together as possible.* (But see 55.) The introduction of parentheses
violating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in the
following: "The result of these observations appears to be in
opposition to the view now generally received in this country, that
in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes
disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of
"disintegration" is (1) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma
after "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these
observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;"
if (2), insert "which is" after "country."
There is an excessive complication in the following:--"It cannot, at
all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such
importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be
denied that &c."
Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection
of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said;
_e.g._ after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should
recommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied." In writing, however, this
licence must be sparingly used.
A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with
clearness, especially if antithesis he used, so as to show the
connection between the different parts of the sentence, _e.g._ "A
modern newspaper statement, _though probably true_, would be laughed
at if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossip
is thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago."
Here, to place "though probably true" at the beginning of the sentence
would not add clearness, and would impair the emphasis of the contrast
between "a modern newspaper statement" and "the letter of a court
gossip."
*27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept
distinct from the consequent clauses.*--There is ambiguity in "The
lesson intended to be taught by these manoeuvres will be lost, if the
plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the
affair degenerates into a mere review." Begin, in any case, with the
antecedent, "If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning:
(1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then
the lesson will be lost;" or (2) " ... then the lesson ... will be
lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review."
*28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from
those that are independent.*
Take as an example:
(1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make
preparations accordingly."
This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to
mean:
(2) "He replied ..., and he intended."
In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be
connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense,
that has a subject, _i.e._ "wished." It follows that (1) is a
condensation of:
(3) "He replied that he wished ..., and that he intended."
(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically
ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject
unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a
full stop between the two statements. Thus:
(4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and _indeed_ he
intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c."
Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference
to (1) or (2).
*29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on
the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.*
"He said that he wished _to_ take his friend with him _to_ visit the
capital and _to_ study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether the
meaning is--
"He said that he wished to take his friend with him,
(1) _and also_ to visit the capital and study medicine," or
(2) "that his friend might visit the capital _and might also_ study
medicine," or
(3) "on a visit to the capital, _and that he also_ wished to study
medicine."
From the three different versions it will be perceived that this
ambiguity must be met (_a_) by using "that" for "to," which allows us
to repeat an auxiliary verb [_e.g._ "might" in (2)], and (_b_) by
inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37).
"In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish
(wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that
_expresses a purpose_, and an infinitive that does not, _e.g._ "He
told his servant to call upon his friend, _to_ (in order to) give him
information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started."
*30. The principle of suspense.* Write your sentence in such a way
that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the
sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in
_suspense_. _Suspense_ is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first,
and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participles
before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions,
_e.g._ _not only_, _either_, _partly_, _on the one hand_, _in the
first place_, &c.
The following is an example of an _unsuspended_ sentence. The sense
_draggles_, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention.
"Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in
parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a man
of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a good
reputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritan
party; yet not of those furious resolutions (_Mod. Eng._ so furiously
resolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | and
wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,--who had nothing of that
spirit."
The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points
marked above. When suspended it becomes:--
"Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer,
was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for
his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally;
for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted
to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical
spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men."
*30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce
unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic
clause beginning with (a) " ... not" or (b) " ... which."*
(_a_) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes
of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us
industry, self-dependence, and frugality, _and not, as some say,
wastefulness_."
Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence,
and frugality."
(_b_) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a
little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at
York, _which is a fine old town_."
*Exception.*--When the short final clause is intended to be
unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of
the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus:
"The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the
poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purse
at home--_a habit of his_."
Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we
are waiting, _i.e._ on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed
out above that *a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable,
especially in letter writing and conversation*.
*31. Suspense must not be excessive.* _Excess of suspense_ is a common
fault in boys translating from Latin. "Themistocles, having secured
the safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he
had unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the
bridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight,
and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of
the king, wrote as follows to him." The more English idiom is: "When
Themistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of
the Persian fleet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the
Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. Soon
afterwards, hearing &c."
A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the
introduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of
_Paradise Lost_ between "Of man's first disobedience" and "Sing,
heavenly Muse." Compare also the beginning of _Paradise Lost_, Book
II.:
"_High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold--
Satan exalted sat._"
with the opening of Keats' _Hyperion_:
"_Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn,
Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star--
Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone._"
*32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause," antecedent,
or protasis, first.*
Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural
murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense
that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in--
"_Ghost._ If thou didst ever thy dear father love--
_Hamlet._ O, God!
_Ghost._ Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."
The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long
and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause."
"I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you
the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the
neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the "if-clause" comes last, it
ought to be very emphatic: "if you were _only_ here."
The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of a
sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of
the sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for the
sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the
present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the
delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more
convenient season." See (27).
*33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that
qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.*
"_Deserted_ by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to those
that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his
friends, was forced &c.," _he_ is unduly emphasized; and if we write,
"He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted
by his friends," the effect is very flat.
Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c."
But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated but
implied.
Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late in
the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force the
general determined to attack the foe, _flushed_ with recent victory
and _rendered_ negligent by success."
An excessive use of the _suspensive participle_ is French and
objectionable: _e.g._ "_Careless_ by nature, and too much _engaged_
with business to think of the morrow, _spoiled_ by a long-established
liberty and a fabulous prosperity, _having_ for many generations
forgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on without
taking heed of the signs of the times." The remedy is to convert the
participle into a verb depending on a conjunction: "Because we are by
nature careless, &c.;" or to convert the participle into a verb
co-ordinate with the principal verb, _e.g._ "_We are_ by nature
careless, &c., and therefore we _allow_ ourselves, &c."
*34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one
hand," add clearness.*--Take the following sentence:--"You must take
this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and
failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your
country is endangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be
misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence.
Write "_Either_ you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first,
prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases
are _partly_, _for our part_; _in the first place_; _it is true_;
_doubtless_; _of course_; _though_; _on the one hand_.
*35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or
obscurity.*--The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity
after a Relative standing as Subject:--
"He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering
from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to
give it advice."
The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several
Verbs. "All the pleasing illusions _which_ made power gentle and
obedience liberal, _which_ harmonized the different shades of life,
and _which_, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the
sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be
dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason."
*36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially
if a Verb and an Object also intervene.*
"He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his
companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (_to_) John Smith
in particular." Here, omit _to_, and the meaning may be "that helped
all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of
the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity.
*37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction
on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction.*[14]
"When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in
the ranks of our national authors--and, above all, (_when_) we refer
their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new
competitors--we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that lies
before the writers of the present day."
Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement
for what is really a subordinate clause.
In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated,
to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others
say.
"We might say that the Caesars did not persecute the Christians;
(_that_) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly,
with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret
assemblies; and (_that_) the refusal to throw frankincense on the
altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime."
But see (6 _b_).
*37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "as," &c.*
"I think he likes me better _than_ you;" _i.e._ either "than you like
me," or "he likes you."
"Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as _did_ the
Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity.
*38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the
thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic
word, or a summary of what has been said.*
"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populous
cities--_these_ are not the elements that constitute a great nation."
This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, not
unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and with
slovenly speakers than with good speakers.
"The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair
measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate,
and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever--I say, if _we adopt
so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition_ that we may
precipitate a revolution."
Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated,
the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence
we have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but also
as the antecedent:--
"But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church
regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to its
care; a _church_ established and maintained by the sword; a _church_
producing twice as many riots as conversions; a _church_ which, though
possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by
persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found
unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its
ground; a _church_ so odious that fraud and violence, when used
against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair
play; a _church_ whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and
with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of
bayonets,--_such a church_, on our principles, could not, we must own,
be defended."
*39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence
prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind
of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."*
In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three
terms:--
"To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to _libel_(a'), a _crime_(b'); to
slander(a''), a _sin_(b'')."
In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they
contribute to the clearness of a long sentence:--
"Man, working, has _contrived_(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare
that it _astonishes_(b) me far more to think _that for his mere
amusement_(c), that to _entertain a mere idle hour_(c'), he has
_created_(a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I
am _awe-struck_(b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature
which enables him, instead of _turning away_(d) from _calamity and
grief_(e), or instead of merely _defying_(d') them, actually to _make
them the material of his amusement_(d''), and to draw from the
_wildest agonies of the human spirit_(e') a pleasure which is not
only _not cruel_(f), but is in the highest degree _pure and
ennobling_(f')."
The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the
even flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to
mankind, had written--
"Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides;
Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides;
Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"--
the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to
heaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the
intervening climax--
"Instruct the planets in what orbs to run;
Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun;
Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere,
To the first good, first perfect, and first fair."
*40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends,
feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is
called "bathos."*
"What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the
_animated remonstrances_ of the unfortunate prisoners?"
"She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her
movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and
loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she _played beautifully
on the pianoforte_."
INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is
sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the
line--
"Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule,"
Pope adds--
"Then drop into thyself, and be a _fool_."
*40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.*--A
sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes
awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of
the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write
"virtuous and accomplished," or "of many virtues and accomplishments,"
not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "on
foot or horseback," not "on foot or riding." In the same way, do not
put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in
too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:--
"He had good reason _to believe_ that the delay was not _an accident_
(accidental) but _premeditated_, and _for supposing_ (to suppose, or
else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both _by art_
and _naturally_ (nature), would be forced by the _treachery of the_
governor and the _indolent_ (indolence of the) general to capitulate
within a week."
"They accused him of being _bribed_ (receiving bribes from) by the
king and _unwilling_ (neglecting) to take the city."
*41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.*--The meaning of
_liberal_ in the following sentence is ascertained by the
antithesis:--
"All the pleasing illusions which made _power_(a) _gentle_(b) and
_obedience_(a') _liberal_(b') ... are now to be destroyed."
There is a kind of proportion. As _gentleness_ is to _power_, so
_liberality_ (in the sense here used) is to _obedience_. Now
_gentleness_ is the check on the excess of power; therefore _liberal_
here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, _i.e._
checks servility. Hence _liberal_ here means "free."
The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the _rule_(a), not at the
_destruction_(a'), of their country. They were men of great _civil_(b)
and great _military_(b') talents, and, if the _terror_(c), the
_ornament_(c') of their age."
Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:--
"Who can persuade where _treason_(a) is above _reason_(a'), and
_might_(b) ruleth _right_(b'), and it is had for _lawful_(c)
whatsoever is _lustful_(c'), and _commotioners_(d) are better than
_commissioners_(d'), and _common woe_(e) is named common
_wealth_(e')?"
*42. Epigram.*--It has been seen that the neglect of climax results in
lameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement:
and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is
striking as well as amusing. Thus:--
(1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a _climax_.
(2) "You are not vicious, you are vice," is not _climax_, nor is it
_bathos_: it is _epigram_.[15]
Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under an
amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical.
"The Russian grandees came to { and diamonds," _climax_.
court dropping pearls { and vermin," _epigram_.
"These two nations were divided { and the bitter remembrance
by mutual fear { of recent losses," _climax_.
{ and mountains," _epigram_.
There is a sort of implied antithesis in:--
"He is full of information--(but flat also) like yesterday's _Times_."
"Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary."
The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis;
_e.g._ "An educated man should know something of everything, and
everything of something."
*43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of
thought.*
"This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving
behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of
whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his
father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland,
where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly
afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several
generations returned this family to serve in Parliament." Here we have
(1) the "great and good man," (2) "George," (3) "the county,"
disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not
three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid
a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one
level. It is called _heterogeneous_.
*44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by
Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting
words at the beginning of each sentence.*--Leave out the conjunctions
and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following
sentences lose much of their meaning:--