Upon the surface of Canada are found manifest indications of that
tremendous deluge, the effects of which are so plainly visible in the
Old World. Huge bowlder stones[151] abound in almost every part of the
province; sometimes they are seen rounded, piled in high heaps on
extensive horizontal beds of limestone, swept together by the force of
some vast flood. Masses of various kinds of shells lie in great
quantities in hollows and valleys, some of them hundreds of feet above
the level of Lake Ontario. Near to great rivers, and often where now no
waters are at hand, undulations of rocks are seen like those found in
the beds of rapids where the channels are waved. These have evidently,
at some remote period, been the courses of floods now no longer
existing. On the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence detached bowlder
stones appear, some of enormous size, many tons in weight; they must
have come from a great distance, for nowhere in that region is there any
rock of similar material. In the upper strata of the country are
abundant fossil remains of distinct animal existences now unknown; they
are blended with the limestone in which they lie.
It seems certain that the whole of Canada has been violently convulsed
by some effort of nature since the floods of the deluge passed away; the
mountains are abrupt and irregular in outline, and in some places cleft
with immense chasms; the rivers also show singular contortions. North of
Quebec and in St. Paul's Bay are many traces of volcanic eruptions, and
vast masses of alluvial rocks, bearing marks of vitrification,
frequently appear on the surface of the earth. There is, besides, strong
evidence that the American Continent has lain for unknown ages beneath
the great deep, or that it is of later formation than Europe or Asia.
As far as it has been explored, the general geological structure of
Canada exhibits a granite country, with some calcareous rocks of a soft
texture in horizontal strata. The lower islands in the St. Lawrence are
merely inequalities of the vast granite strata which occasionally stand
above the level of the waters; the whole neighboring country appears as
if the Great River had at one time covered it. The banks of the St.
Lawrence are in many places formed of a schistus substance in a decaying
state, but still granite is every where found in strata, inclined, but
never parallel to the horizon. In the Gaspe District, many beautiful
quartz, and a great variety of cornelians, agates, copals, and jaspers
have been found, and traces of coal have also been observed.[152]
The north shore of the St. Lawrence, from thirty miles below Quebec
eastward, and along the coast of Labrador, is generally of the primitive
formations. Except in the marshes and swamps, rocks obtrude upon the
surface in all quarters; in many places, deep fissures of from six
inches to two feet wide are seen bearing witness to volcanic violence;
the Indians describe some of these rents as several miles long, and
forty or fifty deep; when covered with the thick underwood, they are, at
times, very dangerous to the traveler. These chasms are probably owing
to some great subterranean action; there is a manuscript in the Jesuits'
College at Quebec which records the occurrence of an earthquake on the
5th of February, 1663, at about half past 5 P.M., felt through the whole
extent of Canada: trees in the forests were torn up and dashed against
each other with inconceivable violence; mountains were raised from their
foundations and thrown into valleys, leaving awful chasms behind; from
the openings issued dense clouds of smoke, dust, and sand; many rivers
disappeared, others were diverted from their course, and the great St.
Lawrence became suddenly white as far down as the mouth of the Saguenay.
The first shock lasted for more than half an hour, but the greatest
violence was only for fifteen minutes. At Tadoussac, a shower of
volcanic ashes descended upon the rivers, agitating the waters like a
tempest. This tremendous earthquake extended simultaneously over
180,000 square miles of country, and lasted for nearly six months almost
without intermission.[153]
In the neighborhood of Quebec, a dark clay slate generally appears, and
forms the bed of the St. Lawrence as far as Lake Ontario, and even at
Niagara; bowlders and other large masses of rock, however, of various
kinds, occur in detached portions at many different places. The great
elevated ridge of broken country running toward the Ottawa River, at the
distance of from fifty to one hundred miles from the north shore of Lake
Ontario, and the course of the St. Lawrence, is rich in silver, lead,
copper, and iron. On the north shore of the Saguenay, the rugged
mountains abound in iron to such an extent as to influence the mariner's
compass. The iron mines of St. Maurice[154] have been long known, and
found abundantly productive of an admirable metal, inferior to none in
the world; it is remarkably pliant and malleable, and little subject to
oxydation. In 1667, Colbert sent M. de la Potardiere, an experienced
mineralogist, to examine these mines; he reported the iron very
abundant, and of excellent quality, but it was not till 1737 that the
forges were established by the French: they failed to pay the expenses
of the speculation; the superintendent and fourteen clerks, however,
gained fortunes by the losses of their employers.
There is no doubt that immense mineral resources remain undiscovered
among the rocky solitudes of Lower Canada. Marble of excellent quality,
and endless variety of color, is found in different parts of the
country, and limestone is almost universal. Labrador produces a
beautiful and well-known spar of rich and brilliant tints, ultra-marine,
greenish yellow, red, and some of a fine pearly gray.
In Upper Canada, the country north of Lake Ontario is generally
characterized by a limestone subsoil resting on granite. The rocks about
Kingston are usually a very compact limestone, of a bluish-gray color,
having a slight silicious admixture, increasing as the depth increases,
with occasional intrusions of quartz or hornstone. The limestone strata
are horizontal, with the greatest dip when nearest to the elder rock on
which it rests; their thickness, like the depths of the soil, varies
from a few feet to a few inches: in these formations many minerals are
observed; genuine granite is seldom or never found.
West of Lake Ontario, the chasm at the Falls of Niagara shows the strata
of the country to be limestone, next slate, and lowest sandstone.
Limestone and sandstone compose the secondary formations of a large
portion of Canada, and of nearly all that vast extent of country in the
United States drained by the Mississippi. At Niagara the interposing
structure of slate is nearly forty feet thick, and fragile, like shale
crumbling away from under the limestone, thus strengthening the opinion
that there has been for many ages a continual retrocession of the Great
Falls. Around Lake St. Clair, masses of granite, mica slate, and quartz
are found in abundance. The level shores of Lake Huron offer little
geological variety; secondary limestone, filled with the usual reliquiae,
is the general structure of the coast, but detached blocks of granite
and other primitive rocks are occasionally found: this district appears
poor in minerals. The waters of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior have
evidently, at some remote period, formed one vast sheet, which probably
burst its bounds by a sudden action of nature, and subsided into the
present divisions, all lower than the former general level: the
separating ridges of these waters are but slightly elevated; great
masses of rock and huge bowlders of granite are found rolled at least
100 miles from their original situations, and immense alluvial beds of
fresh-water shells, apparently formed since the deluge, but when the
waters were still of a vast depth and extent, are found in the east of
Lake Huron.
Little or nothing is known of the dreary solitudes beyond Lake Superior;
enormous muddy ponds and marshes are succeeded by open, dry, sandy
plains; then forests of hemlock and spruce arise, again swamp, bog,
windfalls, and stagnant water succeed; in the course of many miles there
may not be one dry spot found for a resting-place. The cold is intense
in this desolate region; in winter spirits freeze into a consistency
like honey; and even in the height of summer the thermometer only shows
thirty-six degrees at sunrise. Part of the north and east shore of this
greatest of the lakes present old formations--sienite, stratified
greenstone, more or less chloritic, and alternating five times with vast
beds of granite--the general direction east, with a north or
perpendicular dip. Great quantities of the older shell limestone are
found strewn in rolled masses on the beach. Amygdaloid occupies also a
very large tract to the north, mingled with porphyries, conglomerates,
and various other substances. From Thunder Mountain westward, trappose
greenstone is the prevailing rock: it gives rise to some strange
pilastered precipices near Fort William. Copper[155] abounds in this
region to an extent, perhaps, unsurpassed any where in the world. At the
Coppermine River, three hundred miles from the Sault de St. Marie, this
metal, in a pure state, nearly covers the face of a serpentine rock, and
is also found within the stone in solid masses. Iron is abundant in many
parts of Upper Canada; at Charlotteville, eight miles from Lake Erie,
the metal produced is of a very fine quality. The Marmora Iron Works,
about thirty-two miles north of the Bay of Quinte, on the River Trent,
are situated on an extensive white rocky flat, apparently the bed of
some dried-up river; the ore is found on the surface, and is very rich,
yielding ninety-two per cent.: the necessary assistants, lime and fuel,
abound close at hand. Various other minerals have also been found there;
among the rest, small specimens of a metal like silver.
There are many strong mineral springs in different parts of Canada; the
most remarkable of these is the Burning Spring above Niagara; its waters
are black, hot and bubbling, and emit, during the summer, a gas that
burns with a pure bright flame; this sulphureted hydrogen is used to
light a neighboring mill. Salt springs are also numerous; gypsum is
obtained in large quantities, with pipe and potter's clay; yellow ocher
sometimes occurs; and there are many kinds of valuable building stones.
It is gathered from the Indians that there are incipient volcanoes in
several parts of these regions, particularly toward the Chippewa hunting
grounds.
The soil of Lower Canada is generally fertile; about Quebec it is light
and sandy in some parts, in others it is a mixture of loam and clay.
Above the Richelieu Rapids, where the great valley of the St. Lawrence
begins to widen, the low lands consist of a light and loose dark earth,
with ten or twelve inches of depth, lying on a stratum of cold clay, all
apparently of alluvial formation. Along the banks of the Ottawa there is
a great extent of rich alluvial soil; each year develops large districts
of fertile land, before unknown. The soils of Upper Canada are various;
brown clay and loam, intermixed with marl, predominates, particularly in
the rich district between the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa: north of
Ontario it is more clayey and extremely fertile. A rich black mold
prevails in the district between Lakes Ontario and Erie. There is in
this upper country an almost total absence of stone or gravel for
building and other common purposes. So great is the fertility of the
soil in Canada, that fifty bushels of wheat an acre are frequently
produced, even where the stumps of trees still occupy a considerable
portion of the ground: near Toronto one hundred bushels of wheat have
been grown upon a single acre, and in some districts the land has
yielded rich crops of that grain for twenty successive years, without
being manured.
The quality of the soil in wild lands may be known by the timber growing
upon it. Hard-wood trees, those that shed their leaves during winter,
show the best indication, such as maple, bass-wood, elm, black walnut,
hickory, butternut, iron-wood, hemlock, and a giant species of nettle.
A mixture of beech is good, but where it stands alone the soil is
generally light. Oak is uncertain as an indication, being found on
various bottoms. Soft or evergreen wood, such as pine, fir, larch, and
others of the species, are considered decisive of a very light soil. The
larch or tamarack on wide, flat plains, indicates sand upon a substratum
of marly clay, which the French Canadians hold in high estimation. It
is, however, right to add, that some very respectable authorities
dispute that the nature of the timber can be fully relied on as a guide
to the value of the land. The variety of trees found in the Canadian
forest is astonishing, and it is supposed that many kinds still remain
unknown. Of all these, none is more beautiful and useful than the maple;
its brilliant foliage, changing with each season of the year, is the
richest ornament of the forest. The timber is valuable for many
purposes, and from the sap might be produced an immense quantity of
excellent sugar. A great deal is at present made, but, like all the
other resources of this magnificent country, it is very partially turned
to the use of man: the sap of the maple is valuable also for
distillation.
There is a considerable variety of climate in Canada, from the
northeast, chilled by the winds of the Atlantic,[156] to the southwest,
five degrees lower, and approaching the center of the continent; the
neighborhood of ranges of bare and rugged mountains,[157] has also a
marked effect upon the temperature of different localities. However, in
all parts the winters are very severe, while the heat of summer is
little inferior to that of the tropics. But, on the whole, the clear
blue sky, unobscured by fog or mist, and the pure elastic air, bespeak
the salubrity of these provinces in all seasons.
In Lower Canada the extreme severity of the winter is, in a measure,
caused by the vicinity of the range of lofty and rugged mountains, as
well as by its more northern position. The fall of snow commences in
November, but seldom remains long on the ground till December; in that
month constantly successive falls of snow rapidly cover the whole
surface of the country. Toward the end of December the heavy clouds
disperse, and the rude storm is followed by a perfect calm; the air
becomes pure and frosty, and the skies of a clear and beautiful azure.
The River St. Lawrence[158] is frozen over every winter from Montreal to
the Richelieu Rapids, but from thence to Quebec only once in about five
years; at other times, however, enormous fields and masses of ice drift
up and down with the changing tides, increasing or diminishing with the
severity or mildness of the weather; where the Island of Orleans divides
the Great River into two branches, the northern channel is narrow and
less acted upon by tides; here these huge frozen masses are forced
together by the winds and waters, and form an enormous bridge from shore
to shore. The greatest degree of cold prevails toward the end of
January, for a few days occasionally so intense that the human frame can
scarcely endure exposure to it for any length of time. When winter has
set in nearly every bird disappears, and few wild animals are any longer
to be seen; some, like the bear, remain torpid, others change their
color to a snowy white, and are rarely observed. Rocks of the softer
kinds are often rent asunder, as if with the explosion of gunpowder, by
the irresistible expansive power of the frost.[159] Dogs become mad
from the severity of the cold, and polished iron or other metal, when
exposed in the air for a little time, _burns_ the hand at the touch as
if it were red hot.[160] During the still nights of intense frost the
woods send forth a creaking sound, like the noise of chopping with
thousands of hatchets. Sometimes a brief thaw occurs in the middle of
winter, when a very extraordinary effect, called by the Canadians _ver
glas_, is occasionally produced upon the bare trees: they are covered
with an incrustation of pure ice from the stem to the extremities of the
smallest branches; the slight frost of the night freezes the moisture
that covered the bark during the day; the branches become at last unable
to bear their icy burden, and when a strong wind arises, the destruction
among trees of all kinds is immense. When the sun shines upon the forest
covered with this brilliant incrustation, the effect is indescribably
beautiful.
The months of March and April are usually very hot, and the power of the
sun's rays is heightened by the reflection of the ice and snows. Toward
the end of April or the beginning of May, the dreary winter covering has
altogether disappeared; birds of various kinds return from their wintery
exile; the ice accumulated in the great lakes and streams that are
tributary to the St. Lawrence breaks up with a tremendous noise, and
rushes down in vast quantities toward the ocean, till again the tides of
the Gulf drive them back. Sometimes the Great River is blocked up from
shore to shore with these frozen masses; the contending currents force
them together with terrible violence, and pile them over each other in
various fantastic forms. The navigation of the river is not fairly
practicable till all these have disappeared, which is generally about
the 10th of May.
When the young summer fairly sets in, nothing can be more charming than
the climate--during the day bright and genial, with the air still pure
and clear; the transition from bare brown fields and woods to verdure
and rich green foliage is so rapid, that its progress is almost
perceptible. Spring has scarcely begun before summer usurps its place,
and the earth, awakened from nature's long, wintery sleep, gives forth
her increase with astonishing bounty. This delightful season is usually
ushered in by moderate rains, and a considerable rise in the meridian
heat; but the nights are still cool and refreshing. In June, July, and
August, the heat becomes great, and for some days intense; the roads and
rocks at noon are so hot as to be painful to the touch, and the direct
rays of the sun possess almost tropical power; but the night brings
reinvigorating coolness, and the breezes of the morning are fresh and
tempered as in our own favored land. September is usually a delightful
month, although at times oppressively sultry. The autumn or fall rivals
the spring in healthy and moderate warmth, and is the most agreeable of
the seasons. The night-frosts destroy the innumerable venomous flies
that have infested the air through the hot season, and, by their action
on the various foliage of the forest, bestow an inconceivable richness
of coloring to the landscape.
During the summer there is a great quantity of electric fluid in the
atmosphere, but storms of thunder and lightning are not of very frequent
occurrence. When they do take place, their violence is sometimes
tremendous, and serious damage often occurs. These outbursts, however,
usually produce a favorable effect upon the weather and temperature.
The most remarkable meteoric phenomenon that has occurred in Canada
since the country became inhabited by civilized man, was first seen in
October, 1785, and again in July, 1814. At noonday a pitchy darkness, of
a dismal and sinister character, completely obscured the light of the
sun, continuing for about ten minutes at a time, and being frequently
repeated during the afternoon. In the interval between each mysterious
eclipse dense masses of black clouds, streaked with yellow, drove
athwart the darkened sky, with fitful gusts of wind; thunder,
lightning, black rain, and showers of ashes added to the terrors of the
scene; and, when the sun appeared, its color was a bright red. The
Indians ascribe this wonderful phenomenon to a vast volcano in the
unknown regions of Labrador. The testimony of M. Gagnon gives
corroboration to this idea. In December, 1791, when at St. Paul's Bay,
in the Saguenay country, he saw the flames of an immense volcano,
mingled with black smoke, rising to a great height in the air. Several
violent shocks, as of an earthquake, accompanied this strange
appearance.
The prevailing winds of Lower Canada are the northeast, northwest, and
southwest, and these exercise considerable influence on the temperature
of the atmosphere and the state of the weather. The southwest wind, the
most prevalent, is generally moderate, accompanied by clear, bright
skies; the northeast and east wind bring rain in summer, and snow in
winter, from the dreary regions of Labrador; and the northwest blast is
keen and dry, from its passage over the vast frozen solitudes that lie
between the Rocky Mountains[161] and Hudson's Bay. Winds from the north,
south, or west are seldom felt: the currents of the neighboring air are
often affected by the direction of the tidal streams, which act as far
as 400 miles from the mouth of the Great River.
The effect of a long continuance of snow upon the earth is favorable to
vegetation; were the surface exposed to the intense severity of wintery
frosts, unprotected by this ample covering, the ground could not regain
a proper degree of heat, even under a Canadian sun, before the autumn
frosts had again chilled the energies of nature. The natural heat of the
earth is about 42 deg.; the surface waters freeze at 32 deg., and thus present a
non-conducting incrustation to the keen atmosphere; then the snow
becomes a warm garment till the April sun softens the air above; the
latent heat of the earth begins to be developed; the snow melts, and
penetrates the ground through every pore, rendering friable the stiffest
soil. For a month or more before the visible termination of the
Canadian winter, vegetation is in active progress on the surface of the
earth, even under snow several feet thick.
In Upper Canada the climate does not present such extremes of heat and
cold as in the Lower Province. In the Newcastle District, between
latitude 44 deg. and 45 deg., the winter is little more severe than in England,
and the warmth of summer is tempered by a cool and refreshing southwest
breeze, which blows throughout the day from over the waters of the great
lakes. In spring and autumn the southwest wind brings with it frequent
rains; the northwest wind prevails in winter, and is dry, cold, and
elastic; the south-eastern breezes are generally accompanied by thaw and
rain: from the west, south, or north, the wind rarely blows. The most
sudden changes of weather consequent upon varying winds are observed
from the northwest, when the air becomes pure and cool; thunder storms
generally clear away with this wind: the heaviest falls of snow, and the
most continued rains, come with the eastern breezes.
The great lakes are never frozen in their centers, but a strong border
of thick ice extends for some distance from the shore: in severe
weather, a beautiful evaporation in various fantastic shapes ascends
from the vast surfaces of these inland seas, forming cloudy columns and
pyramids to a great height in the air: this is caused by the water being
of a higher temperature than the atmosphere above. The chain of shallow
lakes from Lake Simco toward the midland district are rarely frozen over
more than an inch in thickness till about Christmas, and are free from
ice again by the end of March. The earth in Upper Canada is seldom froze
more than twelve or eighteen inches deep, and the general covering of
the snow is about a foot and a half in thickness.
In Canada the Indian summer is perhaps the most delightful period of the
year. During most of November the weather is mild and serene; a soft,
dry haze pervades the air, thickening toward the horizon; in the
evenings the sun sets in a rich crimson flush, and the temperature is
mild and genial: the birds avail themselves of the Indian summer for
their migration. A phenomenon called the "tertian intervals" has excited
much interest, and is still unexplained: at the end of the third day
the greatest intensity of frost is always remittent, and succeeded by
several days of mild weather. The climate is so dry that metals rarely
are rusted by exposure to the air. This absence of humidity prevents the
extremes of heat and cold from being so powerful here in their effect
upon the sensations of the human frame as in other countries.
The Aurora Borealis, or northern lights,[162] appear with great
brilliancy in the clear Canadian sky, especially during the winter
nights. Starting from behind the distant horizon, they race up through
the vault of heaven, spreading over all space one moment, shrinking to a
quivering streak the next, shooting out again where least expected, then
vanishing into darkness deeper than before; now they seem like vast
floating banners of variegated flame, then as crescents, again as
majestic columns of light, ever changing in form and color. It is said
that a rustling sound like that of silk accompanies this beautiful
appearance.
The climate of Canada has undergone a slight change since the discovery
of the country; especially from the year 1818, an amelioration has been
perceptible, partly owing to the motion of the magnetic poles, and
partly to the gradual cultivation and clearing of the country. The
winters are somewhat shorter and milder, and less snow falls than of
old; the summers are also hotter.[163] The felling of the forests, the
draining of the morasses, partial though it may still be, together with
the increasing population, have naturally some effect. The thick
foliage, which before interposed its shade between the sun and the
earth, intercepting the genial warmth from the lower atmosphere, has now
been removed in many extensive tracts of country: the cultivated soil
imbibes the heat, and returns it to the surrounding air in warm and
humid vapors. The exhalations arising from a much increased amount of
animal life, together with the burning of so many combustibles, are not
altogether without their influence in softening the severity of the
climate.[164]
Canada abounds in an immense and beautiful variety of trees[165] and
shrubs. Among the timber trees, the oak, pine, fir, elm, ash, birch,
walnut, beech, maple, chestnut, cedar, and aspen, are the principal. Of
fruit-trees and shrubs there are walnut, chestnut, apple, pear, cherry,
plum, elder, vines,[166] hazel, hickory, sumach, juniper, hornbeam,
thorn, laurel, whortleberry, cranberry, gooseberry, raspberry,
blackberry, blueberry, sloe, and others; strawberries of an excellent
flavor are luxuriantly scattered over every part of the country.
Innumerable varieties of useful and beautiful herbs and grasses enrich
the forests, whose virtues and peculiarities are as yet but little known
to Europeans.[167] In many places, pine-trees grow to the height of 120
feet and upward, and are from nine to ten feet in circumference.[170]
Of this and of the fir species there are many varieties, some of them
valuable from their production of pitch, tar, and turpentine. The
American oak[171] is quicker in its growth and less durable than that of
England; one species, however, called the live oak, grown in the warmer
parts of the continent, is said to be equal, if not superior, to any in
Europe for ship-building. The white oak is the best found in the
Canadian settlements, and is in high repute. Another description is
called the scrubby oak--it resembles the British gnarled oak, and is
remarkably hard and durable. The birch[173] tribe is very numerous: the
bark is much used by the Indians in making canoes,[174] baskets, and
roofings; the wood is of a useful quality, and the sap, when extracted
in the spring, produces by fermentation a pleasant but weak wine. The
maple[175] is one of the most variable and beautiful of all the forest
trees, and is adopted as the emblem of Canadian nationality.
Two plants, formerly of great importance in these counties, are now
almost extirpated, or little noticed as articles of commerce--ginseng[176]
and capillaire. The first was found in great abundance by the French in
their earlier settlement of the colony, and large quantities were exported
to Europe, from whence it was forwarded to China. The high value it then
possessed in that distant market induced the Canadians to collect the roots
prematurely; and the Indians also gathered them wherever they could be
found; consequently, this useful production was soon exhausted, and is now
rarely seen. The capillaire[177] is now either become rare or neglected
for other objects; a small quantity is, however, still exported. In the
woods there is a vast variety of wild plants and flowers, many of them very
beautiful. The sweet garlic especially deserves notice: two large
pale-green leaves arise from the root; between them stands the delicate
stem, about a foot in height, bearing a cluster of graceful flowers,
resembling blue-bells in shape and color. The wild turnip is also very
beautiful. There are, besides, many valuable herbs and roots, which the
Indians use for various purposes. The reindeer moss[178] often serves
for support and refreshment to the exhausted hunter; when boiled down
into a liquid, it is very nourishing; and an herb called Indian tea
produces a pleasant and wholesome draught, with a rich aromatic flavor.
Wild oats and rice[179] are found in some of the marshy lands. The soil
and climate are also favorable to the production of hops and a mild
tobacco, much esteemed for the manufacture of snuff. Hemp[180] and flax
are both indigenous in America. Father Hennepin, in the seventeenth
century, found the former growing wild in the country of the Illinois;
and Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in his travels to the western coast, met
with flax in the interior, where no European was ever known to have been
before. The Indian hemp[181] is seen in abundance upon the Canadian
soil, particularly in light and sandy places; the bark is so strong that
the natives use it for bow-strings; the pod bears a substance that
rivals down in softness and elasticity; the culture is easy; the root,
penetrating deep into the earth, survives the frosts of winter, and
shoots out fresh stalks every spring. When five or six years old it
attains the greatest perfection. It may be added that in these favored
provinces all European plants, fruits, vegetables, grain,[182] legumes,
and every other production of the earth required for the subsistence or
luxury of man, yield their increase even more abundantly than in the old
continents.
The animals originally belonging to America appear to be of an inferior
race--neither so robust, fierce, or numerous as those of the other
continents: some are peculiar to the New World; but there is reason to
suppose that several species have become utterly extinct, and the spread
of cultivation, and increase of the human race rapidly extirpate many of
those that still remain. America gives birth to no creature of equal
bulk to the elephant and rhinoceros, or of equal strength and ferocity
to the lion and tiger. The particular qualities in the climate, stinting
the growth and enfeebling the spirit of the native animals, have also
proved injurious to such as have been transported to the Canadas by
their present European inhabitants. The soil, as well as temperature, of
the country seems to be rather unfavorable to the development of
strength and perfection in the animal creation.[183] The general quality
of the natural grasses covering those boundless pastures is not good or
sufficiently nutritious.[184]
The native animals of Canada are the buffalo, bison, and musk bull,
belonging to the ox kind. The buffalo is still found in herds of
immense numbers upon the prairies of the remote western country, where
they have wandered from the hated neighborhood of civilized man: the
skin[185] is invaluable to the Canadians as a protection from the keen
wintery air, and is abundantly supplied to them by the hunters of the
Hudson's Bay Company.[186] This animal is about the size of an ox, with
the head disproportionably large; he is of a lighter color, less
ferocious aspect, and inferior strength to those of the Old World. Both
the bison and musk ox are varieties of the domestic cow, with a covering
of shaggy hair; they possess considerable strength and activity. There
are different descriptions of deer: the black and gray moose or elk, the
caribou or reindeer,[187] the stag[188] and fallow deer.[189] The moose
deer[190] is the largest wild animal of the continent; it is often seen
upward of ten feet high, and weighing twelve hundred weight; though
savage in aspect, the creature is generally timid and inoffensive even
when attacked by the hunter, and, like the sheep, may be easily
domesticated: the flesh and skin are both of some value.
The black and brown bear[191] is found in various parts of America, but
chiefly in the northwest: some few are seen in the forests to the north
of Quebec. This animal chooses for his lurking-place the hollow trunk of
an old tree, which he prepares with sticks and branches, and a coating
of warm moss; on the approach of the cold season he retires to his lair,
and sleeps through the long winter till the return of spring enables him
again to seek his prey. The bear is rather shy than fierce, but very
powerful and dangerous when driven to extremities; he displays a strong
degree of instinct, and is very dexterous and cunning in procuring food:
the flesh is considered a delicacy, and the skin highly prized for
beauty and warmth. Foxes[192] are numerous; they are of various colors
and very cunning. Hares[193] are abundant, and turn white in winter like
those of Norway. The wolverine or carcajou is called by the hunters
beaver-eater, and somewhat resembles a badger; the skin is soft and
handsome. A species of porcupine or urchin is found to the northward,
and supplies the Indians with quills about four inches long, which, when
dyed, are worked into showy ornaments. Squirrels[194] and various other
small quadrupeds with fine furs are abundant in the forests. The animals
of the cat kind are the cougar or American lion, the loup-cervier, the
catamount, and the manguay or lynx.
Beavers[195] are numerous in North America; these amphibious animals are
about two feet nine inches in length, with very short fore feet and
divided toes, while the hinder are membranous, and adapted for swimming;
the body is covered with a soft, glossy, and valuable fur; the tail is
oval, scaly, destitute of hair, and about a foot long. These industrious
creatures dam up considerable streams, and construct dwellings of many
compartments, to protect them from the rigor of the climate, as well as
from their numerous enemies; their winter food, consisting of poplar
logs, pieces of willows, alder, and fragments of other trees, is
collected in autumn, and sunk in the water near the habitation. The
beaver exhibits an extraordinary degree of instinct, and may be easily
tamed; when caught or surprised by the approach of an enemy, it gives
warning to its companions by striking the water with the flat of its
tail. The musk rat and otter resemble the beaver in some of their
habits, but are inferior in ingenuity, and of less value to the hunter.
The walrus has now disappeared from the frequented waters of the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, but is still found on the northern coasts of Labrador; in
shape he somewhat resembles the seal, but is of much greater size,
sometimes weighing 4000 pounds; when protecting their young, or when
wounded, they are dangerous from their immense tusks; when out of the
water, however, they are very helpless.
Nearly all these wild animals are pursued by the Indians, and the
hunters of the Hudson's Bay Company,[196] for their skins; they are
consequently growing rarer, and their haunts become more remote each
succeeding year: probably, at no distant time, they will be altogether
extinct.
The birds of Canada differ little from those of the same names in
Europe, but the severe climate is generally uncongenial to them. There
are eagles, vultures, hawks, falcons, kites, owls, ravens, crows, rooks,
jays, magpies, daws, cuckoos, woodpeckers, hoopers, creepers,
humming-birds, thrushes, blackbirds, linnets, finches, sparrows,
fly-catchers, pigeons, turkeys, ducks, geese, swans, grouse, ptarmigans,
snipes, quails, and many others. The plumage of the American birds is
very brilliant; but the sweet voices that fill the European woods with
melody are never heard. Many of the birds of Lower Canada are migratory;
the water-fowl seek the cooler north during the heat of summer, and
other species fly to the south to shun the wintery frosts. In the milder
latitudes of Upper Canada, birds are more numerous. They are known by
the same names as those of corresponding species in England, but differ
from them to some extent in plumage and character.
In Lower Canada the reptiles are few and innocuous, and even these are
not met with in the cultivated parts of the country. In the Upper
Province, however, they are more numerous; some species are very
dangerous, others harmless and exquisitely beautiful. Two kinds of
rattlesnakes[197] are found here: one of a deep brown and yellow color,
and seldom more than thirty inches in length; it frequents marshes and
low meadows, and is very dangerous to cattle, often fastening its fangs
upon their lips while grazing. The other is a bright greenish yellow
clouded with brown, and twice the size of the former. These reptiles are
thicker in proportion to their length than any others; the rattle is at
the end of the tail, and consists of a number of dry, horny shells
inclosed within each other. When wounded or enraged, the skin of the
rattlesnake assumes a variety of beautiful colors; the flesh is white as
that of the most delicate fish, and is esteemed a great luxury by the
Indians. Cold weather weakens or destroys their poisonous qualities. In
the spring, when they issue from their place of winter concealment, they
are harmless till they have got to water, and at that time emit a
sickening smell so as to injure those who hunt them. In some of the
remoter districts they are still numerous, but in the long-settled parts
of the country they are now rarely or never seen.
Several varieties of lizards and frogs abound; the latter make an
astonishing noise in marshy places during the summer evening by their
harsh croaking. The land crab is found on the northern shore of Lake
Erie. A small tortoise, called a terrapin,[198] is taken in some rivers,
creeks, and swampy grounds, and is used as an article of food. Seals
have been occasionally seen on the islands in Lake Ontario.
Insects[199] are very numerous and various, some of them both
troublesome and mischievous: locusts or grasshoppers have been known to
cause great destruction to the vegetable world. Musquitoes and
sand-flies infest the woods, and the neighborhood of water, in
incredible numbers, during the hot weather. There are many moths and
butterflies resembling those seen in England. The beautiful fire-fly is
very common in Canada, their phosphorescent light shining with wonderful
brightness through the shady forests in the summer nights.
The lakes and rivers of Upper Canada abound in splendid fish of almost
every variety known in England, and others peculiar to the country:
sturgeon of 100 lbs. weight are frequently taken, and a giant species of
pike, called the maskenongi, of more than 60 lbs. The trout of the upper
lakes almost rivals the sturgeon in size, but not in flavor. The
delicious white-fish, somewhat resembling a shad, is very plentiful, as
is also the black bass, which is highly prized. A fresh-water herring
abounds in great shoals, but is inferior in delicacy to the
corresponding species of the salt seas. Salmon are numerous in Lake
Ontario, but above the Falls of Niagara they are never seen.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 151: "The neighborhood of Quebec, as well as Canada in
general, is much characterized by bowlders, and the size and position of
some of them is very striking. There are two crowning the height which
overlooks the domain farm at Beauport, whose collective weight is little
short, by computation, of forty tons. The Heights of Abraham also are,
or rather were, crowded with them; and it should never be forgotten that
it was upon one of these hoary symbols, the debacles of the deluge, as
they are supposed to be, that the immortal and mortal parts of two
heroes separated from each other. It has often occurred to us, that one
of the most suitable monuments to the memory of Wolfe and Montcalm might
have been erected with these masses, in the form of a pyramid or pile of
shot, instead of burying them, as in many instances has been done, in
order to clear the ground."--_Picture of Quebec_, p. 456.]
[Footnote 152: Gray says, in 1809, that "no coal has ever yet been found
in Canada, probably because it has never been thought worth searching
after. It is supposed that coal exists in the neighborhood of Quebec; at
any rate, there can be no doubt that it exists in great abundance in the
island of Cape Breton, which may one day become the Newcastle of
Canada."--P. 287.
"No idea can be formed of the importance of the American coal seams
until we reflect on the prodigious area over which they are continuous.
The elliptical area occupied by the Pittsburg seam is 225 miles in its
largest diameter, while its maximum breadth is about 100 miles, its
superficial extent being about 14,000 square miles.
"The Apalachian coal-field extends for a distance of 720 miles from
northeast to southwest, its greatest width being about 180 miles.
"The Illinois coal-field is not much inferior in dimensions to the whole
of England."--Lyell's _America_, vol. ii., p. 31.
"It was the first time I had seen the true coal in America, and I was
much struck with its surprising analogy in mineral and fossil characters
to that of Europe; ... the whole series resting on a coarse grit and
conglomerate, containing quartz pebbles, very like our millstone grit,
and often called by the Americans, as well as the English miners, the
'Farewell Rock,' because, when they have reached it in their borings,
they take leave of all valuable fuel."--_Ibid._, vol. i., p. 61.]
[Footnote 153: See Appendix, No. XXI. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 154: Professor Kalm visited the iron-works of St. Maurice in
1748, eleven or twelve years after their first establishment. "The
iron-work, which is the only one in the country, lies three miles to the
west of Trois Rivieres. Here are two great forges, besides two lesser
ones to each of the great ones, and under the same roof with them. The
bellows were made of wood, and every thing else as in the Swedish
forges. The ore is got two and a half miles from the iron-works, and is
carried thither on sledges. It is a kind of moor-ore (Tophus Tubalcaini:
_Linn. Syst. Nat._, lib. iii., p. 187, note 5), which lies in veins
within six inches or a foot from the surface of the ground. Each vein is
from six to eighteen inches deep, and below it is a white sand. The
veins are surrounded with this sand on both sides, and covered at the
top with a thin mold. The ore is pretty rich, and lies in loose lumps in
the veins of the size of two fists, though there are a few which are
near eighteen inches thick. These lumps are full of holes which are
filled with ocher. The ore is so soft that it may be crushed between the
fingers. They make use of a gray limestone, which is broke in the
neighborhood, for promoting the fusibility of the ore; to that purpose
they likewise employ a clay marl, which is found near this place.
Charcoals are to be had in great abundance here, because the country
round this place is covered with wood which has never been stirred. The
charcoals from evergreen trees, that is, from the fir kind, are best for
the forge, but those of deciduous trees are best for the smelting-oven.
The iron which is here made was to me described as soft, pliable, and
tough, and is said to have the quality of not being attacked by rust so
easily as other iron. This iron-work was first founded in 1737 by
private persons, who afterward ceded it to the king; they cast cannon
and mortars here of different sizes, iron stoves, which are in use all
over Canada, kettles, &c. They have likewise tried to make steel here,
but can not bring it to any great perfection, because they are
unacquainted with the best method of preparing it. Here are many
officers and overseers, who have very good houses built on purpose for
them. It is agreed on all hands that the resources of the iron-work do
not pay the expenses which the king must every year be at in maintaining
it. They lay the fault on the bad state of population, and say that the
few inhabitants in the country have enough to do with agriculture, and
that it therefore costs great trouble and large sums to get a sufficient
number of workmen. But, however plausible this may appear, yet it is
surprising that the king should be a loser in carrying on this work, for
the ore is easily broken, being near the iron-work, and very fusible.
The iron is good; and this is, moreover, the only iron-work in the
country, from which every body must supply himself with tools, and what
other iron he wants. But the officers and servants belonging to the
iron-work appear to be in very affluent circumstances. A river runs down
from the iron-work into the River St. Lawrence, by which all the iron
can be sent in boats throughout the country at a low rate."--Kalin in
Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 631.
"M. Dantic, after a number of experiments to class the different kinds
of iron, discovered that the iron of Styria was the best, and that the
iron of North America, of Danemara in Sweden, of Spain, Bayonne,
Roussillon, Foix, Berri, Thierache in Sweden, the communes of France,
and Siberia, was the next class."--Abbe Raynal, vol. iii., p. 268.
Weld and Heriot mention that the bank of iron ore at the forges of St.
Maurice was nearly exhausted in their time; new veins, however, have
been since discovered.
Charlevoix says, in 1720: "Il est certain que ces mines de fer, que
l'oeil percant de M. Colbert et la vigilance de M. Talon avoit fait
decouvrir, apres avoir presqu entierement disparu pendant plus de
soixante dix ans, viennent d'etre retrouvees par les soins de ceux qui
occupent aujourd'hui leur place."--Charlevoix, tom. ii., p. 166.]
[Footnote 155: Henry and others speak of a rock of pure copper, from
which the former out off 100 lbs. weight. W. Schoolcraft examined the
remainder of the mass in 1820, and found it of irregular shape; in its
greatest length three feet eight inches, greatest breadth three feet
four inches, making about eleven cubic feet, and containing, of metallic
matter, about 2200 lbs.; but there were many marks of chisels and axes
upon it, as if a great deal had been carried off. The surface of the
block, unlike most metals which have suffered a long exposure to the
atmosphere, presents a metallic brilliancy.--Martin's _History of
Canada_, p. 175.
Weld mentions having seen in the possession of a gentleman at Niagara a
lump of copper, of several ounces weight, apparently as pure as if it
had passed through the fire, which had been struck off with a chisel
from a piece equally pure, growing on one of the islands in Lake
Superior. Rich veins of copper are visible in almost all the rocks on
these islands near the shore; and copper ore, resembling copperas, is
likewise found in deep beds near the water.--Weld, p. 346.
In Charlevoix's time (1720), "on trouvoit sur les bords du Lac Superieur
et autour de certains isles, de grosses pieces de cuivre qui sont
l'objet de cette superstition des sauvages; ils les regardent avec
veneration comme un present des Dieux qui habitent sous les eaux; ils en
ramassent les plus petits fragmens et les conservent avec soin, mais ils
n'en font aucune usage. J'ai connu un de nos freres lequel etoit orfevre
de son metier, et qui, pendant qu'il etoit dans la mission du Sault
Sainte Marie, en etoit alle chercher la, et en avoit fait des
chandeliers, des croix, et des encensoirs, car ce cuivre est souvent
presque tout pur."--Tom. v., p. 415.
Kalm says that the copper found is so pure that it does not require
melting over again, but is fit for working immediately.--Kalm in
Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 691 (1748).
"Before saying good-by to Lake Superior, let me add, that since the date
of my visit, the barren rocks which we passed have become an object of
intense interest, promising to rival, in point of mineral wealth, the
Altai chain and the Uralian Mountains. Iron had long been known to
abound on the northern shore, two mines having been at one time worked
and abandoned, chiefly on account of temporary obstacles, which the
gradual advance of agriculture and civilization was sure to remove; and,
more recently, the southern shore, though of a much less favorable
character in that respect, was found to possess rich veins of copper and
silver. Under these circumstances, various enterprising persons in
Canada have prosecuted investigations which appear to have
satisfactorily proved that, in addition to their iron, the forbidding
wastes of the northern shore contain inexhaustible treasures, both of
the precious and of the useful metals, of gold and of silver, of copper
and tin, and already have associations been formed to reap the teeming
harvest."--Sir G. Simpson's _Journey round the World_, vol. i., p. 35
(1841).
The following extract is from a Quebec newspaper, bearing date 25th
June, 1848:
"THE COPPER REGION: SINGULAR DISCOVERY.--A correspondent of the Buffalo
Express, writing under date June 14, from Ontonagon, Lake Superior,
says:
"'Mr. Knapp, of the Vulcan Mining Company, has lately made some very
singular discoveries here in working one of the veins which he lately
found. He worked into an old cave which has been excavated centuries
ago. This led them to look for other works of the same sort, and they
have found a number of sinks in the earth which they have traced a long
distance. By digging into those sinks they find them to have been made
by the hand of man. It appears that the ancient miners went on a
different principle from what they do at the present time. The greatest
depth yet found in these holes is thirty feet: after getting down to a
certain depth, they drifted along the vein, making an open cut. These
cuts have been filled nearly to a level by the accumulation of soil; and
we find trees of the largest growth standing in this gutter, and also
find that trees of a very large growth have grown up and died, and
decayed many years since; in the same places there are now standing
trees of over three hundred years' growth. Last week they dug down into
a new place, and about twelve feet below the surface found a mass of
copper that will weigh from eight to ten tons. This mass was buried in
ashes, and it appears they could not handle it, and had no means of
cutting it, and probably built fire to melt or separate the rock from
it, which might be done by heating, and then dashing on cold water. This
piece of copper is as pure and clean as a new cent; the upper surface
has been pounded clear and smooth. It appears that this mass of copper
was taken from the bottom of a shaft, at the depth of about thirty feet.
In sinking this shaft from where the mass now lies, they followed the
course of the vein, which pitches considerably: this enabled them to
raise it as far as the hole came up with a slant. At the bottom of a
shaft they found skids of black oak, from eight to twelve inches in
diameter: these sticks were charred through, as if burned: they found
large wooden wedges in the same situation. In this shaft they found a
miner's gad and a narrow chisel made of copper. I do not know whether
these copper tools are tempered or not, but their make displays good
workmanship. They have taken out more than a ton of cobble-stones, which
have been used as mallets. These stones were nearly round, with a score
cut around the tenter, and look as if this score was cut for the purpose
of putting a withe round for a handle. The Chippewa Indians all say that
this work was never done by Indians. This discovery will lead to a new
method of finding veins in this country, and may be of great benefit to
some. I suppose they will keep finding new wonders for some time yet, as
it is but a short time since they first found the old mine. There is
copper here in abundance, and I think people will begin to dig it in a
few years. Mr. Knapp has found considerable silver during the past
winter.'"]
[Footnote 156: Acosta is the first philosopher who endeavored to account
for the different degrees of heat in the Old and New Continents by the
agency of the winds which blow in each, (_Hist. Moral._, lib. ii. and
iii.) M. de Buffon adopted the same theory, and illustrated it with many
new observations. "The prevailing winds, both in Upper and Lower Canada,
are the northeast, northwest, and southwest, which all have a
considerable influence on the temperature of the atmosphere and the
state of the weather. The southwest wind is the most prevalent, but it
is generally moderate, and accompanied by clear skies; and the northeast
and easterly winds usually bring with them continued rain in summer, and
snow in winter; the northwest is remarkable for its dryness and
elasticity, and, from its gathering an intense degree of frigor as it
sweeps over the frozen plains and ice-bound hills in that quarter of the
continent, invariably brings with it a perceptible degree of cold. Winds
from due north, south, or west are not frequent. At Quebec, the
direction of the wind often changes with the tide, which is felt for
nearly sixty miles higher up the stream of the St. Lawrence."--Bonchette,
vol. i., p. 343.
"The northwest wind is uncommonly dry, and brings with it fresh
animation and vigor to every living thing. Although this wind is so very
piercing in winter, yet the people never complain so much of cold as
when the northeast wind blows. The northeast wind is also cold, but it
renders the air raw and damp. That from the southeast is damp, but warm.
Rain or snow usually falls when the wind comes from any point toward the
east. The northwest wind, from coming over such an immense tract of
land, must necessarily be dry; and, coming from regions eternally
covered with mounds of snow and ice, it must also be cold. The northeast
wind, from traversing the frozen seas, must be cold likewise; but, from
passing over such a large portion of the watery main afterward, it
brings damp and moisture with it. All those from the northeast are damp,
and loaded with vapors from the same cause. Southerly winds, from
crossing the warm regions between the tropics, are attended with heats;
and the southwest wind, from passing, like the northwest, over a great
extent of land, is dry at the same time."--Weld's _Travels in America_,
4th ed., p. 184.
Kalm says, p. 748, that he was assured that "the northeast wind, when it
is very violent in winter, pierces through walls of a moderate
thickness, so that the whole wall on the inside of the house is covered
with snow, or a thick hoar frost. The wind damages severely the houses
that are built of stone, so that the owners are frequently obliged to
repair them on the northeast side. In summer the north wind is generally
attended with rain."--Kalm in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 651.]
[Footnote 157: "Many of these mountains are very high. During my stay in
Canada, I asked many people who have traveled much in North America
whether they ever met with mountains so high that the snow never melts
on them in summer, to which they always answered in the negative. They
say that the snow sometimes stays on the highest, viz., on some of those
between Canada and the English colonies during a part of the summer, but
that it melts as soon as the great heat begins."--Kalm, p. 671.]
[Footnote 158: "It is worthy of remark, and not a little surprising,
that so large a river as the St. Lawrence, in latitude 47 deg., should be
shut up with ice as soon, and continue as long shut up, as the
comparatively small river, the Neva, in latitude 60 deg.."--Gray's _Canada_,
p. 320.]
[Footnote 159: "The following curious experiments were made some years
ago at Quebec, by Major Williams, of the Artillery. Iron shells of
different sizes, from the thirteen-inch shell to the cohorn of four
inches diameter, were nearly filled with water, and an iron plug was
driven in at the fuse-hole by a sledge-hammer. It was found, however,
that the plug could never be driven so firmly into the fuse-hole as to
resist the expanding ice, which pushed it out with great force and
velocity, and a bolt or cylinder of ice immediately shot up from the
hole; but when a plug was used that had springs which would expand and
lay hold of the inside of the cavity, so that it could not possibly be
pushed out, the force of expansion split the shell. The amazing force of
expansion is also shown from the distance to which these iron plugs are
thrown out of the fuse-hole. A plug of two pounds and a half weight was
thrown no less than 415 feet from the shell; the fuse axis was at an
angle of 45 deg.; the thermometer showed 51 deg. below the freezing point. Here
you see ice and gunpowder performing the same operations. That similar
effects should proceed from such dissimilar causes is very
extraordinary."--Gray's _Canada_, p. 309.]
[Footnote 160: See Appendix, No. XXII. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 161: "These mountains were known to the French missionaries by
the name of Montagnes des Pierres Brillantes."--Chateaubriand.]
[Footnote 162: See Appendix, No. XXIII. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 163: See Appendix, No. XXIV. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 164: See Appendix, No. XXV. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 165: "In Europe, in Asia, in Africa, and even in South
America, the primeval trees, however much their magnitude may arrest
admiration, do not grow in the promiscuous style that prevails in the
general character of the North American woods. Many varieties of the
pine, intermingled with birch, maple, beech, oak, and numerous other
tribes, branch luxuriantly over the banks of lakes and rivers, extend in
stately grandeur along the plains, and stretch proudly up to the very
summits of the mountains. It is impossible to exaggerate the autumnal
beauty of these forests; nothing under heaven can be compared to its
effulgent grandeur. Two or three frosty nights in the decline of autumn
transform the boundless verdure of a whole empire into every possible
tint of brilliant scarlet, rich violet, every shade of blue and brown,
vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, inexorable fir tribes
alone maintain their eternal somber green. All others, in mountains or
in villages, burst into the most glorious vegetable beauty, and exhibit
the most splendid and most enchanting panorama on earth."--M'Gregor, p.
79, 80.
Mr. Weld says, "The varied hues of the trees at this season of the year
(autumn) can hardly be imagined by those who never have had an
opportunity of observing them; and, indeed, as others have often
remarked before, were a painter to attempt to color a picture from them,
it would be condemned in Europe as totally different from any thing that
ever existed in nature."--Weld, p. 510.
"I can only compare the brightness of the faded leaves, scarlet, purple,
and yellow, to that of tulips."--Lyell's _America_, vol. i., p. 107.]
[Footnote 166: See Appendix, No. XXVI. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 167: "One of the most striking features in the vegetation of
Canada is the number of species belonging to the _genera_ Solidago,
Aster, Quercus, and Pinus. It is also distinguished for the many plants
contained in the Orders, or natural families--Grossulaceae, Onograceae,
Hypericaceae, Aceraceae, Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, and Vacciniaceae; and for
the presence of the peculiar families--Podophyllae, Sarraceniaceae, and
Hydrophyllaceae. There is, on the contrary, the climate being considered,
a remarkable paucity of Cruciferae and Umbelliferae, and, what is most
extraordinary, a total absence of the genus Erica (heath),[168] which
covers so many thousands of acres in corresponding latitudes in Europe.
Mrs. Butler mentions, in her Journal, 'that some poor Scotch peasants,
about to emigrate to Canada, took away with them some roots of the
"bonny blooming heather," in hopes of making this beloved adorner of
their native mountains the cheerer of their exile. The heather, however,
refused to grow in the Canadian soil. The person who told me this said
that the circumstance had been related to him by Sir Walter Scott, whose
sympathy with the disappointment of these poor children of the romantic
heather-land betrayed itself even in tears.'
"Canada is not rich in roses; only three species occur throughout the
two provinces. Among the Ribes and the Ericaceae, however, are found many
of the most beautiful ornaments of the English garden: Andromedas,
Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and Kalmias belong to the latter order. The
Azalea was thus described by one of the earlier European botanical
travelers. Professor Kalm[169] (in 1748): 'the Mayflowers, as the Swedes
call them, were plentiful in the woods wherever I went to-day,
especially on a dry soil, or one that is somewhat moist. The Swedes have
given them this name because they are in full blossom in May. Some of
the Swedes and the Dutch call them "Pinxter Bloem" (Whitsunday flowers),
as they are in blossom about Whitsuntide. The English call them wild
honeysuckles, and at a distance they really have a resemblance to the
honeysuckle or lonicera. Dr. Linnaeus and other botanists call it an
Azalea (Azalea Nudiflora, _Linn. Spec. Plant._, p. 214.) Its flowers
were now open, and added a new ornament to the woods, being little
inferior to the flowers of the honey-suckle and hedysarum. They sit in a
circle round the stem's extremity, and have either a dark red or lively
red color; but by standing some time, the sun bleaches them, and at last
they get a whitish hue. The height of the bush is not always alike. Some
were as tall as a full-grown man, and taller; others were but low, and
some were not above a palm from the ground; yet they were all full of
flowers. They have some smell, but I can not say it is very pleasant.
However, the beauty of the color entitles them to a place in every
flower garden.'"--_Travels in North America_, by Professor Kalm, in
Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 557.]
[Footnote 168: Seven hours' journey above the sources of the Bow River,
Sir George Simpson mentions meeting with "an unexpected reminiscence of
my own native hills, in the shape of a plant which appeared to me to be
the very heather of the mountains of Scotland; and I might well regard
the reminiscence as unexpected, inasmuch as in all my wanderings, of
more than twenty years, I had never found any thing of the kind in North
America. As I took a considerable degree of interest in the question of
the supposed identity, I carried away two specimens, which, however,
proved, on a minute comparison, to differ from the genuine staple of the
brown heaths of the 'Land o' Cakes.'"--Vol. i., p. 120.
"We missed, also, the small 'crimson-tipped daisy' on the green lawns,
and were told that they have been often cultivated with care, but are
found to wither when exposed to the dry air and bright sun of this
climate. When weeds so common with us can not be reared here, we cease
to wonder at the dissimilarity of the native Flora of the New World.
Yet, wherever the aboriginal forests are cleared, we see orchards,
gardens, and arable lands filled with the same fruit-trees, the same
grain and vegetables, as in Europe, so bountifully has Nature provided
that the plants most useful to man should be capable, like himself, of
becoming cosmopolites."--Lyell's _Travels in North America_, vol. i., p.
5.]
[Footnote 169: The Kalmias were so named by Linnaeus in honor of
Professor Kalm, a favorite pupil of the great botanist.]
[Footnote 170: See Appendix, No. XXVII. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 171: The oak from the dense forests of Canada, into which the
sun's rays never penetrate, is more porous, more abundant in sap, and
more prone to the dry rot than the oak grown in any other country.
Canadian timber has increased in value since the causes of its former
rapid decay have been more fully understood. Mr. Nathaniel Gould asserts
that the wane of the moon is now universally considered the best season
for felling timber, both in the United States and in Canada. The
Americans contract for their ship timber to be felled or girdled between
the 20th of October and the 12th of February. Dry rot being probably
caused by the natural moisture or sap being left in the wood, the less
there is in the tree when cut, the longer it will keep sound. As regards
the Canadian oak, it is stated by Mr. M'Taggart (the engineer, who so
ably distinguished himself while in the colony), that it is not so
durable as that of the British, the fiber not being so compact and
strong; it grows in extensive groves near the banks of large lakes and
rivers, sometimes found growing to 50 feet in length by 2 feet 6 inches;
its specific gravity is greater than water, and therefore, when floated
down in rafts, it is rendered buoyant with cross bars of pine. It is
easily squared with the hatchet, and answers well for ship-building and
heavy work; will endure the seasons for about fifteen years,[172] and
does not decay in England so soon as in Canada.--Montgomery Martin's
_Canada_, p. 257; Gray's _Canada_, p. 207.]
[Footnote 172: Kalm says, in 1748, "They were now building several ships
below Quebec for the king's account. However, before my departure, an
order arrived from France prohibiting the further building of ships of
war, because they had found that the ships built of American oak do not
last so long as those of European oak. Near Quebec is found very little
oak, and what grows there is not fit for use, being very small;
therefore they are obliged to fetch their oak timber from those parts of
Canada which border upon New England. But all the North American oaks
have the quality of lasting longer, and withstanding putrefaction
better, the further north they grow."--Kalm, p. 663.]
[Footnote 173: The most useful American plants in the small order
Betulaceae are the birches, of which Canada contains six species. The
most celebrated is Betula Papyracea, the canoe birch, so called from the
use made of the bark in the construction of the Indian boats. It extends
from the shore of the Hudson in New York to a considerable range of
country northward of Canada. The bark is obtained with facility in large
pieces, and is sewed together with the tough and slender roots of the
pine-tree. La Hontan relates a characteristic story respecting the birch
bark: "I remember I have seen, in a certain library in France, a
manuscript of the Gospel of St. Matthew, written in Greek upon this sort
of bark; and which is yet more surprising, I was there told that it had
been written above a thousand years; and, at the same time, I dare swear
that it was the genuine birch bark of New France, which, in all
appearance, was not then discovered."--La Hontan, in Pinkerton, vol.
xiii., p. 361.
Mr. Weld says that "the bark resembles in some degree that of the
cork-tree, but it is of a closer grain, and also much more pliable, for
it admits of being rolled up the same as a piece of cloth. The Indians
of this part of the country always carry large rolls of it in their
canoes when they go on a hunting party, for the purpose of making
temporary huts. The bark is spread on small poles over their heads, and
fastened with strips of elm bark, which is remarkably tough, to stakes,
so as to form walls on the sides."--Weld, p. 311.]
[Footnote 174: See Appendix, No. XXVIII. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 175: See Appendix, No. XXIX. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 176: The ginseng belongs to the small order Araliaceae. The
botanical name is Panax quinquefolium: it was called Aureliana
Canadensis by Lafitau, who was the first to bring it from Canada to
France.--(Charlevoix, tom. iv., p. 309, fig. 13.) It was discovered in
the forests of Canada in 1718. It is herbaceous, scarcely a foot and a
half in height, and toward the upper part of the stem arise three
quinate-digitate leaves, from the center of which springs the flower
stalk. The root is fusiform and fleshy, and is the part most valued. We
are informed that among the Chinese many volumes have been written upon
its virtues; and that, besides the name already mentioned, it is known
by several others, expressive of the high estimation in which it is
universally held throughout the Celestial Empire: two of these
appellations are, 'the pure spirit of the earth,' and 'the plant that
gives immortality.' An ounce of ginseng bears the surprising price of
seven or eight ounces of silver at Pekin. When the French botanists in
Canada first saw a figure of it, they remembered to have seen a similar
plant in this country. They were confirmed in their conjecture by
considering that several settlements in Canada lie under the same
latitude with those parts of Chinese Tartary and China where the true
ginseng grows wild. They succeeded in their attempt, and found the same
ginseng wild and abundant in several parts of North America, both in
French and English plantations, in plain parts of the woods. It is fond
of shade, and of a deep, rich mold, and of land which is neither wet nor
high. It is not every where very common, for sometimes one may search
the woods for the space of several miles without finding a single plant
of it; but in those spots where it grows it is always found in great
abundance. It flowers in May and June, and its berries are ripe at the
end of August. The trade which is carried on with it here is very brisk,
for they gather great quantities of it, and send them to France, from
whence they are brought to China, and sold there to great advantage. The
Indians in the neighborhood of Montreal were so taken up with the
business of collecting ginseng, that the French farmers were not able
during that time to hire a single Indian, as they commonly do, to help
them in the harvest. The ginseng formerly grew in abundance round
Montreal, but at present there is not a single plant of it to be found,
so effectually have they been rooted out. This obliged the Indians this
summer to go far within the English boundaries to collect these roots.
After the Indians have sold the fresh roots to the merchants, the latter
must take a great deal of pains with them. They are spread on the floor
to dry, which commonly requires two months and upward, according as the
season is wet or dry. During that time they must be turned once or twice
every day, lest they should putrefy or molder. The roots prepared by the
Chinese are almost transparent, and look like horn in the inside; and
the roots which are fit for use are heavy and compact in the inside. No
one has ever discovered the Chinese method of preparing it. It is
thought, among other preparations, they dip the roots in a decoction of
the leaves of ginseng. Kalm wrote thus of the ginseng in 1749 (Kalm, in
Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p. 639). Mr. Heriot mentions that "one article of
commerce the Canadians had, by their own imprudence, rendered altogether
unprofitable. From the time that Canada ginseng had been imported to
Canton, and its quality pronounced equal to that of Corea or Tartary, a
pound of this plant, which before sold in Quebec for twenty pence,
became, when its value was once ascertained, worth one pound and
tenpence sterling. The export of this article amounted in 1752 to
L20,000 sterling. But the Canadians, eager suddenly to enrich
themselves, reaped this plant in May when it should not have been
gathered until September, and dried it in ovens when its moisture should
have been gradually evaporated in the shade. This fatal mistake, arising
from cupidity, and in some measure from ignorance, ruined the sale of
their ginseng among the only people on earth who are partial to its use,
and at an early period cut off from the colony a new branch of trade,
which, under proper regulations, might have been essentially
productive."--Heriot's _Travels through the Canadas_, p. 99, 1807.
"Mountainous woods in Tartary are mentioned as the place where the
ginseng is produced in the greatest abundance. In 1709, the emperor
ordered an army of ten thousand men to collect all the ginseng they
could find, and each person was to give him two ounces of the best,
while for the remainder payment was to be made in silver, weight for
weight. It was in the same year that Father Jartoux, a Jesuit missionary
in China, prepared a figure and accurate description of the plant, in
which he bears testimony to the beneficial effects of the root. He tried
it in many instances himself, and always with the same result,
especially when exhausted with fatigue. His pulse was increased, his
appetite improved, and his whole frame invigorated. Judging from the
accounts before us, we should say that the Chinese were extravagant in
their ideas of the virtues of this herb; but that it is undoubtedly a
cordial stimulant, to be compared, perhaps, in some degree, with the
aromatic root of Meum athamanticum, so much esteemed by the Scottish
Highlanders. It has nevertheless disappeared from our Materia
Medica."--Murray's _Canada_, vol. iii., p. 308. Charlevoix, tom. vi., p.
24.
"Ginseng a veritablement la vertu de soutenir, de fortifier, et de
rappeller les forces epuisees."--Lafitau, tom. ii., p. 142.]
[Footnote 177: In La Hontan's time (1683), he speaks of "maiden-hair"
being as common in the forests of Canada as fern in those of France, and
is esteemed beyond that of other countries, insomuch that the
inhabitants of Quebec prepare great quantities of its syrup, which they
send to Paris, Nantes, Rouen, and several other cities of France.
Charlevoix gives a figure of the maiden-hair (tom. iv., p. 301), under
the name of Adiantum Americanum.--"Cette plante a la racine fort petite,
et enveloppee de fibres noires, fort deliees; sa tige est d'un pourpre
fonce, et s'eleve en quelques endroits a trois ou quatre pieds de haut;
il en sort des branches, qui se courbent en tous sens. Les feuilles sont
plus larges que celles de notre Capillaire de France, d'un beau verd
d'un cote, et de l'autre, semees de petits points obscurs; nulle part
ailleurs cette plante n'est si haute ni si vive, qu'en Canada. Elle n'a
aucune odeur tandis qu'elle est sur pied, mais quand elle a ete
renfermee, elle repand une odeur de violette, qui embaume. Sa qualite
est aussi beaucoup au-dessus de tous les autres capillaires."
The Herba capillaris is the Adiantum pedatum of Linnaeus (Sp. Pl., p.
1557). Cornutus, in his _Canadens. Plant. Historia_, p. 7, calls it
Adiantum Americanum, and gives a figure of it, p. 6. Kalm says that "it
grows in all the British colonies of America, and likewise in the
southern parts of Canada, but I never found it near Quebec. It grows in
the woods in shady places, and in a good soil. Several people in Albany
and Canada assured me that its leaves were very much used instead of tea
in consumptions, coughs, and all kinds of pectoral diseases. This they
have learned from the Indians, who have made use of it for these
purposes from time immemorial. This American maiden-hair is reckoned
preferable in surgery to that which we have in Europe, and therefore
they send a great quantity of it to France every year. Commonly the
price at Quebec is between five and fifteen sols a pound. The Indians
went into the woods about this time (August), and traveled far above
Montreal in quest of this plant."--Kalm, in Pinkerton, vol. xiii., p.
641.]
[Footnote 178: "This moss is called by the Canadian voyageurs, _Tripe de
Roche_; it belongs to the order Gyrophara. They who have perused the
affecting narrative of the sufferings of Captain Franklin and his
gallant party, on their return from their first journey to the Arctic
Sea, will remember that it was on _Tripe de Roche_ that they depended,
under God, for their very existence. 'We looked,' says Captain Franklin,
'with humble confidence to the Great Author and giver of all good, for a
continuance of the support which had been hitherto always supplied to us
at our greatest need,' and he was not disappointed."--Murray's _Canada_,
vol. iii., p. 330. "Parmi les sauvages errans, et qui ne cultivent point
du tout la terre, lorsque la chasse et la peche leur manquent, leur
unique ressource est une espece de mousse, qui croit sur certains
rochers, et que nos Francais ont nommee Tripe de Roche; rien n'est plus
insipide que ce mets, lequel n'a pas meme beaucoup de substance, c'est
bien la etre reduit au pur necessaire pour ne pas mourir de
faim."--Charlevoix, tom. vi., p. 24.]
[Footnote 179: See Appendix, No. XXX. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 180: See Appendix, No. XXXI. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 181: "The Swedes gave the name of Indian hemp to Apocynum
cannabinum, because the Indians apply it to the same purposes as the
Europeans do hemp; for the stalk may be divided into filaments, and is
easily prepared. This plant grows in abundance in old corn grounds, in
woods, on hills, and on high glades. The Indians make ropes of this
Apocynum, which the Swedes buy, and employ them as bridles, and for
nets. These ropes are stronger, and kept longer in water than such as
were made of common hemp. The Swedes commonly got fourteen yards of
these ropes for one piece of bread. On my journey through the country of
the Iroquois, I saw the women employed in manufacturing this hemp. The
plant is perennial, which renders the annual planting of it altogether
unnecessary. Out of the root and stalk of this plant, when it is fresh,
comes a white, milky juice, which is somewhat poisonous. Sometimes the
fishing tackle of the Indian consists entirely of this hemp."--Kalm, in
Pinkerton, vol xiii., p. 544.]
[Footnote 182: See Appendix, No. XXXII. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 183: Buffon, Hist. Nat., tom. ix., p. 13, 203; Acosta, Hist.,
lib. iv., cap. xxxiv.; Pisonis Hist., p. 6; Herrera, Dec. IV., lib. iv.,
cap. i.; lib. x., cap. xiii.]
[Footnote 184: Canada has not the fine natural pastures of Ireland,
England, Holland, and other countries enjoying a cool, moist, and
equable climate. Artificial grasses, now a most valuable branch of
British husbandry, are peculiarly important in Canada, where so large a
quantity of hay should be stored for winter use. They are also most
useful in preparing the soil for grain crops, but have the disadvantage
of requiring to stand the severe winter, so trying to all except annual
plants. Clover, which is supposed to yield three times the produce of
natural grass, grows luxuriantly; but in the second year its roots are
often found to have been destroyed by frost. For this reason, it is
necessary to have recourse to the species named Timothy, which is
extremely hardy, and will set at defiance even a Canadian
winter.--Talbot, vol. i., p. 301, Gould, p. 67.]
[Footnote 185: "In the western parts of Lower Canada, and throughout
Upper Canada, where it is customary for travelers to carry their own
bedding with them, these skins are very generally made use of for the
purpose of sleeping upon. For upward of two months we scarcely ever had
any other bed than one of the skins spread on the floor and a blanket to
each person. The skins are dressed by the Indians with the hair on, and
they are rendered by a peculiar process as pliable as cloth. When the
buffalo is killed in the beginning of the winter, at which time he is
fenced against the cold, the hair resembles very much that of a black
bear; it is then long, straight, and of a blackish color; but when the
animal is killed in the summer, the hair is short and curly, and of a
light brown color, owing to its being scorched by the rays of the
sun."--Weld, p. 313.]
[Footnote 186: Charlevoix says, "que la peau, quoique tres forte,
devient souple et moelleuse comme le meilleur chamois. Les sauvages en
font des boucliers, qui sont tres legers, et que les bals de fusil ne
percent pas aisement."--Tom. v., p. 193.]
[Footnote 187: The height of the domesticated reindeer is about three
feet; of the wild ones, four. It lives to the age of sixteen years. The
reindeer is a native of the northern regions only. In America it does
not extend further south than Canada. The Indians often kill numbers for
the sake of their tongue only; at other times they separate the flesh
from the bones, and preserve it by drying it in the smoke. The fat they
sell to the English, who use it for frying instead of butter. The skins,
also, are an article of extensive commerce with the English.--Rees's
_Cyclopaedia_, art. Cervus Tarandus.
Charlevoix says that the Canadian _caribou_ differs in nothing from the
_Renne_ of Buffon except in the color of its skin, which is brown or
reddish.--Tom. v., p. 191. La Hontan calls the _caribou_ a species of
wild ass; and Charlevoix says that its form resembles that of the ass,
but that it at least equals the stag in agility.]
[Footnote 188: Pennant is persuaded that the stag is not a native of
America, and considers the deer known in that country by the name of
stag as a distinct species. The American stag is the Cervus Canadensis
of Erxleben. The Americans hunt and shoot those animals not so much for
the sake of the flesh as of the fat, which serves as tallow in making
candles, and the skins, which they dispose of to the Hudson's Bay
Company. They are caught principally in the inland parts, near the
vicinity of the lakes.--Rees's _Cyclopaedia_, art. Cervus Elaphus.
Charlevoix says that "le Cerf en Canada est absolument le meme qu'en
France, peut etre communement un peu plus grand."--Tom. v., p. 189.]
[Footnote 189: The fallow deer in America have been introduced there
from Europe; for the animal called the American fallow is of a very
different kind, and is peculiar to the New Continent. This, the _Cervus_
Virginianus, inhabits all the provinces south of Canada.--Rees's
_Cyclopaedia_, art. Cervus Virginianus.]
[Footnote 190: See Appendix, No. XXXIII. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 191: See Appendix, No. XXXIV. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 192: See Appendix, No. XXXV. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 193: See Appendix, No. XXXVI. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 194: See Appendix, No. XXXVII. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 195: See Appendix, No. XXXVIII. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 196: See Appendix, No. XXXIX. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 197: See Appendix, No. XL. (see Vol II)]
[Footnote 198: "While we were roaming along the shore of Lake Ontario we
caught a species of tortoise (testudo picta), which was a gayly-colored
shell, and I carried it a day's journey in the carriage, and then turned
it out, to see whether, as I was told, it would know its way back to
Lake Ontario. I am bound to admit that its instinct on this occasion did
not fail, for it made directly for a ravine, in the bottom of which was
a stream that would lead it in time to the Genesee River, and this would
carry it to its native lake if it escaped destruction at the Falls below
Rochester, where the celebrated diver, Sam Patch, perished, after he had
succeeded in throwing himself with impunity down several other great
waterfalls. There is a fresh-water tortoise in Europe (Terrapena
Europea) found in Hungary, Prussia, and Silesia, as far north as
latitude 50 deg. to 52 deg.. It also occurs near Bordeaux, and in the north of
Italy, 44 deg. and 45 deg. north latitude, which precisely corresponds with the
latitude of Lake Ontario."--Lyell's _Travels in North America_, vol. i.,
p. 25.]
[Footnote 199: "To the Malacodermous division belongs the remarkable
genus Lampyris, which contains the insects commonly called glow-worms.
The substance from which the luminous property results has been the
subject of frequent experiment and observation. It is obviously under
the control of the animal, which, when approached, may frequently be
observed to diminish or put out its light. The only species with which
we are acquainted in British America is Lampyris corusca. It occurs in
Canada, and has been taken at least as far north as latitude 54 deg.. It was
originally described by Simmons as a native of Finland and Russia, on
the authority of Uddman, but has not since been found there."--Murray,
vol. iii., p. 277.
"We saw numerous yellow butterflies, very like a British species.
Sometimes forty of them clustering on a small spot resembled a plot of
primroses, and as they rose altogether, and flew off slowly on every
side, it was like the play of a beautiful fountain."--Lyell's _America_,
vol. i., p. 25.]