, 23
Speight, R., 110
Spofford, Charles, 79, 84, 129
Springfield, Mass., 71
Spurr, J. E., 18, 172
Stalheim, 12
Stanford students, 26
Stanley, Henry M., 12
Starr (ship), 138, 140
State Street, 72
Stearns, Harold T., 111, 154, 165, 166
Stewart, Richard, 143
Stinking Water mine, 8
Stockholm, 13
Stokes, Mrs., 63
Stokes, Rita, 62–64
Stone, Ralph, 17, 37, 43
Stromboli, 68, 71
Stübel, A., 67, 76, 177, 181, 182
Suess, E., 116
sugar mills, 159
Sulphur Bank, 112, 115, 127–129, 173
Sunlight mine, 8
sunspots, 65, 68, 166
-- intervals of, 68
surveys, 7–12, 23–25, 30, 76, 137, 138, 142–143
-- Alaskan, 142–143
-- Black Hills, 23–25
-- Fortieth Parallel, 25
-- Hawaii Geological, 30, 76
-- Lassen National Park, 137
-- New Zealand Geological, 110
-- Yellowstone, 7–12
Suwanose Island, 108
Sweden, 13, 170
Sweeney, H. P., 72, 74
swelling and slumping, 131
swelling mountain, 129–131
Switzerland, 43
T
Tanager (ship), 150
Tanegashima, 106
Tarawera, 109
Tarawera Mountain, 110
Tarumai Volcano, 77–78
Taupo Belt, 109
Taupo District, 161
Taylor, Griffith, 112
teaching, 55–56, 72, 78
-- at Harvard, 55–56, 72
-- at Massachusetts Tech, 55–56, 72, 78
Technology Expedition, 72, 138
Technology Review, 74
Teddy, the dog, 123
temperature wells, 127–129
Teneriffe, 71
Tennessee, 37
terns, 135
Tertiary, 8–10, 15
Tetons, 36
theater, the, 5
Thomson, Allan, 109
Thomson, William, 109
Thorndike, Charles, 100
Thurston, Lorrin A., 77, 86, 89, 111, 122, 142, 153, 162
tidal system (volcanic), 70
tidal waves, 134, 156, 169–170
-- Hawaii (1946), 156, 169, 170
-- Japan (Tokyo), 134
tide gauge readings, 130
Tin Can Island, 110, 147–150
Tokyo, 81, 102, 103, 106, 109, 114, 132–134, 168
-- earthquakes, 103, 114, 132–134, 168
Tonga, 109, 110, 114, 181, 147–150
Tonga Deep, 109
Tonopah, 29
Tonto fault, 30
Triassic lavas, 47
Tridacna, 35, 135
Trinidad, 61
Trondhjem, 12, 13
Tufts College, 17
Tuscarora Deep, 109
Twigg-Smith, William, 112
U
Unita Mountains, 30
Umnak Island, 75, 138, 141
Unalga (ship), 140
Unalaska, 75, 137, 140, 141
Unimak, 154
Union Pacific, 25
United Fruit Company, 79
U. S. Army, 113, 169
U. S. Army Air Force, 153
U. S. Army Engineers, 82, 156
U. S. Biological Survey, 144
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 130
U. S. Coast Guard, 135, 140, 144
U. S. Congress, 156, 162
U. S. Consulate (Japan), 132
U. S. Eclipse Expedition, 110, 147–150
U. S. Geological Survey, 17–18, 19, 21, 22, 50, 54–56, 64, 89–90,
111–114, 129–131, 136–138, 142, 154, 157, 169, 172–173
U. S. Marines, 132, 133, 168
U. S. Navy, 55–57, 122–123, 131, 132, 147, 168, 170
U. S. Naval Observatory, 110, 147–150
U. S. Weather Bureau, 111–114, 137
University Club, Boston, 85
University of California, Berkeley, 89, 137, 163
University of Hawaii, 101, 162, 164, 168, 170, 171
University of New Zealand, 110
Uranus, 184
Usu Volcano, 106
Utah, 18, 22, 67
Uwekahuna, 173
V
Valparaiso earthquake, 55
Vandyke, E. C., 72, 73
Vaughan, T. W., 112
Verhoogen, J., 180
Vermont, 7, 9, 53
Vesuvius, xi, 55, 65–72, 76, 88, 104, 115, 131, 167
-- eruptions, 65–72
-- expedition to, 65–72, 84
-- observatory, 76
Vesuvius-Stromboli-Etna system, 70
Virgin Islands, 157
volcanic explosions, 32, 45, 55–84, 120–125, 130–131, 173–176
Volcano Bay, 139–140
Volcano House, 77, 86, 111, 113, 155, 173
Volcano Letter, 154
volcano models, 45–47
Volcano Research Association, 85, 162, 163
volcanology predictions, 161–162
von Buch, Leopold, 131
von Tempski, Armine, 146
von Zittel, Karl A., 13
Vosges Mountains, 14
W
Wada, T., 107
Waesche, Hugh, 152, 154
Wailuku River, 153, 156
Waimanu, Hawaii, 165
Waimea, Hawaii, 143
Waiohinu, 165
Waipio, 165
Wairaki, 161
Walcott, Charles D., 19, 22, 30, 111, 112
Wall Street, 72
Wallibu River, 60
Ward, R., 19
Washington, D. C., 76, 86, 111, 137, 161, 162
-- Geophysical Laboratory, 76
Washington, H. S., 112
Watchung Ridge, 43
water theory, 115–117, 167
Weed, W. H., 11
Wellesley, 72
Wellington, N. Z., 109, 110
Wells Fargo and Co., 27
Wentworth, Chester K., 173
Werner, A. G., 16
West Indies, 11, 56–66, 78, 83–84, 156–161
-- disaster in, 55–65
-- volcanoes of, 156–161
Western Samoa, 147
Wheeler, G. M., 7
Whippoorwill (ship), 135–136
White, Harvey, 173
White Island, 75, 110
Whitney Foundation, 85, 89
Wiechert, E., 116
Williams, Howel, 137, 164
Williamson, H., 82–83
Willis, Bailey, xi, 21, 22, 50–51, 116
Wilson, R. M., 111, 129, 130, 137, 144, 154
Wingate, E. G., 145, 152, 155–156
Wolff, John Eliot, 5, 19
Wood, H. O., 89, 100, 111, 115
Wood-Anderson seismograph, 111
Wood-Jones, Frederick, 112
Wood Valley, 145, 165
World War I, 132
World War II, 141, 142, 168
Wylie, ...., 11
Wyoming, 43
Y
Yakutat earthquake (1899), 30–31, 37, 45
Yale University, 17, 19, 22, 91, 100
Yatchmenoff, Peter, 139–140
Yeld, G., 65
yellow fever, 82
Yellowstone Lake, 36
Yellowstone National Park, xii, 7–12, 18, 23, 28, 36, 39, 42, 67,
78, 112, 117
Yellowstone River, 36
Yokohama, 132–134
Young, John Mason, 114
Yukon, 140
Z
Zeitschrift für Vulkanologie, 76
Zirkel, Ferdinand, 14
Zurich, 12
Transcriber’s Notes:
1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
corrected silently.
2. Hyphenation has been rationalised. Inconsistent spelling (including
accents) has been retained.