LEAVING PUNO.--CROSSING LAKE TITICACA.--RESOURCES OF BOLIVIA.--SILVER
MINING.--PRIMITIVE LODGINGS.--BEGINNING THE JOURNEY TO THE EASTWARD.
It was the intention of our friends to leave Puno on the morning
following the conversation recorded in the last chapter, but there was a
slight hitch in their plans. Manuel, the guide who had been engaged to
accompany them, said it was advisable to purchase provisions and other
necessaries before starting, as there was doubt about finding them along
the road. Acting under his advice, a day was spent in the shops, and
another in putting the articles into packages suitable for mountain
travel. When all was completed it was found that the steamboat was
absent on a trip up the lake, and another day was lost in waiting for
her.
On the fourth morning everything was ready, and the baggage was sent on
board in charge of Manuel. The travellers said good-bye to their
American acquaintance, who regretted he could not accompany them; they
were equally sorry he could not do so, as they had found him a most
agreeable and intelligent companion during their stay. A foreigner in an
interior town of South America has a dreary existence, and welcomes with
delight the advent of a countryman.
Just as they were leaving the landing-place they were introduced to the
manager of one of the silver mines in the neighborhood of Puno, who was
about crossing the lake on business connected with his enterprise.
Acquaintance is quickly made under such circumstances, and the time of
the voyage passed quickly in the society of this intelligent gentleman.
[Illustration: TANATERO (ORE-CARRIER).]
"The silver mines of Peru," said he, "are yielding very little at
present, owing to bad management and slovenly methods, and the same is
the case with the mines of Bolivia. During the last two and a half
centuries the mines of Peru alone have yielded five hundred million
dollars worth of silver; the mines near Puno are famous in history, and
are enormously rich, but for a long time little has been done beyond
reducing by modern processes the refuse of the old miners. When the
country becomes tranquil, and capital can be securely invested, the
mines will be reopened, American and other machinery introduced, and the
world can again be supplied with silver from the Andes.
"Potosi, in Bolivia, is probably the richest silver region of South
America and of the whole world, but its mines are now almost neglected.
In the seventeenth century the city had more than a hundred thousand
inhabitants, while it has barely twenty-five thousand to-day. Between
1545 and 1789 the mines of Potosi yielded one thousand million dollars'
worth of silver, but of late years the product has not exceeded two and
a half millions annually. The word 'Potosi' signifies 'an eruption of
silver,' and the place is certainly well named. It is in a province of
the same name, which produces also gold, copper, iron, lead, tin,
quicksilver, zinc, antimony, and other minerals, but silver is its
principal yield.
[Illustration: SECTION OF A SILVER MINE.]
"Potosi suffers for lack of modern methods, as much as do the mines of
Peru and other South American countries; nearly all the mining is done
by Indians, who adhere to the processes that have been in use for
centuries; the spirit of enterprise does not prevail here, and until it
does there will be no revival of the business."
One of the youths asked a question which led to a description of the
primitive ways of mining at Potosi.
[Illustration: A PRIMITIVE MILL.]
"Take, for example," said their entertainer, "the mill in which the ores
are crushed. It is a rude affair, with two wheels of stone at the end of
a horizontal bar moved by an upright shaft. The propelling force is an
ox, a mule, or possibly a stream of water, and sometimes the mill is
worked by the power of men. The apparatus somewhat resembles an
old-fashioned cider-mill in the Northern States of America, but the
roughest cider-mill you ever saw is a piece of cabinet-maker's work
compared with a Bolivian _arastra_. The broken ore is placed in a trough
in which the stone wheels move slowly around, crushing, perhaps, half a
ton of ore daily. Modern mills, such as are used by the miners of
California and Nevada, would crush twenty times as much ore at little
more than the same cost!
[Illustration: ARASTRA, WITH MULE-POWER.]
"From the beginning to the end of the work the whole business is very
slow and primitive. The ore is broken out of the veins by sheer force of
labor, powder or other blasting material being rarely employed. It is
carried on the backs of men to the surface of the ground; the
_tanateros_, or ore-carriers, load the substance into baskets or bags of
rawhide, and climb patiently upwards along perpendicular logs that are
notched to give holding-places for the feet.
[Illustration: BREAKING ORE.]
"With a hammer a native breaks the ore into pieces suitable for the
crushing-wheels; then it is reduced to mud by the slow operation I have
described; it is roasted or treated with quicksilver according to its
requirements; and finally the pure silver is obtained, and smelted into
bars for transportation to the coast.
"Now, here is the difference between this way of working and the modern
methods. The American or English miner would hoist the ore from the mine
by machinery instead of carrying it out by man-power. Then he would use
machinery for reducing it to powder, allowing none to be wasted, and
after the reduction he would extract the silver from the rock in such a
way as to save every grain of metal it contained, and preserve all the
quicksilver to be used over and over again. A great part of the silver
is lost at present, together with much of the quicksilver used in the
work of amalgamation. Where there is a profit of ten dollars by the old
process in working a ton of ore there would be fifty dollars of profit
under the new. And yet it is hard to convince these people that it is
worth their while to try the new system!
"Some of the mines are in the sides of the mountains, where no hoisting
is required, and the ore is brought directly to the open air without the
necessity of climbing. Such mines are more profitable than the others,
as they can be readily drained, and the expense of carrying the ore
upwards is saved.
"The ore of Potosi is very rich, but, for that matter, so are the ores
of Puno and Cerro de Pasco. Some deposits yield as high as two hundred
dollars a ton. When you bear in mind that the miners of California find
a profit in working mineral at ten dollars a ton you can realize the
wealth of the silver deposits of the Andes.
"When I first came here," he continued, "I was fresh from the mines of
Nevada. The rudeness of the Bolivian work was in very marked contrast to
what I was so lately familiar with.
"Near the entrance of the first mine I visited I saw some specimens of
rich ore lying on the ground. There was a group of three natives
lounging around the place, a man, a woman, and a boy. The mine had been
deserted for some time, and I found these people helped themselves to
the mineral whenever they wanted it. Telling them I wished to see how
they operated, and promising a reward for their trouble, I induced them
to go to work.
[Illustration: INDIANS EXTRACTING SILVER FROM ORE.]
"The man entered the mine, carrying a bar of iron and a rawhide bag. In
a little while I heard the blows of the bar, and in the course of half
an hour he returned with about twenty pounds of ore in the bag. Then
the man and the woman pounded the ore upon flat stones, and reduced it
to a coarse dust, which was placed in an earthen pot over a fire. The
fire was fed and tended by the boy, while the man and woman looked on;
they had performed their share of the toil, and were willing to give the
youth a chance.
"A smaller pot was brought, in which the ore was placed after half an
hour's roasting in the large one. This pot was filled with the dust,
deposited on the bed of coals, and covered with a loosely fitting lid.
The wood was piled over it and the fire burned fiercely. The whole mass
became red-hot, and the fumes of sulphur filled the air as they rose
from the smelting-pot.
"The fire was allowed to burn down, and when it was reduced to ashes and
embers the pot was lifted out, and its contents were poured on the
ground. There was a confused mass of slag and ashes, and in a few
moments the man who had taken the ore from the mine pushed from the slag
a button of silver weighing something more than an ounce. It was thrown
into water to cool, and when in a condition to be handled it was passed
over to me. I gave the man a dollar, together with some smaller coins to
the woman and boy, and then walked away with my trophy."
Frank and Fred were much interested in this account of the silver mines
of Bolivia, and the primitive ways of working them. As soon as the
conversation was over they wrote it out, as nearly as they remembered
it, in order that none of the information should be lost.
Then followed a technical account of the character of the ores, but it
might be tedious to the general reader, and we will omit it. Their
informant further told the youths that a good many of the natives
support themselves by melting the ores in the manner just described, and
selling the buttons for what they will bring. The silver thus obtained
is not chemically pure, but is good enough for purposes of sale.
Fred asked if accidents were common in the mines at Potosi.
[Illustration: GALLERIES IN A SILVER MINE.]
"Of course they have accidents there," was the reply, "but probably no
more on the average than in mines in other parts of the world. Most of
them are due to carelessness, either in failing to support the roof
properly after the ore is taken out, or not taking proper hold of the
ladders while ascending or descending. Sometimes the roof of a mine
falls in, but there is generally sufficient warning to allow the men to
escape. Rocks occasionally become dislodged and fall upon the workmen; I
was one day walking in a mine when a stone weighing at least a ton fell
behind me, right in my tracks. If I had been three or four seconds later
it would have crushed me.
[Illustration: CAVING IN.]
"The weight of rock and earth becomes too great for the timbers along
the sides and across the roof, and they are crushed and broken. But
before falling they groan and crack and settle, but rarely give way
suddenly. The Indians can tell from long experience when there is any
real danger, and are generally quick enough to escape."
From mining the conversation turned to general subjects relating to
Bolivia. The substance of what the youths learned may be set down as
follows:
Silver is found in many parts of the republic, and some of the mines are
said to yield ore as rich as of Potosi. The Potosi mines are mainly in a
single mountain, which has been pierced with more than five thousand
tunnels and openings. Gold is found in many places, but it has not been
extensively mined. Occasionally large nuggets or masses of pure gold are
found, and they bring a higher price as curiosities than when reduced to
bullion. One of these masses was detached from a mountain by a stroke of
lightning, and sold at an enormous price to the royal museum at Madrid.
There are some valuable mines of tin and copper in Bolivia; the tin
mines of Oruro are said to be the richest in the world, and copper is
said to be as abundant in the mountains of Corocoro as silver is at
Potosi. The other mineral wealth of Bolivia is well known, but none of
it is available on account of the lack of transportation. The country
has no outlet by which it can reach the markets of the world.
Transportation to the Pacific coast is over the passes of the Andes and
across deserts, while the ocean ports are lacking in facilities for
landing or discharging cargoes. There is a route through Buenos Ayres,
and another through Brazil; both are long and expensive, and the greater
part of the products of the country will not bear the cost of removal.
There will be occasion for referring to this subject again.
[Illustration: WILD INDIAN OF BOLIVIA.]
Bolivia has a little more than two millions of inhabitants, about one
fourth of them whites. There are several varieties of the native and
mixed races, from the civilized Indians of La Paz and other cities to
the wild tribes of the upper waters of the Amazon. The latter lead a
wandering life, and wear no clothes; they have resisted all attempts to
civilize them, and until recently they were hostile to the white people
who passed along the river in boats. A curious story is told of the
incident by which their hostility was suppressed.
In a survey made by the Bolivian government of the falls of the Madeira
River a camp was established on the banks of that stream. Soon after it
was located one of the men of the exploring party was taken ill, and his
disease proved to be small-pox. He was immediately isolated from the
rest of the camp, and carefully attended by the doctor.
Recovery was impossible. One day, while the doctor was at the side of
the dying patient, these warlike natives attacked the hut, and barely
gave the doctor time to escape. The death of the sufferer was hastened
by the Indians, and they triumphantly carried away his clothes and
bedding. Nearly the whole tribe died in consequence; the few that
survived have ever since regarded the occurrence as a manifestation of
divine wrath, and let the white men carefully alone.
Frank and Fred heard so much about the undeveloped sources of wealth in
Bolivia that they were inclined to form stock companies for various
enterprises out of which enormous amounts of money could be made. But as
their previous dreams of this sort had amounted to nothing, they wisely
forbore even going so far as to put their ideas on paper.
They heard of vast numbers of cattle on the _pampas_, or plains of
eastern Bolivia, which could be bought for a few shillings each, and
converted into beef and leather, at a great advance on the original
cost. Their informant said they would yield a profit on their hides
alone, while the beef could be sent to London, or other places of large
demand, by some of the preservative processes that have been recently
invented. Then they learned that Bolivia could supply fine woods for
cabinet purposes, in inexhaustible quantities, from the forests on the
lower slopes of the Andes, and the banks of the Beni and other rivers.
They found, on consulting the statistics, that the country could export
the following articles if it only had the means of transporting them:
Gold, silver, tin, copper, lead, quicksilver, chinchona bark, rubber,
coffee, cacao, sugar, vanilla, balsams, copal, wax, dyes, sarsaparilla,
tobacco, farina, cotton, llama and alpaca wool, cattle, hides, horns,
tallow, dried meat, tiger and deer skins, furs, feathers, hammocks, and
hats.
Glancing at the history of the country, Frank found that Bolivia was
formerly a province of Peru, under the Spanish domination. It joined in
the revolution in the early part of the present century, and, in common
with the other dependencies of Spain on the west coast of South America,
achieved its independence. In 1825 it was made a separate republic, and
named Bolivia, in honor of General Bolivar, the leader of the
revolution. It has had the usual checkered career of South American
republics, with perhaps fewer insurrections than some of its fraternity.
It formerly had a strip of sea-coast, but at present it has none; its
coast possessions were annexed to Chili as one of the results of the
late war, and for the future its must seek its commercial outlet through
another country or by way of the Amazon River.
The steamer carried our friends across the lake in a northeasterly
direction and entered the Bay of Huancané. They were landed at the
little village of Vilquechico, whence there is a route through the
eastern Andes to the head-waters of the Amazon. The _alcalde_ of the
village welcomed them to his dominions, and in true Spanish politeness
announced that the village and all it contained were theirs. They didn't
want the village, nor anything in it, except the means of getting out of
it.
The Doctor explained that their desires could be gratified with mules
and llamas for continuing their journey; for these they would pay
promptly, and would likewise pay for everything they chose to buy. As
for the village, they would be content to let it remain in its
delightful position on the shore of Lake Titicaca.
It was easier to say "mules and llamas" than to obtain them. The alcalde
issued orders for the people to bring all their spare animals; four
saddle mules were needed for the journey, one for each of the party to
ride, and a dozen mules or their equivalents in llamas were wanted for
carrying the baggage and provisions. The offers of beasts of burden
came in slowly, and it was necessary to send to Huancané, a town twelve
miles away, to find a sufficient number. Most of the provisions for the
party had been brought from Puno, as already stated, but there were
still a few purchases to be made; it was decided to take matters
leisurely, and accordingly the departure was fixed for the morning of
the third day after their arrival.
Manuel was kept busy acting as an aid to the alcalde in collecting the
animals; in the intervals of looking after them he bought whatever
provisions were needed, and made bargains with the men who were to
accompany the train. The supplies were almost identical with those for
the journey from Quito to Napo, and therefore will not need repetition
here.
[Illustration: LIMITED ACCOMMODATIONS.]
Lodgings at Vilquechico were not equal to the Palace Hotel at San
Francisco, or, in fact, to any other hotel of civilized cities. Dr.
Bronson and Frank were assigned to a hut about six feet wide by eight or
nine in length, while Fred was quartered in another hut along with the
most of the baggage, on which Manuel slept by way of security. The beds
were spread on what was literally the ground-floor, and there was just
room enough for the two beds, and a few of the equipments of the
travellers. At the end of the single apartment there was a mud altar
with a crucifix, before which a candle was burning; the door was wanting
altogether, and the doorway was closed by hanging a blanket across it.
The night was cold, but, shielded by their coverings, the trio slept
well; they were out early, as there was nothing in the luxury of their
quarters to lead to late sleeping. They endeavored to find more
commodious lodgings for the other nights of their stay, but were unable
to do so, and quickly determined to be content with what they had, which
was certainly philosophical.
"We are better lodged now than we shall be for most of the nights of our
journey to the Amazon," explained the Doctor; "and too much luxury would
be bad for us."
Frank and Fred agreed with this intelligent suggestion, when they found
it was impossible to improve upon the situation. Fred said they should
remember how the fox consoled himself for his failure to obtain the
fruits of the vine, by reflections upon their acidity.
[Illustration: AYMARA SKULL.]
It was nearly noon on the day fixed for the departure that the baggage
train moved out of the village and took the road to Huancané, where the
first night was to be passed. Dr. Bronson and Frank had started early in
the morning, leaving Fred and Manuel to look after the baggage animals,
and bring them forward. There were one or two purchases which could not
be made at Vilquechico on account of the limited stock of supplies;
Huancané could supply the deficiency, as it is a larger place and has
more extensive stores. It is occupied almost exclusively by Aymara and
Quichua families, who live as distinctly, but on the same terms of
amity, as their kindred in Puno.
[Illustration: TURF HOUSE NEAR LAKE TITICACA.]
The road winds along the shore of the lake for a large part of the way.
The ground is destitute of trees, and the only vegetation is the grass,
which furnishes nourishment to the sheep and other animals, and the
_tola_ or _tortora_ that fill the shallow waters, and often extend long
distances from the shores. The houses of the shepherds are made of turf,
which is thin, but tough, and serves admirably for building purposes.
Not only the houses are made of it, but the corrals for sheep, and any
other needed edifices. At a little distance these houses resemble
haystacks, as they are nearly always conical in shape; there is a hole
near the apex of the cone, where the smoke finds its way outward after
leisurely traversing the whole interior of the building.
Fred entered one of these huts, but he did not stay long. The interior
was extremely dirty; Manuel said, that when it became so bad that the
owners could not longer endure it they deserted the hut and built
another. "But they don't move often," he added, "and the huts must be
very bad indeed before their owners will take the trouble to put up new
ones."
[Illustration: CHULPAS, OR BURIAL-TOWERS.]
There are some ruins in the neighborhood of Huancané, but it was not
considered worth while to visit them. They consist mostly of _chulpas_,
or burial-towers, which are nothing more than towers, either round or
square, with interior spaces for the reception of the remains of the
dead. A description of one will suffice for all.
It is seventeen feet square, and twenty-four feet high, and rises from a
platform of cut stones twenty-two feet on each side, and raised a foot
above the ground. Three feet below the top there is a cornice two feet
deep, which projects about twelve inches on every side, and is the only
external ornament. There is a door or opening eighteen inches square on
the eastern face, and level with the platform on which the chulpa
stands. Inside there is a vault or chamber eleven feet square and
thirteen feet high; its sides rise vertically for about eight feet, and
then come together to form a pointed arch. On each of the sides of the
interior there is a niche three feet high and eighteen inches wide, and
the entrance is directly under one of these niches.
The round chulpas have a close resemblance to the turf huts of the
shepherds; some of the huts have cornices, in imitation of the
architecture of the chulpas, and it is possible that the form of the
dwelling was taken from that of the burial-towers.
On the road to Huancané Dr. Bronson and Frank turned aside to look at a
sepulchre built of flat stones piled irregularly together. It is thought
to be the earliest form of the chulpa, before the Inca architects had
learned to shape their structures like the one just described. The
stones were flat, some of them being five or six feet long, and
correspondingly broad, with a thickness of twelve or fifteen inches.
Frank made a sketch of the monument, and introduced the figure of a man
standing beside it, so that its proportions could be readily seen.
[Illustration: ANCIENT SEPULCHRE.]