ECONOMICS AND ADMINISTRATION_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Ireland" to "Isabey, Jean Baptiste" Volume 14, Slice 7

_Population._--Various computations are in existence of the population

of Ireland prior to 1821, in which year the first government census was

taken. According to Sir William Petty the number of inhabitants in 1672

was 1,320,000. About a century later the tax-collectors estimated the

population at a little over 2,500,000, and in 1791 the same officials

calculated that the number had risen to over 4,200,000. The census

commissioners returned the population in 1821 as 6,801,827, in 1831 as

7,767,401, and in 1841 as 8,196,597. It is undoubted that a great

increase of population set in towards the close of the 18th century and

continued during the first 40 years or so of the 19th. This increase was

due to a variety of causes--the improvement in the political condition

of the country, the creation of leaseholds after the abolition of the

40s. franchise, the productiveness and easy cultivation of the potato,

the high prices during the war with France, and probably not least to

the natural prolificness of the Irish people. But the census returns of

1851 showed a remarkable alteration--a decrease during the previous

decade of over 1,500,000--and since that date, as the following table

shows, the continuous decrease in the number of its inhabitants has been

the striking feature in the vital statistics of Ireland.

_Decrease per cent. of Population 1841-1901._

+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| |1841-1851.|1851-1861.|1861-1871.|1871-1881.|1881-1891.|1891-1901.|

+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| Leinster | 15.25 | 12.86 | 8.11 | 4.49 | 6.8 | 3.5 |

| Munster | 22.47 | 18.53 | 7.93 | 4.98 | 11.8 | 8.4 |

| Ulster | 15.69 | 4.85 | 4.23 | 5.11 | 7.07 | 2.4 |

| Connaught| 28.81 | 9.59 | 7.33 | 3.43 | 12.4 | 9.7 |

+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| Ireland | 19.85 | 11.50 | 6.67 | 4.69 | 9.08 | 5.3 |

+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

The cause of the continuous though varying decrease which these figures

reveal has been emigration. This movement of population took its first

great impulse from the famine of 1846 and has continued ever since. When

that disaster fell upon the country it found a teeming population

fiercely competing for a very narrow margin of subsistence; and so

widespread and devastating were its effects that between 1847 and 1852

over 1,200,000 of the Irish people emigrated to other lands. More than

1,000,000 of these went to the United States of America, and to that

country the main stream has ever since been directed. Between 1851 and

1905 4,028,589 emigrants left Ireland--2,092,154 males and 1,936,435

females, the proportion of females to males being extraordinarily high

as compared with the emigration statistics of other countries. Between

these years the numbers fluctuated widely--1852 showing the highest

total, 190,322 souls, and 1905 the lowest, 30,676 souls. Since 1892,

however, the emigrants in any one year have never exceeded 50,000,

probably because the process of exhaustion has been so long in

operation. As Ireland is mainly an agricultural country the loss of

population has been most marked in the rural districts. The urban

population, indeed, has for some years shown a tendency to increase.

Thus in 1841 the rural population was returned as 7,052,923 and the

urban as 1,143,674, while the corresponding figures in 1901 were

respectively 3,073,846 and 1,384,929. This is further borne out by the

percentages given in the above table, from which it will be seen that

the greatest proportional decrease of population has occurred in the two

provinces of Munster and Connaught, which may be regarded as almost

purely agricultural. That the United States remained the great centre of

attraction for Irish emigrants is proved by the returns for 1905, which

show that nearly 80% of the whole number for the year sailed for that

country. Ireland does little to swell the rising tide of emigration

that now flows from England and Scotland to British North America.

Turning now to the census figures of 1901, we find that the population

had diminished as compared with 1891 by 245,975. During the decade only

three counties, Dublin, Down and Antrim, showed any increase, the

increase being due to the growth of certain urban areas. Of the total

population of 4,458,775, 2,200,040 were males and 2,258,735 were

females. The inhabitants of the rural districts (3,073,846) decreased

during the decade by over 380,000; that of the urban districts, i.e. of

all towns of not less than 2000 inhabitants (1,384,929) increased by

over 140,000. This increase was mainly due to the growth of a few of the

larger towns, notably of Belfast, the chief industrial centre of

Ireland. Between 1891 and 1901 Belfast increased from 273,079 to

349,180; Dublin from 268,587 to 289,108; and Londonderry, another

industrial centre in Ulster, from 33,200 to 39,873. On the other hand,

towns like Cork (75,978), Waterford (26,743) and Limerick (38,085),

remained almost stationary during the ten years, but the urban districts

of Pembroke and of Rathmines and Rathgar, which are practically suburbs

of Dublin, showed considerable increases.

From the returns of occupation in 1901, it appears that the indefinite

or non-productive class accounted for about 55% of the entire

population. The next largest class was the agricultural, which

numbered 876,062, a decrease of about 40,000 as compared with 1891.

The industrial class fell from 656,410 to 639,413, but this

represented a slight increase in the percentage of the population. The

professional class was 131,035, the domestic 219,418, and the

commercial had risen from 83,173 in 1891 to 97,889 in 1901. The

following table shows the number of births and deaths registered in

Ireland during the five years 1901-1905.

+------+---------+---------+

| | Births. | Deaths. |

+------+---------+---------+

| 1901 | 100,976 | 79,119 |

| 1902 | 101,863 | 77,676 |

| 1903 | 101,831 | 77,358 |

| 1904 | 103,811 | 79,513 |

| 1905 | 102,832 | 75,071 |

+------+---------+---------+

The number of illegitimate births is always very small in proportion

to the legitimate. In 1905 illegitimate births numbered 2710 or 2.6 of

the whole, a percentage which has been very constant for a number of

years.

_Railways._--The first act of parliament authorizing a railway in

Ireland was passed in 1831. The railway was to run from Dublin to

Kingstown, a distance of about 6 m., and was opened in 1834. In 1836 the

Ulster railway to connect Belfast and Armagh, and the Dublin and

Drogheda railway uniting these two towns were sanctioned. In the same

year commissioners were nominated by the crown to inquire (_inter alia_)

as to a general system for railways in Ireland, and as to the best mode

of directing the development of the means of intercourse to the channels

whereby the greatest advantage might be obtained by the smallest outlay.

The commissioners presented a very valuable report in 1838, but its

specific recommendations were never adopted by the government, though

they ultimately proved of service to the directors of private

enterprises. Railway development in Ireland progressed at first very

slowly and by 1845 only some 65 m. of railway were open. During the next

ten years, however, there was a considerable advance, and in 1855 the

Irish railways extended to almost 1000 m. The total authorized capital

of all Irish railways, exclusive of light railways, at the end of 1905

was L42,881,201, and the paid-up capital, including loans and debenture

stock, amounted to L37,238,888. The total gross receipts from all

sources of traffic in 1905 were L4,043,368, of which L2,104,108 was

derived from passenger traffic and L1,798,520 from goods traffic. The

total number of passengers carried (exclusive of season and periodical

ticket-holders) was 27,950,150. Under the various acts passed to

facilitate the construction of light railways in backward districts some

15 lines have been built, principally in the western part of the island

from Donegal to Kerry. These railways are worked by existing companies.

The following table shows the principal Irish railways, their mileage

and the districts which they serve.

+-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+

| Name of Railway. |Mileage.| Districts Served. |

+-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+

|Great Southern & Western | 1083 |The southern half of Leinster, the whole |

| | | of Munster, and part of Connaught, the |

| | | principal towns served being Dublin, |

| | | Cork, Waterford, Limerick and Sligo. |

|Midland Great Western | 538 |The central districts of Ireland and a |

| | | great part of Connaught, the principal |

| | | towns served being Dublin, Athlone, |

| | | Galway and Sligo. |

|Great Northern | 533 |The northern half of Leinster and a |

| | | great part of Ulster, the principal |

| | | towns served being Dublin, Belfast, |

| | | Londonderry, Dundalk, Drogheda, Armagh |

| | | and Lisburn. |

|Northern Counties^1 (now | 249 |The counties of Antrim, |

| owned by the Midland | | Tyrone and Londonderry. |

| Railway of England) | | |

|Dublin & South Eastern^2 | 161 |The counties of Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford |

| | | and Waterford. |

|Donegal | 106 |The counties of Tyrone and Donegal. |

|Londonderry & Lough | 99 |The counties of Londonderry and Donegal. |

| Swilly | | |

|Cork, Bandon & South | 95 |The counties of Cork and Kerry. |

| Coast | | |

|Belfast & County Down | 76 |The county of Down. |

+-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+

^1 Formerly Belfast and Northern Counties.

^2 Formerly Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford.

There is no lack of cross-channel services between Ireland and Great

Britain. Belfast is connected by daily sailings with Glasgow,

Ardrossan, Liverpool, Feetwood, Barrow and Heysham Harbour, Dublin

with Holyhead and Liverpool, Greenore (Co. Down) with Holyhead, Larne

(Co. Antrim) with Stranraer, Rosslare (Co. Wexford) with Fishguard and

Kingstown (Co. Dublin) with Holyhead.

_Navigable Waterways._--Ireland is intersected by a network of canals

and waterways, which if efficiently managed and developed would prove

of immense service to the country by affording a cheap means for the

carriage of goods, especially agricultural produce. Two canals--the

Grand and the Royal--connect Dublin with the Shannon; the former

leading from the south of Dublin to Shannon Harbour and thence on the

other side of that river to Ballinasloe, with numerous branches; the

latter from the north side of Dublin to Cloondera on the Shannon, with

a branch to Longford. The Barrow Navigation connects a branch of the

Grand canal with the tidal part of the river Barrow. In Ulster the

Bann navigation connects Coleraine, by means of Lough Neagh, with the

Lagan navigation which serves Belfast; and the Ulster canal connects

Lough Neagh with Lough Erne. The river Shannon is navigable for a

distance of 143 m. in a direct course and occupies almost a central

position between the east and west coasts.

_Agriculture._--Ireland possesses as a whole a soil which is naturally

fertile and easily cultivated. Strong heavy clay soils, sandy and

gravelly soils, are almost entirely absent; and the mixture of soil

arising from the various stratifications and from the detritus carried

down to the plains has created many districts of remarkable richness.

The "Golden Vein" in Munster, which stretches from Cashel in Tipperary

to near Limerick, probably forms the most fertile part of the country.

The banks of the rivers Shannon, Suir, Nore, Barrow and Bann are lined

with long stretches of flat lands capable of producing fine crops. In

the districts of the Old and New Red Sandstone, which include the

greater part of Cork and portions of Kerry, Waterford, Tyrone,

Fermanagh, Monaghan, Mayo and Tipperary, the soil in the hollows is

generally remarkably fertile. Even in the mountainous districts which

are unsuitable for tillage there is often sufficient soil to yield, with

the aid of the moist atmosphere, abundant pasturage of good quality. The

excessive moisture in wet seasons in however hostile to cereal crops,

especially in the southern and western districts, though improved

drainage has done something to mitigate this evil, and might do a great

deal more.

Irish political history has largely affected the condition of

agriculture. Confiscations and settlements, prohibitive laws (such as

those which ruined the woollen industry), penal enactments against the

Roman Catholics, absenteeism, the creation for political purposes of

40s. freeholders, and other factors have combined to form a story which

makes painful reading from whatever point of view, social or political,

it be regarded. Happily, however, at the beginning of the 20th century

Irish agriculture presented two new features which can be described

without necessarily arousing any party question--the work of the

Department of Agriculture and the spread of the principle of

co-operation. Another outstanding feature has been the effect of the

Land Purchase Acts in transferring the ownership of the land from the

landlords to the tenants. Before dealing with these three features, some

general statistics may be given bearing upon the condition of Irish

agriculture.

_Number of Holdings._--Before 1846 the number of small holdings was

inordinately large. In 1841, for example, there were no less than

310,436 of between 1 and 5 acres in extent, and 252,799 of between 5

and 15 acres. This condition of affairs was due mainly to two

causes--to the 40s. franchise which prevailed between 1793 and 1829,

and after that date to the fierce competition for land by a rapidly

increasing population which had no other source of livelihood than

agriculture. But the potato famine and the repeal of the Corn Laws,

occurring almost simultaneously, caused an immediate and startling

diminution in the number of smaller holdings. In 1851 the number

between 1 and 5 acres in extent had fallen to 88,033 and the number

between 5 and 15 acres had fallen to 191,854. Simultaneously the

number between 15 and 30 acres had increased from 79,342 to 141,311,

and the number above 30 acres from 48,625 to 149,090.

Since 1851 these tendencies have not been so marked. Thus in 1905 the

number of holdings between 1 and 5 acres was 62,126, the number

between 5 and 15 acres 154,560, the number between 15 and 30 acres

134,370 and the number above 30 acres 164,747. Generally speaking,

however, it will be seen from the figures that since the middle of the

19th century holdings between 1 and 30 acres have decreased and

holdings over 30 acres have increased. Of the total holdings under 30

acres considerably more than one-third are in Ulster, and of the

holdings over 30 acres more than one-third are in Munster. The number

of holdings of over 500 acres is only 1526, of which 475 are in

Connaught. A considerable proportion, however, of these larger

holdings, especially in Connaught, consist of more or less waste land,

which at the best can only be used for raising a few sheep.

_Tillage and Pasturage._--The fact that probably about 1,000,000 acres

formerly under potatoes went out of cultivation owing to the potato

disease in 1847 makes a comparison between the figures for crops in

that year with present figures somewhat fallacious. Starting, however,

with that year as the most important in Irish economic history in

modern times, we find that between 1847 and 1905 the total area under

crops--cereals, green crops, flax, meadow and clover--decreased by

582,348 acres. Up to 1861, as the area formerly under potatoes came

back gradually into cultivation, the acreage under crops increased;

but since that year, when the total crop area was 5,890,536 acres,

there has been a steady and gradual decline, the area in 1905 having

fallen to 4,656,227 acres. An analysis of the returns shows that the

decline has been most marked in the acreage under cereal crops,

especially wheat. In 1847 the number of acres under wheat was 743,871

and there has been a steady and practically continuous decrease ever

since, the wheat acreage in 1905 being only 37,860 acres. In that year

the wheat area, excluding less than 5000 acres in Connaught, was

pretty equally divided between the other three provinces. Oats has

always been the staple cereal crop in Ireland, but since 1847 its

cultivation has declined by over 50%. In that year 2,200,870 acres

were under oats and in 1905 only 1,066,806 acres. Nearly one-half of

the area under oats is to be found in Ulster; Leinster and Munster are

fairly equal; and Connaught has something over 100,000 acres under

this crop. The area under barley and rye has also declined during the

period under review by about one-half--from 345,070 acres in 1847 to

164,800 in 1905. The growing of these crops is confined almost

entirely to Leinster and Munster. Taking all the cereal crops

together, their cultivation during the last 60 years has gradually

declined (from 3,313,579 acres in 1847 to 1,271,190 in 1905) by over

50%. The area, however, under green crops--potatoes, turnips,

mangel-wurzel, beet, cabbage, &c., shows during the same period a much

less marked decline--only some 300,000 acres. There has been a very

considerable decrease since about 1861 in the acreage under potatoes.

This is probably due to two causes--the emigration of the poorer

classes who subsisted on that form of food, and the gradual

introduction of a more varied dietary. The total area under potatoes

in 1905 was 616,755 acres as compared with 1,133,504 acres in 1861.

Since about 1885 the acreage under turnips has remained fairly

stationary in the neighbourhood of 300,000 acres, while the

cultivation of mangel-wurzel has considerably increased. Outside the

recognized cereal and green crops, two others may be considered, flax

and meadow and clover. The cultivation of the former is practically

confined to Ulster and as compared with 20 or 30 years ago has fallen

off by considerably more than 50%, despite the proximity of the linen

industry. The number of acres under flax in 1905 was only 46,158. The

Department of Agriculture has made efforts to improve and foster its

cultivation, but without any marked results as regards increasing the

area sown. During the period under review the area under meadow and

clover has increased by more than 50%, rising from 1,138,946 acres in

1847 to 2,294,506 in 1905. It would thus appear that a large

proportion of the land which has ceased to bear cereal or green crops

is now laid down in meadow and clover. The balance has become

pasturage, and the total area under grass in Ireland has so largely

increased that it now embraces more than one-half of the entire

country. This increase of the pastoral lands, with the corresponding

decrease of the cropped lands, has been the marked feature of Irish

agricultural returns since 1847. It is attributable to three chief

reasons, the dearth of labour owing to emigration, the greater fall in

prices of produce as compared with live stock, and the natural

richness of the Irish pastures. The following table shows the growth

of pasturage and the shrinkage of the crop areas since 1860.

+------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+

+------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| 1860 | 20,284,893 | 15,453,773 | 4,375,621 | 1,594,518 | 9,483,634 |

| 1880 | 20,327,764 | 15,340,192 | 3,171,259 | 1,909,825 | 10,259,108 |

| 1900 | 20,333,344 | 15,222,104 | 2,493,017 | 2,165,715 | 10,563,372 |

| 1905 | 20,350,725 | 15,232,699 | 2,410,813 | 2,224,165 | 10,597,721 |

+------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+

One more table may be given showing the proportional areas under the

various kinds of crops, grass, woods and plantations, fallow, bog,

waste, &c., over a series of years.

+------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+

+------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+

| 1851 | 15.2 | 6.7 | 6.1 | 43.0 | 71.0 | 1.5 | 1.0 | 25.7 |

| 1880 | 8.1 | 5.5 | 8.1 | 50.5 | 72.2 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 22.8 |

| 1905 | 6.3 | 5.3 | 11.3 | 52.1 | 75.0 | 1.5 | 0.0 | 23.5 |

+------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+

_Produce and Live Stock._--With the decrease of the area under cereal

and green crops and the increase of pasturage there has naturally been

a serious fall in the amount of agricultural produce and a

considerable rise in the number of live stock since the middle of the

19th century. Thus in 1851 the number of cattle was returned as

2,967,461 and in 1905 as 4,645,215, the increase during the

intervening period having been pretty gradual and general. Sheep in

1851 numbered 2,122,128 and in 1905 3,749,352, but the increase in

this case has not been so continuous, several of the intervening years

showing a considerably higher total than 1905, and for a good many

years past the number of sheep has tended to decline. The number of

pigs has also varied considerably from year to year, 1905 showing an

increase of about 150,000 as compared with 1851.

_The Department of Agriculture._--By an act of 1899 a Department of

Agriculture and other industries and technical instruction was

established in Ireland. To this department were transferred numerous

powers and duties previously exercised by other authorities, including

the Department of Science and Art. To assist the department the act also

provided for the establishment of a council of agriculture, an

agricultural board and a board of technical instruction, specifying the

constitution of each of the three bodies. Certain moneys (exceeding

L180,000 per annum) were placed by the act at the disposal of the

department, provisions were made for their application, and it was

enacted that local authorities might contribute funds. The powers and

duties of the department are very wide, but under the present section

its chief importance lies in its administrative work with regard to

agriculture. In the annual reports of the department this work is

usually treated under three heads: (1) agricultural instruction, (2)

improvement of live stock, and (3) special investigations.

1. The ultimate aim of the department's policy in the matter of

agricultural instruction is, as defined by itself, to place within the

reach of a large number of young men and young women the means of

obtaining in their own country a good technical knowledge of all

subjects relating to agriculture, an object which prior to the

establishment of the department was for all practical purposes

unattainable. Before such a scheme could be put into operation two

things had to be done. In the first place, the department had to train

teachers of agricultural subjects; and secondly, it had to demonstrate

to farmers all over Ireland by a system of itinerant instruction some

of the advantages of such technical instruction, in order to induce

them to make some sacrifice to obtain a suitable education for their

sons and daughters. In order to accomplish the first of these two

preliminaries, the department established a Faculty of Agriculture at

the Royal College of Science in Dublin, and offered a considerable

number of scholarships the competition for which becomes increasingly

keen. They also reorganized the Albert Agricultural College at

Glasnevin for young men who have neither the time nor the means to

attend the highly specialized courses at the Royal College of Science;

and the Munster Institute at Cork is now devoted solely to the

instruction of girls in such subjects as butter-making,

poultry-keeping, calf-rearing, cooking, laundry-work, sewing and

gardening. In addition to these three permanent institutions, local

schools and classes have been established in different parts of the

country where systematic instruction in technical agriculture is given

to young men. In this and in other branches of its work the department

is assisted by agricultural committees appointed by the county

councils. The number of itinerant instructors is governed entirely by

the available supply of qualified men. The services of every available

student on completing his course at the Royal College of Science are

secured by some county council committee. The work of the itinerant

instructors is very varied. They hold classes and carry out field

demonstrations and experiments, the results of which are duly

published in the department's journal. The department has also

endeavoured to encourage the fruit-growing industry in Ireland by the

establishment of a horticultural school at Glasnevin, by efforts to

secure uniformity in the packing and grading of fruit, by the

establishment of experimental fruit-preserving factories, by the

planting of orchards on a large scale in a few districts, and by

pioneer lectures. As the result of all these efforts there has been an

enormous increase in the demand for fruit trees of all kinds.

2. The marked tendency which has been visible for so many years in

Ireland for pasturage to increase at the expense of tillage makes the

improvement of live-stock a matter of vital importance to all

concerned in agriculture. Elaborate schemes applicable to

horse-breeding, cattle-breeding and swine-breeding, have been drawn up

by the department on the advice of experts, but the working of the

schemes is for the most part left to the various county council

committees. The benefits arising from these schemes are being more and

more realized by farmers, and the department is able to report an

increase in the number of pure bred cattle and horses in Ireland.

3. The special investigations carried out by the department naturally

vary from year to year, but one of the duties of each instructor in

agriculture is to conduct a number of field experiments, mainly on the

influence of manures and seeds in the yield of crops. The results of

these experiments are issued in the form of leaflets and distributed

widely among farmers. One of the most interesting experiments, which

may have far-reaching economic effects, has been in the cultivation of

tobacco. So far it has been proved (1) that the tobacco plant can be

grown successfully in Ireland, and (2) that the crop when blended with

American leaf can be manufactured into a mixture suitable for smoking.

But whether Irish tobacco can be made a profitable crop depends upon a

good many other considerations.

_Agricultural Co-operation._--In 1894 the efforts of a number of

Irishmen drawn from all political parties were successfully directed

towards the formation of the Irish Agricultural Organization Society,

which has for its object the organizing of groups of farmers on

co-operative principles and the provision of instruction in proper

technical methods. The society had at first many difficulties to

confront, but after the first two or three years of its existence its

progress became more rapid, and co-operation became beyond all question

one of the most hopeful features in Irish agriculture.

Perhaps the chief success of the society was seen in the establishment

of creameries, which at the end of 1905 numbered 275--123 in Ulster,

102 in Munster, 20 in Leinster and 30 in Connaught. The members

numbered over 42,000 and the trade turnover for the year was

L1,245,000. Agricultural societies have been established for the

purchase of seed, implements, &c., on co-operative lines and of these

there are 150, with a membership of some 14,000. The society was also

successful in establishing a large number of credit societies, from

which farmers can borrow at a low rate of interest. There are also

societies for poultry-rearing, rural industries, bee-keeping,

bacon-curing, &c., in connexion with the central organization. The

system is rounded off by a number of trade federations for the sale

and purchase of various commodities. The Department of Agriculture

encourages the work of the Organization Society by an annual grant.

_Land Laws._--The relations of landlord and tenant in Ireland have been

a frequent subject of legislation (see _History_ below). Under the act

of 1881, down to the 31st of March 1906, the rents of 360,135 holdings,

representing nearly 11,000,000 acres, had been fixed for the first

statutory term of 15 years either by the land commissioners or by

agreements between landlords and tenants, the aggregate reduction being

over 20% as compared with the old rents. The rents of 120,515 holdings,

representing over 3,500,000 acres, had been further fixed for the second

statutory term, the aggregate reduction being over 19% as compared with

the first term rents. Although the acts of 1870 and 1881 provided

facilities for the purchase of holdings by the tenants, it was only

after the passing of the Ashbourne Act in 1885 that the transfer of

ownership to the occupying tenants began on an extended scale. Under

this act between 1885 and 1902, when further proceedings were suspended,

the number of loans issued was 25,367 (4221 in Leinster; 5204 in

Munster; 12,954 in Ulster, and 2988 in Connaught) and the amount was

L9,992,536. Between August 1891 and April 1906, the number of loans

issued under the acts of 1891 and 1896 was 40,395 (7838 in Leinster;

7512 in Munster; 14,955 in Ulster, and 10,090 in Connaught) and the

amount was L11,573,952. Under the Wyndham Act of 1903 the process was

greatly extended.

The following tables give summarized particulars, for the period from

the 1st of November 1903 to the 31st of March 1906, of (1) estates for

which purchase agreements were lodged in cases of sale direct from

landlords to tenants; (2) estates for the purchase of which the Land

Commission entered into agreements under sects. 6 and 8 of the act;

(3) estates in which the offers of the Land Commission to purchase

under sect. 7 were accepted by the land judge; and (4) estates for the

purchase of which, under sections 72 and 79, originating requests were

transmitted by the Congested Districts Board to the Land Commission:--

+-------------------+--------+---------+----------------------------------------+

| | No. of | No. of +------------+------------+--------------+

+-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+

| Direct Sales | 3446 |86,898 |L32,811,564 |L32,692,066 | L119,498 |

| Sections 6 and 8 | 54 | 3,567^1 | 1,231,014 | 1,226,832 | 4,182 |

| Section 7 | 29 | 1,174^1 | 383,388 | 381,722 | 1,666 |

| Sections 72 and 79| 67 | 5,606^1 | 975,211 | 975,211 | .. |

+-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+

| Total | 3596 |97,245 |L35,401,177 |L35,275,831 | L125,346 |

+-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+

+-------------------+--------+---------+----------------------------------------+

| | No. of | No. of +------------+------------+--------------+

+-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+

| Direct Sales | 925 | 16,732 | L8,317,063 | L8,226,736 | L90,327 |

| Sections 6 and 8 | 40 | 3,047 | 1,048,459 | 1,047,007 | 1,452 |

| Section 7 | 29 | 1,174 | 383,388 | 381,722 | 1,666 |

| Sections 72 and 79| 12 | 763 | 199,581 | 199,581 | .. |

+-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+

| Total | 1006 | 21,716 | L9,948,491 | L9,855,046 | L93,445 |

+-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+

^1 Estimated number of purchasers on resale.

It will be seen from these two tables that though the amount of

advances applied for during the period dealt with amounted to over

L35,000,000 the actual advances made were less than L10,000,000. It

will be seen further that the act operated almost entirely by means of

direct sales by landlords to tenants. Of the total amount advanced up

to March 31, 1906, almost one-half was in respect of estates in the

province of Leinster, the balance being divided pretty equally between

estates in the other three provinces.

_Fisheries._--The deep-sea and coast fisheries of Ireland form a

valuable national asset, which still admits of much development and

improvement despite the fact that a considerable number of acts of

parliament have been passed to promote and foster the fishing industry.

In 1882 the Commissioners of Public Works were given further powers to

lend money to fishermen on the recommendation of the inspectors of

fisheries; and under an act of 1883 the Land Commission was authorized

to pay from time to time such sums, not exceeding in all L250,000, as

the Commissioners of Public Works might require, for the creation of a

Sea Fishery Fund, such fund to be expended--a sum of about L240,000 has

been expended--on the construction and improvement of piers and

harbours. Specific acts have also been passed for the establishment and

development of oyster, pollan and mussel fisheries. Under the Land

Purchase Act 1891, a portion of the Sea Fisheries Fund was reserved for

administration by the inspectors of fisheries in non-congested

districts. Under this head over L36,000 had been advanced on loan up to

December 31, 1905, the greater portion of which had been repaid. In 1900

the powers and duties of the inspectors of fisheries were vested in the

Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. Under the Marine

Works Act 1902, which was intended to benefit and develop industries

where the people were suffering from congestion, about L34,000 was

expended upon the construction and improvement of fishery harbours in

such districts.

For administrative purposes Ireland is divided into 31 deep-sea and

coast fisheries and during 1905, 6190 vessels were engaged in these

districts, giving employment to a total of 24,288 hands. Excluding

salmon, nearly one million hundredweights of fish were taken, and

including shell-fish the total money received by the fishermen

exceeded L414,000. In the same year 13,436 hands were engaged in the

25 salmon fishing districts into which the country is divided. In

addition to the organized industry which exists in these salmon

districts, there is a good deal of ordinary rod and line fishing in

the higher reaches of the larger rivers and good trout fishing is

obtainable in many districts.

_Mining._--The mineral produce of Ireland is very limited, and its mines

and quarries in 1905 gave employment to only about 6000 persons.

Coal-fields are found in all the provinces, but in 1905 the total output

was less than 100,000 tons and its value at the mines was given as

L43,000. Iron ore is worked in Co. Antrim, over 113,000 tons having been

produced in 1905. Alum clay or bauxite, from which aluminium is

manufactured, is found in the same county. Clays of various kinds,

mainly fire and brick clay, are obtained in several places and there are

quarries of marble (notably in Connemara), slate, granite, limestone and

sandstone, the output of which is considerable. Silver is obtained in

small quantities from lead ore in Co. Donegal, and hopes have been

entertained of the re-discovery of gold in Co. Wicklow, where regular

workings were established about 1796 but were destroyed during the

Rebellion.

_Woollen Manufacture._--At an early period the woollen manufactures of

Ireland had won a high reputation and were exported in considerable

quantities to foreign countries. Bonifazio Uberti (d. c. 1367) refers in

a posthumous poem called _Dita mundi_ to the "noble serge" which Ireland

sent to Italy, and fine mantles of Irish frieze are mentioned in a list

of goods exported from England to Pope Urban VI. In later times, the

establishment of a colony from the German Palatinate at Carrick-on-Suir

in the reign of James I. served to stimulate the manufacture, but in the

succeeding reign the lord-deputy Strafford adopted the policy of

fostering the linen trade at the expense of the woollen in order to

prevent the latter from competing with English products. An act of the

reign of Charles II. prohibited the export of raw wool to foreign

countries from Ireland as well as England, while at the same time

Ireland was practically excluded by heavy duties from the English

markets, and as the Navigation Act of 1663 did not apply to her the

colonial market was also closed against Irish exports. The foreign

market, however, was still open, and after the prohibition of the export

of Irish cattle to England the Irish farmers turned their attention to

the breeding of sheep, with such good effect that the woollen

manufacture increased with great rapidity. Moreover the improved quality

of the wool showed itself in the improvement of the finished article, to

the great alarm of the English manufacturer. So much trade jealousy was

aroused that both Houses of Parliament petitioned William III. to

interfere. In accordance with his wishes the Irish parliament in 1698

placed heavy additional duties on all woollen clothing (except friezes)

exported from Ireland, and in 1699 the English Parliament passed an act

prohibiting the export from Ireland of all woollen goods to any country

except England, to any port of England except six, and from any town in

Ireland except six. The cumulative effect of these acts was practically

to annihilate the woollen manufacture in Ireland and to reduce whole

districts and towns, in which thousands of persons were directly or

indirectly supported by the industry, to the last verge of poverty.

According to Newenham's tables the annual average of new drapery

exported from Ireland for the three years ending March 1702 was only 20

pieces, while the export of woollen yarn, worsted yarn and wool, which

to England was free, amounted to 349,410 stones. In his essay on the

Trade of Ireland, published in 1729, Arthur Dobbs estimated the medium

exports of wool, worsted and woollen yarn at 227,049 stones, and he

valued the export of manufactured woollen goods at only L2353. On the

other hand, the imports steadily rose. Between 1779 and 1782 the various

acts which had hampered the Irish woollen trade were either repealed or

modified, but after a brief period of deceptive prosperity followed by

failure and distress, the expansion of the trade was limited to the

partial supply of the home market. According to evidence laid before the

House of Commons in 1822 one-third of the woollen cloth used in Ireland

was imported from England. A return presented to Parliament in 1837

stated that the number of woollen or worsted factories in Ireland was

46, employing 1321 hands. In 1879 the number of factories was 76 and the

number of hands 2022. Since then the industry has shown some tendency to

increase, though the number of persons employed is still comparatively

very small, some 3500 hands.

_Linen Manufacture._--Flax was cultivated at a very early period in

Ireland and was both spun into thread and manufactured into cloth. In

the time of Henry VIII. the manufacture constituted one of the principal

branches of Irish trade, but it did not prove a very serious rival to

the woollen industry until the policy of England was directed to the

discouragement of the latter. Strafford, lord-deputy in the reign of

Charles I., did much to foster the linen industry. He invested a large

sum of his own money in it, imported great quantities of flax seed from

Holland and induced skilled workmen from France and the Netherlands to

settle in Ireland. A similar policy was pursued with even more energy by

his successor in office, the duke of Ormonde, at whose instigation an

Irish act was passed in 1665 to encourage the growth of flax and the

manufacture of linen. He also established factories and brought over

families from Brabant and France to work in them. The English parliament

in their desire to encourage the linen industry at the expense of the

woollen, followed Ormonde's lead by passing an act inviting foreign

workmen to settle in Ireland, and admitting all articles made of flax or

hemp into England free of duty. In 1710, in accordance with an

arrangement made between the two kingdoms, a board of trustees was

appointed to whom a considerable sum was granted annually for the

promotion of the linen manufacture; but the jealousy of English

merchants interposed to check the industry whenever it threatened to

assume proportions which might interfere with their own trade, and by an

act of George II. a tax was imposed on Irish sail-cloth imported into

England, which for the time practically ruined the hempen manufacture.

Between 1700 and 1777 the board of trustees expended nearly L850,000 on

the promotion of the linen trade, and in addition parliamentary

bounties were paid on a considerable scale. In 1727 Arthur Dobbs

estimated the value of the whole manufacture at L1,000,000. In 1830 the

Linen Board ceased to exist, the trade having been for some time in a

very depressed condition owing to the importation of machine-made yarns

from Scotland and England. A year or two later, however, machinery was

introduced on a large scale on the river Bann. The experiment proved

highly successful, and from this period may be dated the rise of the

linen trade of Ulster, the only great industrial manufacture of which

Ireland can boast. Belfast is the centre and market of the trade, but

mills and factories are to be found dotted all over the eastern counties

of Ulster.

In 1850 the number of spindles was 396,338 and of power looms 58; in

1905 the corresponding figures were 826,528 and 34,498. In 1850 the

number of persons employed in flax mills and factories was 21,121; in

1901 the number in flax, hemp and jute textile factories was 64,802.

_Cotton Manufacture._--This was introduced into Ireland in 1777 and

under the protection of import duties and bounties increased so rapidly

that in 1800 it gave employment to several thousand persons, chiefly in

the neighbourhood of Belfast. The trade continued to grow for several

years despite the removal of the duties; and the value of cotton goods

exported from Ireland to Great Britain rose from L708 in 1814 to

L347,606 in 1823. In 1822 the number of hands employed in the industry

was stated to be over 17,000. The introduction of machinery, however,

which led to the rise of the great cotton industry of Lancashire, had

very prejudicial effects, and by 1839 the number of persons employed had

fallen to 4622. The trade has dwindled ever since and is now quite

insignificant.

_Silk Manufacture._--About the end of the 17th century French Huguenots

settled in Dublin and started the manufacture of Irish poplin, a mixture

of silk and wool. In 1823 between 3000 and 4000 persons were employed.

But with the abolition of the protective duties in 1826 a decline set

in; and though Irish poplin is still celebrated, the industry now gives

employment to a mere handful of people in Dublin.

_Distilling and Brewing._--Whisky has been extensively distilled in

Ireland for several centuries. An excise duty was first imposed in 1661,

the rate charged being 4d. a gallon. The imposition of a duty gave rise

to a large amount of illicit distillation, a practice which still

prevails to some extent, though efficient police methods have largely

reduced it. During recent years the amount of whisky produced has shown

a tendency to decrease. In 1900 the number of gallons charged with duty

was 9,589,571, in 1903 8,215,355, and in 1906 7,337,928. There are

breweries in most of the larger Irish towns, and Dublin is celebrated

for the porter produced by the firm of Arthur Guinness & Son, the

largest establishment of the kind in the world. The number of barrels of

beer--the inclusive term used by the Inland Revenue Department--charged

with duty in 1906 was 3,275,309, showing an increase of over 200,000 as

compared with 1900.

The following table shows the net annual amount of excise duties

received in Ireland in a series of years:--

+--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| Articles. | 1900. | 1902. | 1904. | 1906. |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| Beer | L983,841 |L1,200,711 |L1,262,186 |L1,227,528 |

| Licences | 209,577 | 213,092 | 213,964 | 214,247 |

| Spirits | 4,952,061 | 4,292,286 | 4,311,763 | 3,952,509 |

| Other sources| 502 | 436 | 508 | 798 |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| Total |L6,145,981 |L5,706,525 |L5,788,421 |L5,395,082 |

+--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

_Other Industries._--Shipbuilding is practically confined to Belfast,

where the firm of Harland and Wolff, the builders of the great "White

Star" liners, have one of the largest yards in the world, giving

employment to several thousand hands. There are extensive engineering

works in the same city which supply the machinery and other requirements

of the linen industry. Paper is manufactured on a considerable scale in

various places, and Balbriggan is celebrated for its hosiery.

_Commerce and Shipping._--From allusions in ancient writers it would

appear that in early times Ireland had a considerable commercial

intercourse with various parts of Europe. When the merchants of Dublin

fled from their city at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion it was

given by Henry II. to merchants from Bristol, to whom free trade with

other portions of the kingdom was granted as well as other advantages.

In the Staple Act of Edward III., Dublin, Waterford, Cork and Drogheda

are mentioned as among the towns where staple goods could be purchased

by foreign merchants. During the 15th century the trade of these and

other towns increased rapidly. With the 17th century began the

restrictions on Irish trade. In 1637 duties were imposed on the chief

commodities to foreign nations not in league with England. Ireland was

left out of the Navigation Act of 1663 and in the same year was

prohibited from exporting cattle to England in any month previous to

July. Sir William Petty estimated the value of Irish exports in 1672 at

L500,000 per annum, and owing principally to the prosperity of the

woollen industry these had risen in value in 1698 to L996,000, the

imports in the same year amounting to L576,000. A rapid fall in exports

followed upon the prohibition of the export of woollen manufactures to

foreign countries, but in about 20 years' time a recovery took place,

due in part to the increase of the linen trade. Statistics of exports

and imports were compiled for various years by writers like Newenham,

Arthur Young and Cesar Moreau, but these are vitiated by being given in

Irish currency which was altered from time to time, and by the fact that

the method of rating at the custom-house also varied. Taking the

figures, however, for what they are worth, it appears that between 1701

and 1710 the average annual exports from Ireland to all parts of the

world were valued at L553,000 (to Great Britain, L242,000) and the

average annual imports at L513,000 (from Great Britain, L242,000).

Between 1751 and 1760 the annual values had risen for exports to

L2,002,000 (to Great Britain, L1,068,000) and for imports to L1,594,000

(from Great Britain, L734,000). Between 1794 and 1803 the figures had

further risen to L4,310,000 (to Great Britain, L3,667,000) and

L4,572,000 (from Great Britain L3,404,000). It is clear, therefore, that

during the 18th century the increase of commerce was considerable.

In 1825 the shipping duties on the cross-Channel trade were abolished

and since that date no official figures are available as to a large part

of Irish trade with Great Britain. The export of cattle and other

animals, however, is the most important part of this trade and details

of this appear in the following table:--

+------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

+------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

| 1891 | 630,802 | 893,175 | 505,584 | 2,029,561 |

| 1900 | 745,519 | 862,263 | 715,202 | 2,322,984 |

| 1905 | 749,131 | 700,626 | 363,973 | 1,813,730 |

+------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

The value of the animals exported in 1905 was estimated (at certain

standard rates) at about L14,000,000.

Since 1870 the Board of Trade has ceased to give returns of the

foreign and colonial trade for each of the separate kingdoms of

England, Scotland and Ireland. Returns are given, however, for the

principal ports of each kingdom. Between 1886 and 1905 these imports

at the Irish ports rose from L6,802,000 in value to L12,394,000 and

the exports from L825,000 to L1,887,000.

The following table shows the value of the total imports and exports

of merchandise in the foreign and colonial trade at the ports of

Dublin, Belfast and Limerick in each of the years 1901-1905:--

+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| Ports. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. |

+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

| Dublin-- | L | L | L | L | L |

| Imports |2,666,000 |2,856,000 |3,138,000 |2,771,000 |2,664,000 |

| Exports | 54,000 | 63,000 | 122,000 | 79,000 | 78,000 |

| Imports |6,626,000 |6,999,000 |7,773,000 |7,033,000 |6,671,000 |

| Exports |1,442,000 |1,344,000 |1,122,000 |1,332,000 |1,780,000 |

| Imports |1,062,000 |1,114,000 |1,193,000 |1,156,000 |1,010,000 |

| Exports | 15,000 | 17,000 | 6,000 | 8,000 | 5,000 |

| Imports | 826,000 | 913,000 | 855,000 | 935,000 | 854,000 |

| Exports | 2,000 | 400 | 3,000 | 600 | 3,000 |

+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

The Department of Agriculture published in 1906 a report on the

imports and exports at Irish ports for the year 1904. In this report,

the compiling of which presented great difficulties in the absence of

official returns, are included (1) the direct trade between Ireland

and all countries outside of Great Britain, (2) the indirect trade of

Ireland with those same countries via Great Britain, and (3) the local

trade between Ireland and Great Britain. The value of imports in 1904

is put at L55,148,206, and of exports at L46,606,432. But it is

pointed out in the report that while the returns as regards farm

produce, food stuffs, and raw materials may be considered

approximately complete, the information as to manufactured

goods--especially of the more valuable grades--is rough and

inadequate. It was estimated that the aggregate value of the actual

import and export trade in 1904 probably exceeded a total of

L105,000,000. The following table gives some details:--

+-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+

| | Imports. | Exports. |

+-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+

| I. Farm Produce, Food and Drink Stuffs--| | |

| (a) Live-stock, meat, bacon, fish and | | |

| dairy produce |L3,028,170 |L23,445,122 |

| (b) Crops, fruit, meal, flour, &c. |11,859,201 | 1,721,753 |

| (c) Spirits, porter, ale, &c. | 919,161 | 4,222,194 |

| (d) Tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, &c. | 4,230,478 | 1,121,267 |

| II. Raw Materials-- | | |

| (a) Coal | 2,663,523 | .. |

| (b) Wood | 1,880,095 | 235,479 |

| (c) Mineral | 1,012,822 | 282,081 |

| (d) Animal and vegetable products | 4,529,002 | 3,067,398 |

| III. Goods, partly manufactured or of | | |

| simple manufacture | 7,996,143 | 2,576,993 |

| IV. Manufactured goods. |17,059,611 | 9,934,145 |

+-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+

From the figures given in the report it would appear that there was in

1904 an excess of imports amounting to over L8,500,000. But owing to

the imperfect state of existing information, it is impossible to say

with any certainty what is the real state of the balance of visible

trade between Ireland and other countries.

Shipping returns also throw some light upon the commercial condition

of Ireland. Old figures are not of much value, but it may be stated

that Arthur Dobbs gives the number of ships engaged in the Irish trade

in 1721 as 3334 with a tonnage of 158,414. According to the statistics

of Cesar Moreau the number of ships belonging to Irish ports in 1788

was 1016 with a tonnage of over 60,000, and in 1826 they had

increased, according to the trade and navigation returns, to 1391 with

a tonnage of over 90,000. In 1905 the vessels registered at Irish

ports numbered 934 with a tonnage of over 259,000. In the same year

the vessels entering and clearing in the colonial and foreign trade

numbered 1199 with a tonnage of over 1,086,000, and the vessels

entering and clearing in the trade between Great Britain and Ireland

numbered 41,983 with a tonnage of over 9,776,000.

_Government, &c._--The executive government of Ireland is vested in a

lord-lieutenant, assisted by a privy council and by a chief secretary,

who is always a member of the House of Commons and generally of the

cabinet. There are a large number of administrative departments and

boards, some, like the Board of Trade, discharging the same duties as

the similar department in England; others, like the Congested Districts

Board, dealing with matters of purely Irish concern.

_Parliamentary Representation._--The Redistribution of Seats Act 1885

entirely altered the parliamentary representation of Ireland. Twenty-two

small boroughs were disenfranchised. The towns of Galway, Limerick and

Waterford lost one member each, while Dublin and Belfast were

respectively divided into four divisions, each returning one member. As

a result of these changes 85 members now represent the counties, 16 the

boroughs, and 2 Dublin University--a total of 103. The total number of

electors (exclusive of Dublin University) in 1906 was 686,661; 113,595

for the boroughs and 573,066 for the counties. Ireland is represented in

the House of Lords by 28 temporal peers elected for life from among the

Irish peers.

_Local Government._--Irish local government was entirely remodelled by

the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which conferred on Ireland the

same system and measure of self-government enjoyed by Great Britain. The

administrative and fiscal duties previously exercised by the grand jury

in each county were transferred to a county council, new administrative

counties being formed for the purposes of the act, in some cases by the

alteration of existing boundaries. To the county councils were also

assigned the power of assessing and levying the poor rate in rural

districts, the management of lunatic asylums, and the administration of

certain acts such as the Explosives Act, the Technical Education Act and

the Diseases of Animals Act. Subordinate district councils, urban and

rural, were also established as in England and Scotland to manage the

various local areas within each county. The provisions made for the

administration of the Poor Law by the act under consideration are very

complicated, but roughly it may be said that it was handed over to these

new subordinate local bodies. Six towns--Dublin, Belfast, Cork,

Limerick, Londonderry and Waterford--were constituted county boroughs

governed by separate county councils; and five boroughs--Kilkenny,

Sligo, Clonmel, Drogheda and Wexford--retained their former

corporations. The act provides facilities for the conversion into urban

districts of (1) towns having town commissioners who are not sanitary

authorities and (2) non-municipal towns with populations of over 1500

and entitled to petition for town commissioners.

_Justice._--The Supreme Court of Judicature is constituted as follows:

the court of appeal, which consists of the lord chancellor, the lord

chief justice, and the master of the rolls and the chief baron of the

exchequer as _ex-officio_ members, and two lords justices of appeal; and

the high court of justice which includes (1) the chancery division,

composed of the lord chancellor, the master of the rolls and two

justices, (2) the king's bench division composed of the lord chief

justice, the chief baron of the exchequer and eight justices, and (3)

the land commissions with two judicial commissioners. At the first

vacancy the title and rank of chief baron of the exchequer will be

abolished and the office reduced to a puisne judgeship. By the County

Officers and Courts (Ireland) Act 1877, it was provided that the

chairmen of quarter sessions should be called "county court judges and

chairmen of quarter sessions" and that their number should be reduced to

twenty-one, which was to include the recorders of Dublin, Belfast, Cork,

Londonderry and Galway. At the same time the jurisdiction of the county

courts was largely extended. There are 66 resident (stipendiary)

magistrates, and four police magistrates in Dublin.

_Police._--The Royal Irish Constabulary were established in 1822 and

consisted at first of 5000 men under an inspector-general for each of

the four provinces. In 1836 the entire force was amalgamated under one

inspector-general. The force, at present consists of about 10,000 men of

all ranks, and costs over L1,300,000 a year. Dublin has a separate

metropolitan police force.

_Crime._--The following table shows the number of persons committed for

trial, convicted and acquitted in Ireland in 1886, 1891, 1900 and

1905:--

+------+----------+----------+----------+

+------+----------+----------+----------+

| 1886 | 3,028 | 1,619 | 1286 |

| 1891 | 2,112 | 1,255 | 669 |

| 1900 | 1,682 | 1,087 | 331 |

| 1905 | 2,060 | 1,367 | 417 |

+------+----------+----------+----------+

Of the 1367 convicted in 1905, 375 were charged with offences against

the person, 205 with offences against property with violence, 545 with

offences against property without violence, 52 with malicious injury

to property, 44 with forgery and offences against the currency, and

146 with other offences. In 1904, 81,775 cases of drunkenness were

brought before Irish magistrates as compared with 227,403 in England

and 43,580 in Scotland.

_Poor Law._--The following table gives the numbers in receipt of indoor

and outdoor relief (exclusive of persons in institutions for the blind,

deaf and dumb, and for idiots and imbeciles) in, the years 1902-1905,

together with the total expenditure for relief of the poor:--

+------+-----------------------------+--------------+

| | Aggregate number relieved | |

| Year.| during the year. | Total Annual |

| +---------+---------+---------+ Expenditure. |

+------+---------+---------+---------+--------------+

| 1902 | 363,483 | 105,501 | 468,984 | L1,026,691 |

| 1903 | 363,091 | 99,150 | 452,241 | 986,301 |

| 1904 | 390,047 | 98,607 | 488,654 | 1,033,168 |

| 1905 | 434,117 | 124,697 | 558,814 | 1,066,733 |

+------+---------+---------+---------+--------------+

The average daily number in receipt of relief of all kinds (except

outdoor relief) during the same years was as follows: 1902, 41,163;

1903, 43,600; 1904, 43,721; 1905, 43,911. The percentage of indoor

paupers to the estimated population in 1905 was 1.00.

_Congested Districts Board._--This body was constituted by the Purchase

of Land Act 1891, and is composed of the chief secretary, a member of

the Land Commission and five other members. A considerable sum of money

was placed at its disposal for carrying out the objects for which it was

created. It was provided that where more than 20% of the population of a

county lived in electoral divisions of which the total rateable value,

when divided by the number of the population, gave a sum of less than

L1, 10s. for each individual, these divisions should, for the purposes

of the act, form a separate county, called a congested districts county,

and should be subject to the operations of the board. In order to

improve the condition of affairs in congested districts, the board was

empowered (1) to amalgamate small holdings either by directly aiding

migration or emigration of occupiers, or by recommending the Land

Commission to facilitate amalgamation, and (2) generally to aid and

develop out of its resources agriculture, forestry, the breeding of

live-stock, weaving, spinning, fishing and any other suitable

industries. Further provisions regulating the operations of funds of the

board were enacted in 1893, 1896, 1899 and 1903; and by its constituting

act the Department of Agriculture was empowered to exercise, at the

request of the board, any of its powers and duties in congested

districts.

_Religion._--The great majority of the Irish people belong to the Roman

Catholic Church. In 1891 the Roman Catholics numbered 3,547,307 or 75%

of the total population, and in 1901 they numbered 3,308,661 or 74%. The

adherents of the Church of Ireland come next in number (581,089 in 1901

or 13% of the population), then the Presbyterians (443,276 in 1901 or

10% of the population), the only other denomination with a considerable

number of members being the Methodists (62,006 in 1901). As the result

of emigration, which drains the Roman Catholic portion of the population

more than any other, the Roman Catholics show a larger proportional

decline in numbers than the Protestants; for example, between 1891 and

1901 the Roman Catholics decreased by over 6%, the Church of Ireland by

a little over 3%, the Presbyterians by less than 1%, while the

Methodists actually increased by some 11%. The only counties in which

the Protestant religion predominates are Antrim, Down, Armagh and

Londonderry.

The Roman Catholic Church is governed in Ireland by 4 archbishops,

whose sees are in Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam, and 23 bishops, all

nominated by the pope. The episcopal emoluments arise from the mensal

parishes, the incumbency of which is retained by the bishops, from

licences and from an annual contribution, varying in amount, paid by

the clergy of the diocese. The clergy are supported by fees and the

voluntary contributions of their flocks. At the census of 1901 there

were 1084 parishes, and the clergy numbered 3711. In addition to the

secular clergy there are several communities of regular priests

scattered over the country, ministering in their own churches but

without parochial jurisdiction. There are also numerous monasteries

and convents, a large number of which are devoted to educational

purposes. The great majority of the secular clergy are educated at

Maynooth College (see below).

The Protestants of Ireland belong mainly to the Church of Ireland

(episcopalian) and the Presbyterian Church. (For the former see

IRELAND, CHURCH OF).

The Presbyterian Church, whose adherents are found principally in

Ulster and are the descendants of Scotch settlers, was originally

formed in the middle of the 17th century, and in 1840 a reunion took

place of the two divisions into which the Church had formerly

separated. The governing body is the General Assembly, consisting of

ministers and laymen. In 1906 there were 569 congregations, arranged

under 36 presbyteries, with 647 ministers. The ministers are supported

by a sustentation fund formed of voluntary contributions, the rents of

seats and pews, and the proceeds of the commutation of the Regium

Donum made by the commissioners under the Irish Church Act 1869. Two

colleges are connected with the denomination, the General Assembly's

College, Belfast, and the Magee College, Londonderry. In 1881 the

faculty of the Belfast College and the theological professors of the

Magee College were incorporated and constituted as a faculty with the

power of granting degrees in divinity.

The Methodist Church in Ireland was formed in 1878 by the Union of

the Wesleyan with the Primitive Wesleyan Methodists. The number of

ministers is over 250.

_Education._--The following table shows that the proportion per cent

of the total population of five years old and upwards able to read and

write has been steadily rising since 1861:--

+-----------------------+-----------------------------+

| | Proportion per cent. |

| +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

| |1861.|1871.|1881.|1891.|1901.|

+-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

| Read and write | 41 | 49 | 59 | 71 | 79 |

| Read only | 20 | 17 | 16 | 11 | 7 |

| Neither read nor write| 39 | 33 | 25 | 18 | 14 |

+-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

Further details on the same subject, according to provinces and

religious denominations in 1901, are subjoined:--

+---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+

+---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+

| Read and write | 80 | 80 | 70 | 72 |

| Read only | 7 | 5 | 11 | 7 |

| Neither read nor write | 13 | 15 | 19 | 21 |

| Read and write | 95 | 95 | 81 | 93 |

| Read only | 1 | 2 | 9 | 3 |

| Neither read nor write | 4 | 3 | 10 | 4 |

| Read and write | 97 | 96 | 88 | 95 |

| Read only | 1 | 2 | 7 | 3 |

| Neither read nor write | 2 | 2 | 5 | 2 |

| Read and write | 97 | 97 | 90 | 96 |

| Read only | 1 | 1 | 5 | 2 |

| Neither read nor write | 2 | 2 | 5 | 2 |

| Read and write | 91 | 91 | 90 | 94 |

| Read only | 2 | 2 | 6 | 1 |

| Neither read nor write | 7 | 7 | 4 | 5 |

| Read and write | 83 | 81 | 79 | 72 |

| Read only | 6 | 5 | 9 | 7 |

| Neither read nor write | 11 | 14 | 12 | 21 |

+---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+

_Language._--The number of persons who speak Irish only continues to

decrease. In 1881 they numbered 64,167; in 1891, 38,192; and in 1901,

20,953. If to those who spoke Irish only are added the persons who

could speak both Irish and English, the total number who could speak

Irish in 1901 was 641,142 or about 14% of the population. The purely

Irish-speaking population is to be found principally in the province

of Connaught, where in 1901 they numbered over 12,000. The efforts of

the Gaelic League, founded to encourage the study of Gaelic literature

and the Irish language, produced results seen in the census returns

for 1901, which showed that the pupils learning Irish had very largely

increased as compared with 1891.

Universities and colleges.

The university of Dublin (q.v.), which is for practical purposes

identical with Trinity College, Dublin, was incorporated in 1591. The

government is in the hands of a board consisting of the provost and the

senior fellows, assisted by a council in the election of professors and

in the regulation of studies. The council is composed of the provost

(and, in his absence, the vice-provost) and elected members. There is

also a senate, composed of the chancellor or vice-chancellor and all

doctors and masters who have kept their names on the books of Trinity

College. Religious tests were abolished in 1873, and the university is

now open to all; but, as a matter of fact, the vast majority of the

students, even since the abolition of tests, have always belonged to the

Church of Ireland, and the divinity school is purely Protestant.

In pursuance of the University Education (Ireland) Act 1879, the Queen's

University in Ireland was superseded in 1882 by the Royal University of

Ireland, it being provided that the graduates and students of the former

should have similar rank in the new university. The government of the

Royal University was vested in a senate consisting of a chancellor and

senators, with power to grant all such degrees as could be conferred by

any university in the United Kingdom, except in theology. Female

students had exactly the same rights as male students. The university

was simply an examining body, no residence in any college nor attendance

at lectures being obligatory. All appointments to the senate and to

fellowships were made on the principle that one half of those appointed

should be Roman Catholics and the other half Protestants; and in such

subjects as history and philosophy there were two courses of study

prescribed, one for Roman Catholics and the other for Protestants. In

1905 the number who matriculated was 947, of whom 218 were females, and

the number of students who passed the academic examinations was 2190.

The university buildings are in Dublin and the fellows were mostly

professors in the various colleges whose students were undergraduates.

The three Queen's Colleges, at Belfast, Cork and Galway, were founded in

1849 and until 1882 formed the Queen's University. Their curriculum

comprised all the usual courses of instruction, except theology. They

were open to all denominations, but, as might be expected, the Belfast

college (dissolved under the Irish Universities Act 1908; see below) was

almost entirely Protestant. Its situation in a great industrial centre

also made it the most important and flourishing of the three, its

students numbering over 400. It possessed an excellent medical school,

which was largely increased owing to private benefactions.

The Irish Universities Act 1908 provided for the foundation of two new

universities, having their seats respectively at Dublin and at Belfast.

The Royal University of Ireland at Dublin and the Queen's College,

Belfast, were dissolved. Provision was made for a new college to be

founded at Dublin. This college and the existing Queen's Colleges at

Cork and Galway were made constituent colleges of the new university at

Dublin. Letters patent dated December 2, 1908, granted charters to these

foundations under the titles of the National University of Ireland

(Dublin), the Queen's University of Belfast and the University Colleges

of Dublin, Cork and Galway. It was provided by the act that no test of

religious belief should be imposed on any person as a condition of his

holding any position in any foundation under the act. A body of

commissioners was appointed for each of the new foundations to draw up

statutes for its government; and for the purpose of dealing with any

matter calling for joint action, a joint commission, half from each of

the above commissions, was established. Regulations as to grants-in-aid

were made by the act, with the stipulation that no sum from them should

be devoted to the provision or maintenance of any building, or tutorial

or other office, for religious purposes, though private benefaction for

such purposes is not prohibited. Provisions were also made as to the

transfer of graduates and students, so that they might occupy under the

new regime positions equivalent to those which they occupied previously,

in respect both of degrees and the keeping of terms. The commissioners

were directed to work out schemes for the employment of officers already

employed in the institutions affected by the new arrangements, and for

the compensation of those whose employment could not be continued. A

committee of the privy council in Ireland was appointed, to be styled

the Irish Universities Committee.

The Roman Catholic University College in Dublin may be described as a

survival of the Roman Catholic University, a voluntary institution

founded in 1854. In 1882 the Roman Catholic bishops placed the buildings

belonging to the university under the control and direction of the

archbishop of Dublin, who undertook to maintain a college in which

education would be given according to the regulations of the Royal

University. In 1883 the direction of the college was entrusted to the

Jesuits. Although the college receives no grant from public funds, it

has proved very successful and attracts a considerable number of

students, the great majority of whom belong to the Church of Rome.

The Royal College of Science was established in Dublin in 1867 under the

authority of the Science and Art Department, London. Its object is to

supply a complete course of instruction in science as applicable to the

industrial arts. In 1900 the college was transferred from the Science

and Art Department to the Department of Agriculture and Technical

Instruction.

Maynooth (q.v.) College was founded by an Irish act of parliament in

1795 for the training of Roman Catholic students for the Irish

priesthood. By an act of 1844 it was permanently endowed by a grant from

the consolidated fund of over L26,000 a year. This grant was withdrawn

by the Irish Church Act 1869, the college receiving as compensation a

lump sum of over L372,000. The average number of students entering each

year is about 100.

There are two Presbyterian colleges, the General Assembly's College at

Belfast, which is purely theological, and the Magee College,

Londonderry, which has literary, scientific and theological courses. In

1881 the Assembly's College and the theological professors of Magee

College were constituted a faculty with power to grant degrees in

divinity.

In addition to the foregoing, seven Roman Catholic institutions were

ranked as colleges in the census of 1901:--All Hallows (Drumcondra),

Holycross (Clonliffe), University College (Blackrock), St Patrick's

(Carlow), St Kieran's (Kilkenny), St Stanislaus's (Tullamore) and St

Patrick's (Thurles). In 1901 the aggregate number of students was 715,

of whom 209 were returned as under the faculty of divinity.

Schools.

As regards secondary schools a broad distinction can be drawn

according to religion. The Roman Catholics have diocesan schools,

schools under religious orders, monastic and convent schools, and

Christian Brothers' schools, which were attended, according to the

census returns in 1901, by nearly 22,000 pupils, male and female. On

the other hand are the endowed schools, which are almost exclusively

Protestant in their government. Under this heading may be included

royal and diocesan schools and schools upon the foundation of Erasmus

Smith, and others privately endowed. In 1901 these schools numbered 55

and had an attendance of 2653 pupils. To these must be added various

private establishments, which in the same year had over 8000 pupils,

mainly Protestants. Dealing with these secondary schools as a whole

the census of 1901 gives figures as to the number of pupils engaged

upon what the commissioners call the "higher studies," i.e. studies

involving instruction in at least one foreign language. In 1881 the

number of such pupils was 18,657; in 1891, 23,484; and in 1901,

28,484, of whom 17,103 were males and 11,381 females, divided as

follows among the different religions--Roman Catholics 18,248,

Protestant Episcopalians 5669, Presbyterians 3011, Methodists 760, and

others 567. This increase in the number of pupils engaged in the

higher studies is probably due to a large extent to the scheme for the

encouragement of intermediate education which was established by act

of parliament in 1879. A sum of L1,000,000, part of the Irish Church

surplus, was assigned by that act for the promotion of the

intermediate secular education of boys and girls in Ireland. The

administration of this fund was entrusted to a board of commissioners,

who were to apply its revenue for the purposes of the act (1) by

carrying on a system of public examinations, (2) by awarding

exhibitions, prizes and certificates to students, and (3) by the

payment of results fees to the manager of schools. An amending act was

passed in 1900 and the examinations are now held under rules made in

virtue of that act. The number of students who presented themselves

for examination in 1905 was 9677; the amount expended in exhibitions

and prizes was L8536; and the grants to schools amounted to over

L50,000. The examinations were held at 259 centres in 99 different

localities.

Primary education in Ireland is under the general control of the

commissioners of national education, who were first created in 1831 to

take the place of the society for the education of the poor, and

incorporated in 1845. In the year of their incorporation the schools

under the control of the commissioners numbered 3426, with 432,844

pupils, and the amount of the parliamentary grants was L75,000; while

in 1905 there were 8659 schools, with 737,752 pupils, and the grant

was almost L1,400,000. Of the pupils attending in the latter year, 74%

were Roman Catholics, 12% Protestant Episcopalians and 11%

Presbyterians. The schools under the commissioners include national

schools proper, model and workhouse schools and a number of monastic

and convent schools. The Irish Education Act of 1892 provided that the

parents of children of not less than 6 nor more than 14 years of age

should cause them to attend school in the absence of reasonable excuse

on at least 150 days in the year in municipal boroughs and in towns or

townships under commissioners; and provisions were made for the

partial or total abolition of fees in specified circumstances, for a

parliamentary school grant in lieu of abolished school fees, and for

the augmentation of the salaries of the national teachers.

There are 5 reformatory schools, 3 for boys and 2 for girls, and 68

industrial schools, 5 Protestant and 63 Roman Catholic.

Technical instruction.

By the constituting act of 1899 the control of technical education in

Ireland was handed over to the Department of Agriculture and Technical

Instruction and now forms an important part of its work. The annual

sum of L55,000 was allocated for the purpose, and this is augmented in

various ways. The department has devoted itself to (1) promoting

instruction in experimental science, drawing, manual instruction and

domestic economy in day secondary schools, (2) supplying funds to

country and urban authorities for the organization of schemes for

technical instruction in non-agricultural subjects--these subjects

embracing not only preparation for the highly organized industries but

the teaching of such rural industries as basket-making, (3) the

training of teachers by classes held at various centres, (4) the

provision of central institutions, and (5) the awarding of

scholarships.

_Revenue and Expenditure._--The early statistics as to revenue and

expenditure in Ireland are very fragmentary and afford little

possibility of comparison. During the first 15 years of Elizabeth's

reign the expenses of Ireland, chiefly on account of wars, amounted,

according to Sir James Ware's estimate, to over L490,000, while the

revenue is put by some writers at L8000 per annum and by others at less.

In the reign of James I. the customs increased from L50 to over L9000;

but although he obtained from various sources about L10,000 a year and a

considerable sum also accrued from the plantation of Ulster, the revenue

is supposed to have fallen short of the expenditure by about L16,000 a

year. During the reign of Charles I. the customs increased fourfold in

value, but it was found necessary to raise L120,000 by yearly subsidies.

According to the report of the committee appointed by Cromwell to

investigate the financial condition of Ireland, the revenue in 1654 was

L197,304 and the expenditure L630,814. At the Restoration the Irish

parliament granted an hereditary revenue to the king, an excise for the

maintenance of the army, a subsidy of tonnage and poundage for the navy,

and a tax on hearths in lieu of feudal burdens. "Additional duties" were

granted shortly after the Revolution. "Appropriate duties" were imposed

at different periods; stamp duties were first granted in 1773, and the

post office first became a source of revenue in 1783. In 1706 the

hereditary revenue with additional duties produced over L394,000.

Returns of the ordinary revenue were first presented to the Irish

parliament in 1730. From special returns to parliament the following

table shows net income and expenditure over a series of years up to

1868:--

+------+-----------+------------+

| Year.| Income. |Expenditure.|

+------+-----------+------------+

| 1731 | L405,000 | L407,000 |

| 1741 | 441,000 | 441,000 |

| 1761 | 571,000 | 773,000 |

| 1781 | 739,000 | 1,015,000 |

| 1800 | 3,017,757 | 6,615,000 |

| 1834 | 3,814,000 | 3,439,800 |

| 1850 | 4,332,000 | 4,120,000 |

| 1860 | 7,851,000 | 6,331,000 |

| 1868 | 6,176,000 | 6,621,000 |

+------+-----------+------------+

The amount of imperial revenue collected and expended in Ireland under

various heads for the five years 1902-1906 appears in the following

tables:--

_Revenue._

+------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+

+------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+

| 1902 |L2,244,000 |L5,822,000 |L1,072,000 |L1,143,000 | L923,000 |L149,000 |L11,353,000 |L9,784,000 |

| 1903 | 2,717,000 | 6,011,000 | 922,000 | 1,244,000 | 960,000 | 148,500 | 12,002,500 |10,205,000 |

| 1904 | 2,545,000 | 5,904,000 | 1,033,000 | 1,038,000 | 980,000 | 146,500 | 11,646,500 | 9,748,500 |

| 1905 | 2,575,000 | 5,584,000 | 1,016,000 | 1,013,000 |1,002,000 | 150,500 | 11,340,500 | 9,753,500 |

| 1906 | 2,524,000 | 5,506,000 | 890,000 | 983,000 |1,043,000 | 150,000 | 11,096,000 | 9,447,000 |

+------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+

_Expenditure._

+------+---------+-----------+---------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

| 1902 |L169,000 |L4,271,000 |L389,000 |L1,055,000 |L5,884,000 | L243,000 |L1,087,000 |L7,214,000 |L9,784,000 |

| 1903 | 168,500 | 4,357,500 | 383,000 | 1,058,000 | 5,967,000 | 246,000 | 1,140,000 | 7,353,000 |10,205,000 |

| 1904 | 170,000 | 4,569,000 | 376,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,174,000 | 248,000 | 1,126,000 | 7,548,000 | 9,784,500 |

| 1905 | 166,000 | 4,547,000 | 374,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,146,000 | 249,000 | 1,172,000 | 7,567,000 | 9,753,500 |

| 1906 | 164,000 | 4,582,500 | 385,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,191,500 | 245,000 | 1,199,000 | 7,635,500 | 9,447,000 |

+------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

Subtracting in each year the total expenditure from the estimated true

revenue it would appear from the foregoing table that Ireland

contributed to imperial services in the years under consideration the

following sums: L2,570,000, L2,852,000, L2,200,500, L2,186,500 and

L1,811,500.

The financial relations between Great Britain and Ireland have long been

a subject of controversy, and in 1894 a royal commission was appointed

to consider them, which presented its report in 1896. The commissioners,

though differing on several points, were practically agreed on the

following five conclusions: (1) that Great Britain and Ireland must, for

the purposes of a financial inquiry, be considered as separate entities;

(2) that the Act of Union imposed upon Ireland a burden which, as events

showed, she was unable to bear; (3) that the increase of taxation laid

upon Ireland between 1853 and 1860 was not justified by the then

existing circumstances; (4) that identity of rates of taxation did not

necessarily involve equality of burden; (5) that, while the actual tax

revenue of Ireland was about one-eleventh of that of Great Britain, the

relative taxable capacity of Ireland was very much smaller, and was not

estimated by any of the commissioners as exceeding one-twentieth. This

report furnished the material for much controversy, but little practical

outcome; it was avowedly based on the consideration of Ireland as a

separate country, and was therefore inconsistent with the principles of

Unionism.

The public debt of Ireland amounted to over L134,000,000 in 1817, in

which year it was consolidated with the British national debt.

_Local Taxation._--The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 effected

considerable changes in local finance. The fiscal duties of the grand

jury were abolished, and the county council which took the place of

the grand jury for both fiscal and administrative purposes was given

three sources of revenue: (1) the agricultural grant, (2) the licence

duties and other imperial grants, and (3) the poor rate. These may be

considered separately. (1) It was provided that the Local Government

Board should ascertain the amount of county cess and poor rate levied

off agricultural land in Ireland during the year ending (as regards

the poor rate) on the 29th of September, and (as regards the county

cess) on the 21st of June 1897; and that half this amount, to be

called the agricultural grant, should be paid annually without any

variation from the original sum out of the consolidated fund to a

local taxation account. The amount of the agricultural grant was

ascertained to be over L727,000. Elaborate provisions were also made

in the act for fixing the proportion of the grant to which each county

should be entitled, and the lord-lieutenant was empowered to pay

half-yearly the proportion so ascertained to the county council. (2)

Before the passing of the act grants were made from the imperial

exchequer to the grand juries in aid of the maintenance of lunatics

and to boards of guardians for medical and educational purposes and

for salaries under the Public Health (Ireland) Act. In 1897 these

grants amounted to over L236,000. Under the Local Government Act they

ceased, and in lieu thereof it was provided that there should be

annually paid out of the consolidated fund to the local taxation

account a sum equal to the duties collected in Ireland on certain

specified local taxation licences. In addition, it was enacted that

a fixed sum of L79,000 should be forthcoming annually from the

consolidated fund. (3) The county cess was abolished, and the county

councils were empowered to levy a single rate for the rural districts

and unions, called by the name of poor rate, for all the purposes of

the act. This rate is made upon the occupier and not upon the

landlord, and the occupier is not entitled, save in a few specified

cases, to deduct any of the rate from his rent. For the year ending

the 31st of March 1905, the total receipts of the Irish county

councils, exclusive of the county boroughs, were L2,964,298 and their

total expenditure was L2,959,961, the two chief items of expenditure

being "Union Charges" L1,002,620 and "Road Expenditure" L779,174.

During the same period the total receipts from local taxation in

Ireland amounted to L4,013,303, and the amount granted from imperial

sources in aid of local taxation was L1,781,143.

_Loans._--The total amount issued on loan, exclusive of closed

sources, by the Commissioners of Public Works, up to the 31st of March

1906, was L26,946,393, of which L15,221,913 had been repaid to the

exchequer as principal and L9,011,506 as interest, and L1,609,694 had

been remitted. Of the sums advanced, about L5,500,000 was under the

Improvement of Lands Acts, nearly L3,500,000 under the Public Health

Acts, over L3,000,000 for lunatic asylums, and over L3,000,000 under

the various Labourers Acts.

_Banking._--The Bank of Ireland was established in Dublin in 1783 with

a capital of L600,000, which was afterwards enlarged at various times,

and on the renewal of its charter in 1821 it was increased to

L3,000,000. It holds in Ireland a position corresponding to the Bank

of England in England. There are eight other joint-stock banks in

Ireland. Including the Bank of Ireland, their subscribed capital

amounts to L26,349,230 and their paid-up capital to L7,309,230. The

authorized note circulation is L6,354,494 and the actual note

circulation in June 1906 was L6,310,243, two of the banks not being

banks of issue. The deposits in the joint-stock banks amounted in 1880

to L29,350,000; in 1890 to L33,061,000; in 1900 to L40,287,000; and in

1906 to L45,842,000. The deposits in the Post Office Savings Banks

rose from L1,481,000 in 1880 to L10,459,000 in 1906, and the deposits

in Trustee Savings Banks from L2,100,165 in 1880 to L2,488,740 in

1905.

_National Wealth._--To arrive at any estimate of the national wealth

is exceptionally difficult in the case of Ireland, since the largest

part of its wealth is derived from agriculture, and many important

factors, such as the amount of capital invested in the linen and other

industries, cannot be included, owing to their uncertainty. The

following figures for 1905-1906 may, however, be given: valuation of

lands, houses, &c., L15,466,000; value of principal crops,

L35,362,000; value of cattle, &c., L81,508,000; paid-up capital and

reserve funds of joint-stock banks, L11,300,000; deposits in

joint-stock and savings banks, L58,791,000; investments in government

stock, transferable at Bank of Ireland, L36,952,000; paid-up capital

and debentures of railway companies, L38,405,000; paid-up capital of

tramway companies, L2,074,000.

In 1906 the net value of property assessed to estate duty, &c., in

Ireland was L16,016,000 as compared with L306,673,000 in England and

L38,451,000 in Scotland; and in 1905 the net produce of the income tax

in Ireland was L983,000, as compared with L27,423,000 in England and

L2,888,000 in Scotland.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Agriculture: Accounts of the land systems of Ireland

will be found in James Godkin's _Land War in Ireland_ (1870);

Sigerson's _History of Land Tenure in Ireland_ (1871); Joseph Fisher's

_History of Land Holding in Ireland_ (1877); R. B. O'Brien's _History

of the Irish Land Question_ (1880); A. G. Richey's _Irish Land Laws_

(1880). General information will be found in J. P. Kennedy's Digest of

the evidence given before the Devon Commission (Dublin, 1847-1848);

the _Report_ of the Bessborough Commission, 1881, and of the

commission on the agriculture of the United Kingdom, 1881. The

Department of Agriculture publishes several official annual reports,

dealing very fully with Irish agriculture.

Manufactures and Commerce: _Discourse on the Woollen Manufacture of

Ireland_ (1698); _An Inquiry into the State and Progress of the Linen

Manufacture in Ireland_ (Dublin, 1757); G. E. Howard, _Treatise on the

Revenue of Ireland_ (1776); John Hely Hutchinson, _Commercial

Restraints of Ireland_ (1779); Lord Sheffield, _Observations on the

Manufactures, Trade and Present State of Ireland_ (1785); R. B.

Clarendon, _A Sketch of the Revenue and Finances of Ireland_ (1791);

the annual reports of the Flax Supply Association and other local

bodies, published at Belfast; reports by the Department of Agriculture

on Irish imports and exports (these are a new feature and contain much

valuable information).

Miscellaneous: Sir William Petty, _Political Anatomy of Ireland_

(1691); Arthur Dobbs, _Essay on the Trade of Ireland_ (1729);

_Abstract of the Number of Protestant and Popish Families in Ireland_

(1726); Arthur Young, _Tour in Ireland_ (1780); T. Newenham, _View of

the Circumstances of Ireland_ (1809), and _Inquiry into the Population

of Ireland_ (1805); Cesar Moreau, _Past and Present State of Ireland_

(1827); J. M. Murphy, _Ireland, Industrial, Political and Social_

(1870); R. Dennis, _Industrial Ireland_ (1887); Grimshaw, _Facts and

Figures about Ireland_ (1893); _Report of the Recess Committee_

(1896, published in Dublin); _Report of the Financial Relations

Commission_ (1897); Sir H. Plunkett, _Ireland in the New Century_

(London, 1905); Filson Young, _Ireland at the Cross-Roads_ (London,

1904); Thom's _Almanac_, published annually in Dublin, gives a very

useful summary of statistics and other information. (W. H. Po.)

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