COMPARISON OF THE TWO GREAT INSTITUTIONS
The Ottoman Ruling Institution, and the Moslem Institution of the Ottoman
Empire might be compared, contrasted, and reflected upon at great length.
In this discussion, however, it must suffice to select and comment upon a
few of their salient likenesses, differences, and interactions, without
attempting to separate such features sharply.
LIKENESSES
Both institutions were constructed out of old and well-seasoned
materials. Many of the ideas in each can be followed back until their
origin is lost in prehistoric obscurity; hardly a feature in either but
had a clear derivation from, relationship to, or suggestion in, some
prototype of pre-Ottoman days. Only the final structure of each, the
proportion and composition of its parts, and the effect of the completed
whole was worked out in the Ottoman Empire. If an attempt be made, in a
very general way, to distinguish the main lines of influence which led
up to the two institutions, it may be said that the Ruling Institution
had its nucleus of ideas from the Turks of the steppe lands. Influenced
by old Persian neighbors and Chinese rulers, the original group of ideas
was brought into the Moslem Empire and Asia Minor by the predecessors of
the Seljuk Turks and by the Seljuk Turks themselves. Coming into contact
in Asia Minor with the ideas of the Byzantine Empire, and to some extent
with those of the crusaders from the West, the system took on a large
number of new features; and the Ottomans continued the process in Asia
Minor and Southeastern Europe until the time of Suleiman. The Moslem
Institution began with the ideas of the Arabs as combined by Mohammed
with Jewish, Middle Persian, and Christian influences. Political notions
were rapidly incorporated from those prevailing in Byzantine Syria and
Egypt, and perhaps to a greater extent from those in the Sassanian
Persian Empire. A compact system of ideas began early to be developed,
and in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it reached final scholastic
shape. Together with its institutional embodiments, it began to pass to
the Ottomans in their earliest days; and, as the nation grew, it grew
into the Moslem Institution of the Ottoman Empire, fresh power being
given to it by Selim’s conquest of the old Moslem lands, and especially
by his acquisition of the over-lordship of the Holy Cities. The two lines
of tendency which led to the two great Ottoman institutions were first
brought into contact when, in the seventh century, the Arab conquest of
Persia advanced the Moslem frontier into Central Asia. From that time
to the reign of Suleiman reciprocal influence was exerted, although the
Moslem ideas affected the Turkish much more than the Turkish did the
Moslem.
Both of the great Ottoman institutions were founded upon groups of
ideas and not upon racial descent. This subject, discussed above in the
Introduction, has been shown to be true to an extreme in the Ruling
Institution, which drew its members from every direction except from the
existing stock of the nation. The Moslem Institution embodied a religion
of universal claim. Though originally given to the Arabs, the Moslem
faith was intrinsically independent of race, as its subsequent history
revealed. Belief, and not blood, became the sole test of membership. This
common hospitality of its two great institutions to all who might wish
to join them laid firmly the foundation of the Ottoman nation, and made
possible the greatness and the permanence of its dominion.
Both Ottoman institutions were self-perpetuating through education.
Each had a great educational system which was adapted to its special
character, and which was life-long in extent. The Ruling Institution
trained its pupils physically as well as mentally, whereas the Moslem
Institution neglected physical education in favor of a greater amount of
intellectual training. Otherwise their work was largely parallel. One
institution took its pupils from the children of Christian subjects and
neighbors, and trained them to conquer and to rule. The other took its
pupils from the children of Moslems and trained them to know, practise,
teach, and enforce the Moslem rules of law and life. The one system
raised the ablest Christian-born individuals to the highest positions,
and the other raised the ablest Moslem-born individuals similarly. Both
continually brought in new material at the bottom, and continually worked
upon all their material to increase its value. Each offered such rewards
and promotions as to induce its members to put forth their most strenuous
exertions, that they might develop their own powers and visibly help
their institution. Whatever faults of plan and structure the institutions
may have had, they were able to survive all dangers and disasters largely
through the trained ability of the individuals whom their educational
systems had brought to the front.
Both institutions rose to an apex, through the Divan and the grand
vizier, in the sultan, who was the head and center of each. Yet the ideas
by which the two institutions were joined to their head were in striking
contrast. The sultan was master and owner of the Ruling Institution; he
was the divinely-appointed chief of the Moslem Institution. The members
of the former obeyed him as slaves; the members of the latter obeyed
him as free Moslems commanded by the Sacred Law to render allegiance
to the chief interpreter and defender of that law. The former knew no
power greater than the sultan’s; the latter relied upon the Sacred Law
as above the sultan. The Ruling Institution was extended downward in
each of its parts from the sultan’s authority, and in organization and
membership depended for existence upon his will. The Moslem Institution
rose upward from the people, and was attached almost artificially to the
sultan’s authority. Suleiman regulated the grades of higher advancement
in it, but the sultans who came after him touched the organization of the
institution scarcely at all. Very seldom, moreover, by comparison, did
the sultans punish the members of this institution; for the most part its
work went on quite independently of them. But the sultan was the head of
both institutions: every member of each looked upward along converging
lines which met at the foot of his throne. The highest promotions in
each were made by him directly, the honored men being put into positions
near their sovereign.
DIFFERENCES
The fact that the Ruling Institution was recruited from Christian
slaves and the Moslem Institution from Moslem freemen led to a
profound difference of spirit. The Christian slaves, newly converted
to Mohammedanism, were not as a body so closely attached to the Sacred
Law as were the Moslem freemen. Their loyalty being rather to one man,
their master and benefactor, they felt a servile devotion which was very
different from the reasoned allegiance of those who had always been free.
A _Mufti_, fortified by the Sacred Law, would firmly oppose the will of
the sovereign in a case where a grand vizier would scarcely dare venture
a mildly contrary suggestion. The Sacred Law, despite the introduction of
all later influences, still breathed forth something of the freedom of
the Arabian desert: in one or two generations, as has been seen, it could
render its followers unfit to be slaves. Thus the spirit of the Ruling
Institution was far less independent of personal authority than that of
the Moslem Institution.
As to the authority of old ideas the contrary was true. The fundamental
distinction of parties in modern states seems to rest upon a greater
or less relative inclination to follow old paths or to enter upon new
ones. Both institutions of the Ottoman state would in modern times be
classed as strongly conservative, but of the two the Moslem Institution
was by far the more so. Conservatism, in fact, was of the very essence
of the Sacred Law. The early Turks had also loved their _Adet_, but not
so much as to be unwilling quickly to adopt the new if they saw in it
distinct advantage; the rise of the Ottoman power was, indeed, marked
by the constant incorporation of new ideas, devices, and methods.[708]
As the Moslem influence grew, however, changes became increasingly more
difficult to make; and when they were made it was by the activity of the
Ruling Institution, usually against the resistance or the inert passivity
of the Moslem Institution.
The fact that the Ruling Institution fought and governed while the Moslem
Institution thought and judged was, of course, highly significant: the
former embodied the active, the latter the contemplative, principle of
the nation. Here again is involved a difference of Turk and Saracen.
In the steppe lands the Turk fought, obeyed, and gave orders; after
the fever of conquest was abated, the Saracen, under Islam, thought,
preserved intellectual independence, and worshipped. With the two
characters placed side by side, it was in the nature of things that in
the long run muscle would be controlled by mind.
By comparison with the Moslem Institution, the Ruling Institution
possessed a great structural disadvantage, in that it was much more
artificial and therefore much less stable. It admitted its members as
slaves, but they were not hereditary slaves; most of them were free-born
subjects of the empire or of the neighboring Christian states. A class of
hereditary slaves would not have possessed the requisite mettle. Now, the
acquisition of a large number of free-born children who can be made into
slaves is hardly a process that can be continued indefinitely. Conquest
had its limits for the Ottoman Empire, for boundaries were reached beyond
which lay states whose powers of self-defense developed increasingly;
accordingly, recruiting by capture became increasingly difficult. But the
levying of children as tribute was strongly against human nature; and
in the long run it, too, must lead to decline, for under its operation
the best were taken and inferiors were left. Furthermore, not only
were children separated from their parents against the wishes of the
parents, but the recruits, when they grew up, were not encouraged to form
family ties. Even when they did so, they were unable to advance their
children as they had been advanced themselves, and they could not be
sure of conveying their property to their descendants. Thus in several
respects the Ruling Institution ran counter to the idea of the family.
On the other hand, the advantages given to the sultan’s _kullar_ became
too great not to be coveted; and it was not natural that the free-born
Moslems should continue to let outsiders be the only recipients of
so much wealth, power, and privilege. The Moslem population forced
its way in, and the plan of the Ruling Institution was upset. The
Moslem Institution, on the contrary, was recruited voluntarily from an
increasing population; hence, as its advantages became attractive, it was
benefited rather than harmed by pressure for admission. Its able men,
while they must labor if they would advance, were free, unhindered in
their family relationships, and under little fear of being deprived of
property or life.
INTERACTIONS
The two institutions, running everywhere parallel, with their members
in constant association one with the other, could not fail to act
reciprocally upon each other. It is not easy, however, to discriminate
likenesses that were due to mutual influence from those that were caused
by common circumstances; nor is it easy to distinguish pre-Ottoman
interactions from those which operated after the beginning of the
fourteenth century. A few probabilities may be expressed, however.
It is a matter of frequent remark that men, institutions, and peoples
are apt to impart to each other their faults and vices more readily
than their good qualities. Whether or not this be true, the two Ottoman
institutions certainly seem to have taught each other some evil
qualities. Luxury, venality, and unnatural vices were all strongly
discountenanced by the Sacred Law; but all were fostered in the members
of the Ruling Institution by the very conditions of the system, and by
the sixteenth century all had come to be charged against the members of
the Moslem Institution as well. On the other hand, the conservatism of
the Moslem Institution and its resistance to progress came more and more
to characterize the Ruling Institution. Members of the _Ulema_ taught
even the pages of the palace and the princes on the intellectual side
of their training, thereby exerting a constant influence which in the
course of time operated powerfully on the Ruling Institution from top to
bottom, till it, too, began to acquire a changelessness which resisted
improvement and progress. With such a character once established, the end
of the empire’s greatness was at hand. In a rapidly progressing world, a
stationary position means a relative decline.
The two institutions contributed strongly to each other’s power and
permanence. The Ruling Institution defended the Moslem Institution by
the sword, and carried out among the people the decisions of its wise
men. It also protected the latter’s sources of regular revenue, and thus
enabled the _Ulema_, secure of a living, to devote themselves to the
study and teaching of the Sacred Law. The Moslem Institution, on the
other hand, kept the Moslem population obedient and submissive to the
sultan’s authority as expressed in the Ruling Institution. It taught that
the Sultan was divinely appointed and therefore always to be obeyed, no
matter what his character was or how oppressive his rule might become,
so long as he did not transgress the Sacred Law; and that it was for
the _Ulema_ alone to decide when he had made such a transgression.
Accordingly the two institutions, so long as they acted in harmony, were
absolutely impregnable in their position among the Moslems of the empire.
THE RELATIVE POWER OF THE INSTITUTIONS
These two institutions constituted, as it were, the two great
parties in the Ottoman state.[709] The Moslem Institution was always
strongly Islamic, and extremely conservative in all respects. The
Ruling Institution was originally liberal both religiously and in its
receptivity of new ideas, but it departed from its liberal tendency in
much the same proportion that the Moslem Institution increased in power.
To trace the ups and downs of the influence of the two institutions from
the beginnings of Ottoman history would be an interesting problem. Much
depended of course, as must always be the case in a despotic state,
on the character of the sultan. With an active conquering sultan like
Mohammed II or Selim I, the Ruling Institution would gain upon its rival;
with a pious or mild sultan like Murad II or Bayezid II, the Moslem
Influence would increase in importance. Selim I’s vast conquests in
Moslem territories, and his acquisition of the protectorate of the Holy
Cities and of the title of caliph, prepared the way for a later advance
in the power of the Moslem Institution which was not in harmony with
his own personal influence. Suleiman had a fiery active period of youth
when the liberal policy was stronger in his mind, and a quieter old age
when the Moslem influence became predominant; it is not unlikely that
a consciousness of his position as caliph grew upon him with advancing
years. But in general, through all the reigns, the power of the Moslem
Institution grew; the only difference from reign to reign was in the rate
of speed. The Ruling Institution also grew in power before the world and
the Ottoman nation as long as the empire continued to expand rapidly; but
it did not grow relatively so fast as did the Moslem Institution.
The reasons for the more rapid growth of Moslem influence lay chiefly in
the fact that that influence was cumulative. As to its financial basis,
the Moslem Institution, like the Christian church in the West, gained
lands and wealth continually, and never lost any; for sultans took great
pride, and high officials vied with each other, in founding mosques,
schools, colleges, and other charitable and semi-public institutions
supported by _vakfs_.[710] In general moral and political influence,
also, the institution gained rapidly through its system of education;
for, like the medieval Christian church again, it held in its hands all
the means and methods of intellectual development. Every new primary
school, college, and law school,—and they were many in the days of
glory,—strengthened the influence of this institution. In this field,
indeed, its power acted constantly upon its rival. Old _Hojas_ taught
the pages in the palace, advised the sultan’s mother, and trained the
young princes and the sons of high officials. Thus within the nation the
external show of the Moslem Institution, and its sway over the minds of
men, grew without ceasing.
The Ruling Institution, on the other hand, lost relatively. In the early
days, when recent converts were exceedingly numerous and the religious
spirit of the young nation was weak, the Turkish-Aryan organization
was far stronger than the Semitic influence. Sultans, however, were
constantly giving away state lands as endowment for new mosques and
colleges; and, worse still, so much of the educational system of this
institution as was not controlled by its rival was directed only toward
its own membership and not toward the nation at large. Accordingly,
although the Ruling Institution grew in wealth and power, it did not keep
pace with the Moslem Institution, which, after two and a half centuries
of gain, was able to overtake it about the time of Suleiman’s reign. His
gifts of great mosques, numerous colleges, and vast endowment,[711] his
arrangement in final perfection of the _cursus honorum_ which led up from
the primary schools to the office of _Mufti_, and the personal leaning of
his later years toward the influence of the _Ulema_, settled permanently
the preponderance of the Moslem Institution.
At the same time, the Moslem Institution could never destroy its rival.
Theoretically it had no need of such a counterpart. Mohammed and the
early caliphs had no such institution. The Sacred Law developed with no
mention of a secular government, and with no hint of any deficiency in
its own provisions that would make it inadequate to guide a nation by its
own strength; but, within thirty years from the death of Mohammed, Muavia
had set up a secular government at Damascus, and since then every Moslem
state had had one. Many a Moslem state, also, had had a ruler who was not
of lawful blood; for the Sacred Law affirmed that the _Imâm_, or divinely
appointed ruler, must be of the tribe of the Koreish.[712] According to
that unenforced provision, Suleiman himself had no right to the throne.
The fact is that the Moslem Institution very early became too unworldly
to live unsupported by a secular power. It was a strong but tender
hand, which must always wear a glove. After it had acquired a permanent
ascendency in the state, therefore, the Moslem Institution was compelled
to keep its rival in place, and to allow it always strength enough to
defend and support the empire which nourished both.
Bound together closely in an alliance which neither enjoyed, but which
was necessary for the preservation of both, the Ruling Institution and
the Moslem Institution constituted the twofold inner framework of the
Ottoman Empire, to which it owed all its might and energy, its grandeur
and repute, its continuity and durability.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
THE SECOND BOOK OF THE AFFAIRS OF THE TURKS
Written in 1534, supposedly by Benedetto Ramberti
Translated from the Italian
[From _Libri Tre delle Cose de Turchi_, as printed in _Viaggi ... alla
tana_, Venice, 1543, pp. 131-146.]
As from a laborious and very dangerous sea into a safe and very quiet
port, one enters the city of Constantinople, after the great trouble and
inconvenience of the ride which he has endured over the long road.[713]
This city (to continue until I have here made an end of particular
description) was anciently called Byzantium, and afterwards was called
New Rome, and then Constantinople from the first Constantine. Byzantium,
as it is reported, was in the region where Pera is now, and was so named
from the river Byzantium, which afterward, by reason of an earthquake
such as are frequent in that region, changed its course elsewhere. But I
do not believe this, nor does it seem to me to agree with the description
of Polybius and other writers, who call those here Chalcedonians;
these, when they might themselves in ancient times have built upon this
site, did not care for it, but built in Asia, not having discerned the
convenience and beauty they were leaving to others; who might deprive
them even of their own site, as indeed happened.
The city is 18 miles in circuit. It has seven little hills, not very
high. It is surrounded by wretched walls, and is full of houses, not many
of which are good, being made of clay and wood and only a few of stone.
It is full of groves, that is, of places wild and uninhabited, where
cypresses grow, and other such trees.[714] In Constantinople, then, is
the palace of the Turkish Signor, which is a singular structure and very
large, as will be told later.
There is the palace of the ladies of the Signor, the palace of the
Janissaries, the Patriarcate, the palace of the Emperor Constantine,
which is in part ruined, the church of St. Sophia, which is a structure
most beautiful and divine; this was built by the Emperor Justinian from
the oldest and finest columns and marbles, as one can see now; in part
of it the Turkish Signor has made stalls for his horses. There is the
mosque of Sultan Mohammed, which has an _Imaret_ attached to it that is
like a hostel; in which they lodge any one, of any nation or law, who may
wish to enter, and they give him food for three days,—honey, rice, meat,
bread, and water, and a room in which to sleep. They say that from day
to day there are more than a thousand guests from various nations. Near
this they have baths and some fountains, most beautiful and delightful to
behold. There are the mosques of Sultan Bayezid, Sultan Selim, and other
Signors, which are very beautiful and exceedingly well-built. This makes
it clear that, when they wish, they know also how to build houses and
palaces that are magnificent and sumptuous.
There is the Hippodrome, that is, the place where in ancient times horses
were made to run as in a theater and circus: in the center of this
Hippodrome there stands a needle, which is a column made in the form of
a needle, very beautiful and wrought very well and without mortar, made
of living rocks joined together in such a manner that they rise through
more than fifty cubits, tapering in the shape of a needle, which rests
on four marble balls.[715] There is a column of bronze in the shape of a
serpent with three heads.[716] There is a bronze Hercules brought from
Hungary,[717] and in the center there is a colossal structure made of
different beautiful marbles, in which is engraved the history of all
the above-mentioned objects, and of other things which used to stand in
the Theater and Hippodrome. There are throughout the city many vestiges
of antiquities, such as aqueducts, arches, porphyry columns, fountains
brought from the Danube and other near-by rivers.[718] Many gardens about
the houses of the great. Many mosques of private lords, and baths which
are attached to the mosques of private men and of public magistrates.
On the other side of the sea from the Seraglio Point are the hills of
Asia, and the journey is of a little more or less than two miles; this
Asia is today called by a single name Anatolia; and there are on the
shore there some fortresses called Scutari. Then Kadikeui, situated
on a bay of the Hellespont,[719] where one can see many vestiges of
antiquities; and I, when I went there, saw underground where men were
working, a well of the finest marble with an aqueduct which came to
the center of the well, and a canopy of fine marble supported by four
beautiful columns. And in other places there appear many vestiges of
old churches, both of Christians and of heathen, places indeed most
beautiful, most pleasant, most fruitful. The situation of Constantinople
is such that not only can it not be described adequately, but it can
hardly be grasped in thought because of its loveliness. Certainly it is
rather to be considered divine than otherwise. Nor is there any one who
has seen it who has not judged it worthy to be ranked above all other
situations in the world.
There are in the city besides the Turks, countless Jews, or Marrani
expelled from Spain;[720] these are they who have taught and who are
teaching every useful art to the Turks;[721] and the greater part of the
shops and arts are kept and exercised by these Marrani. There is a place
which is called _Bezestan_, where they sell and buy all sorts of cloth
and Turkish wares, silks, stuffs, linens, silver, wrought gold, bows,
slaves, and horses; and in short all the things that are to be found in
Constantinople are brought there to market: this, except for Friday, is
open every day.
Constantinople is in Thrace: this has as its boundaries on the east the
Propontis and the mouths of the greater sea, on the west part of Bulgaria
and part of Macedonia, on the north Bosnia, on the south the Aegean Sea
with part of Macedonia which lies toward the river Nishava, called in
ancient times the Nesus.[722]
This most noble city is inhabited by Turks: these as the more reliable
authors have written, and as many of the Turks themselves have confirmed
to me, had their origin in Scythia, which now is a part of Tartary, a
northern region divided into two parts by the river Don: one of these
parts is in Europe, and one in Asia.[723] The European part is bounded
on one side by Pontus, and on the other by the Riphean Mountains, and
at the back by Asia proper and the river Taspus. In Ptolemy these two
Scythias are called the one _intra Imaum montem_, and the other _extra
Imaum_. They departed then from Scythia (as is said above) and began to
make invasions and raids into their present confines: then proceeding
farther, in a short time they became lords of a good part of Asia, but
because they did not know how to keep only one chief among them, they
had no foundation or firmness. This circumstance having been considered
by one who was called Othman, a man of low rank among them, but of lofty
and valorous mind, he thought that, by having the arm and the favor of
some men of intelligence and authority, he could easily rule all this
people and the conquered territory, and increase it further upon good
opportunity: then having revealed this his thought to three persons, who
seemed more suitable than others for this business, he promised that
those by means of whom he might acquire the dominion to which he aspired,
he would always maintain, both themselves and their descendants, in
great state and dignity, and suitably to the great benefit which he had
received from them: besides this that he would never harm their blood nor
that of their posterity through laws that would lay hands upon them even
if they should transgress grievously.[724] They accepted the condition
and conspired together for the sovereignty; which they obtained by
astuteness, artfulness, threats, and the slaughter of many. These three
were called, the one Michael, a Greek who had turned Turk; from him the
Marcalogli[725] are descended; one of them is now Sanjak in Bosnia. The
second was Malco, a Greek renegade; from him have come the Malcozogli,
and there is now only one, who is Sanjak in Greece. The third was Aurami,
a native Turk; his descendants were called the Eurcasli; it is not now
known that any of these remain. In case the Ottoman family should fail,
these would pretend to the sovereignty, and therefore they are highly
respected.
This Othman came to power about the year 1300, and lived in lordship
twenty-eight years:[726] Orchan succeeded him and lived twenty-two years
in the kingship. Then Murad who reigned twenty-three years. Then Bayezid.
Then Chiris Celeby, or, as others wish, Calepino, who lived about six
years. Then Mohammed, who reigned fourteen years.[727] Then Murad II who
reigned 31 years. Then Mohammed II who reigned 32 years and was the first
Emperor of Constantinople. Then Bayezid II who reigned 31 years. Then
Selim eight years: to him succeeded Sultan Suleiman, his only son, who
reigns at present. Of this succession it is written otherwise in some
histories, where they treat of wars and peaces, which have been made by
our republic in times past with this family: but since I have recounted
these in other places, it now suffices to have noticed the common opinion
of those who have written of the affairs of the Turks up to this time.
And so I will go on to describe the court of this Signor: it is arranged
in the following manner.[728]
SULTAN SULEIMAN has a palace in the angle of Constantinople by the two
seas:[729] this is in circuit about three miles: and in it are his
residence and his court, which is called the PORTE. This palace, because
it was begun to be built by Sultan Mohammed, he willed when dying that
it should be rent-paying property of his mosque, and that it should pay
a thousand aspers a day, which are twenty ducats; and this has been
observed to the present.[730]
He has in the aforesaid palace countless highly ornamented chambers,
but one among the others is set apart for himself: in this he sleeps,
and he has there six youths who serve his person.[731] Of these six,
two are deputed for the service of the chamber and the Signor during
the day, and then in the night the same ones come to keep guard when he
sleeps: these stand ever vigilant, the one at his head and the other at
his feet, with two lighted torches in their hands: these two then in
the morning when they clothe the aforesaid Signor, put into one of the
pocket-purses of his caftan a thousand aspers, and into the other twenty
golden ducats; whatever of this money is not given away by the Signor
during the day, remains to those who undress him at night; they never
find much in the garments, according to report. And always when he goes
forth to enjoy the chase or for some other purpose, besides the aforesaid
money which he carries, he is accustomed always to have behind him the
_Khazinehdar-bashi_, or chief treasurer; this man carries with him a
great sum of money to be given away.
The duty of the aforesaid six youths, who are changed according to the
will of the Signor, is: of one to be _Papuji_,[732] or him who bears the
shoes, of another _Silihdar_, who bears the bow and arrows, of another
_Chokadar_, who bears the garments, of another _Sharabdar_, who bears the
pitcher of water, of another _Iskemleji_, who carries the stool, and then
of the sixth to be _Oda-bashi_, or chief of the Chamber. These have a
fixed salary of 15 to 20, and the _Oda-bashi_ of 30 aspers per day.
Next comes
The eunuch _Kapu Aghasi_,[734] or chief of the gate, who has 60
aspers per day.
The _Khazinehdar-bashi_, a eunuch, chief treasurer, 60
aspers.[733]
The _Kilerji-bashi_, chief of the butlers, 40 aspers.
The _Seraidar-bashi_,[734] a eunuch, chief of the palace when
the Signor is away; he has 50 aspers. Twelve eunuchs subject to
the aforesaid, with 10 to 15 aspers each.
There are next about five hundred youths aged from eight to twenty years,
who reside in the palace and are the delight of the Signor: they have
each from ten to twelve aspers per day; they are instructed in various
arts according to their genius, but especially in reading, writing,
and in the doctrine of their laws, and in riding. The masters are old
_Danishmends_,[735] called _Hojas_, or doctors of the laws. These boys
at the season of Bairam, which is like our Easter day, are clothed by
the Signor, some with silk and some with cloth, without any uniformity;
and each has a golden bonnet, a scimitar, and a bow: they never leave
the aforesaid palace until they have reached the age when the Signor
thinks them fit for offices: and then he makes them _Spahi-oghlans_, or
_Silihdars_, or of higher degrees according to their worth and the favor
which they have gained with the Signor. Each ten of them are guarded by
a eunuch called _Kapu-oghlan_, or chief of youths,[736] and each has a
slave’s frock, in which he sleeps rolled up in such a manner that he
does not touch another who may be near him. They reside in a large hall,
full of great lights and spacious, and their eunuchs sleep in the middle
of this hall. They have a garden in the palace, which extends more than
a mile, in which reside about thirty-five gardeners, called _Bostanjis_,
who are _Ajem-oghlans_:[737] these gardeners have from three to five
aspers each per day; they are clothed in blue cloth, and given a shirt.
Then when they leave the palace, they become Janissaries, or _Solaks_, or
_Kapujis_, or something else according to their quality.
The _Bostanji-bashi_, or chief gardener, has fifty aspers a day
and many perquisites.
The _Kiaya_,[738] who is, as it were, a lieutenant for the
gardeners, has 20 aspers per day; and each ten [gardeners] have
a chief called _Boluk-bashi_. From this garden, which is very
large and well-tended, full of excellent fruit-trees of every
sort, they obtain so much every year that from the product
of it alone they make the living expenses of the Signor, and
also get something more. Near the garden are always stationed
two small galleys; these are rowed by the gardeners when the
Signor goes on a pleasure-trip, and the _Boluk-bashi_ holds the
helm.[739]
The _Ashji-bashi_, chief cook, with fifty cooks under him. He
has 40 aspers per day, the cooks under him four, six, or eight
aspers each.
The _Helvaji-bashi_, or chief confectioner, with 40 aspers, and
he has thirty companions with five to six aspers per day each.
The _Chasnijir-bashi_,[740] chief of the cupboards, with eighty
aspers: morning and evening he brings with his own hand the
dish of the Signor, and he has under him a hundred _Chasnijirs_
with from three to seventy aspers each.[741]
The _Mutbakh-emini_,[742] or steward, with 40 aspers. He has a
secretary with 20 aspers a day.
A hundred _Ajem-oghlans_, who transport on carts the wood of
the palace. They have three to five aspers, and are provided
with clothing.
Ten _Sakkas_, who carry water on horseback in leathern sacks,
with three to five aspers each.
The expenses for the table of the Signor, and of the youths
with their eunuchs and others to about a thousand, amount to
five thousand aspers a day.
Three _Kapuji-bashis_, or captains of the gate, who have a
hundred aspers a day and are clothed every year: and they have
under them two hundred and fifty _Kapujis_, who have five to
six aspers each; and each _Kapuji-bashi_ with a third of the
_Kapujis_ is obliged to keep guard at the gate of the Signor,
changing from day to day. And when any ambassador or other
person goes to kiss the hand of the Grand Signor, all these are
given presents of clothes or of money according to the degree
of him who is introduced.
A _Kapuji-kiaya_, who is, as it were, a lieutenant of the
_Kapujis_, has forty aspers a day.
Four Vizier Pashas, or chief counsellors: the greatest has
ordinarily twenty-four thousand ducats a year and the others
sixteen to eighteen thousand; but they have also so much
feudal income that they receive three times as much as the
provision in money.[743] To this should be added the garments
which the Signor gives them, the presents of ambassadors and
of others, the perquisites of the office they hold, which
are unlimited. At present they are only three. The first
is Ibrahim, born a Christian at Parga. The second Aias of
Khimara. The third Kassim of Croatia, a kidnapped Christian.
To these there is added a fourth at present,[744] who is
Khaireddin Bey Barbarossa of the Albanian nation, formerly a
corsair and now king of Algiers in Barbary. These Pashas live
and dress very superbly. They have: Ibrahim six thousand and
more slaves, Aias two thousand, Kassim fifteen hundred, and
Barbarossa about four thousand. To all these slaves they give
pay, horses, garments, golden bonnets and silver chains,[745]
according to their offices and degrees. And these serve their
Pashas under the same arrangements by which the Signor is
served by his [slaves]. They have also twenty-five or thirty
chancery secretaries to the Signor, men of great repute, with
twenty-five to thirty aspers per day each: they keep more or
fewer slaves as they can. These Pashas have entry to the Signor
for affairs of state; and it is in fact they who govern the
whole after their own fashion.
There is next the _Mufti_, or the interpreter and chief of the
laws; they do not trouble him about anything except the affairs
of religion and their faith, and he has the position which our
Pope had in ancient times.[746]
Two _Kaziasker Danishmends_, or doctors of the laws for the
army, one for Greece, the other for Anatolia. Their position is
of great importance. They sit at the Porte and have precedence
of the Vizier Pashas: on this account they are much esteemed.
They are executors of the laws, and with the consent of the
Pashas they appoint and remove the _Kazis_, who are like
podestas for the whole country. They have feudal income of
about six thousand ducats a year each. They keep two hundred
to three hundred slaves each, and they are accompanied by ten
secretaries appointed by the Signor and two _Mochtur-bashis_,
who hold the office of ushers:[747] these live from
perquisites, of which they have a great many.
Two _Defterdars_, or treasurers, or rather, as we would say,
governors of the revenues. One of these has the receipt and the
care of those revenues which come from a third of Greece, or
from that part which is toward the Danube, and besides, from
Asia, from Syria, and from Egypt, with feudal income of ten
thousand ducats a year, although with the perquisites he gets
twice as much. The other has the care of the other two-thirds
of Greece: but when the Signor takes the field this man remains
in Constantinople as his vicar and lieutenant; and he has six
thousand ducats of feudal income, but gets three times as much;
and their position is of great dignity. They have under them
fifty clerks with many helpers: these keep the accounts of the
_Khazineh_, or treasury of the Signor; and these clerks are
appointed by the Signor with pay of fifteen to fifty aspers per
day each. The _Defterdars_ have, the first a thousand slaves
and the second five hundred, and the clerks from two to twenty
slaves each.[748]
Two _Rusnamehjis_, chief clerks, who receive the money and
disburse it as needed, with twenty-five companions besides
themselves.
The two have forty aspers each, and the twenty-five have eight
to ten aspers a day.
Two _Veznedars_, or weighers of aspers and ducats, with
twenty-five to thirty aspers each.
Six _Sarrafs_, or bankers, who know gold and silver [coins],
and they have ten to fifteen aspers each.
One _Nishanji-bashi_, who signs the ordinances and public
writings with the monogram of the Signor. His position is like
that of grand chancellor and is of great repute. He sits at the
Porte below the _Beylerbeys_. He has eight thousand ducats of
feudal income, and travels in great honor with more than three
hundred slaves.
An outside _Khazinehdar-bashi_, or household treasurer, with
ten _Khazinehdars_ under him. He has fifty aspers, and they ten
to fifteen per day.
A _Defter-emini_, who has charge of the feudal grants: he keeps
the register of those who receive feudal grants. He has forty
aspers a day, and under him are ten clerks with ten to fifteen
aspers per day each.
Eighty _Muteferrika_, or lancers of the body-guard[749] of the
Signor, these always carry lances when he takes the field; they
recognize no other head than the Signor himself. And when by
artifice or merit they acquire favor, they are made _Aghas_, or
generals. The least has ten, the greatest eighty, aspers per
day.
A _Chaush-bashi_, or chief sergeant of the army. He is of so
great credit with every one, that when he is sent by the Signor
to some Pasha, _Sanjak_, or _Kazi_, with the order to have
the head of such and such a one cut off, he is obeyed without
their requiring a letter from him, or a command in writing;
not otherwise than if the Signor himself were there, and gave
command. He has a hundred aspers a day, and under him he keeps
a hundred slaves,[750] with twenty-five to forty aspers each.
The _Mihter-bashi_, or chief of those who pitch the tents and
spread the rugs, who sweep the court-yards and attend to other
similar duties; he has forty aspers, a _Kiaya_ with twenty-five
aspers, sixty _Mihters_ with five to eight aspers each; and
they are clothed every year by the Signor.
An _Agha_, or general of the Janissaries. He has for pay a
thousand aspers and over per day, and six thousand ducats of
feudal grant per year. When this _Agha_ holds court, which
is two or three times per week, he is obliged to give the
Janissaries to eat, a meal of bread, rice, mutton, honey,
and water. He has under him a _Kiaya_ or Secretary of the
Janissaries, who is, as it were, a vicegerent; he has two
hundred aspers per day of pay in cash, and thirty thousand
of feudal grant per year.[751] And there is a clerk of these
Janissaries, called the _Yaziji_ of the Janissaries,[752] with
a hundred aspers a day.
A _Seymen-bashi_, chief of the harriers.[753] He has a hundred
aspers and has from the number of the Janissaries about two
thousand under him.
A _Zagarji-bashi_, head of the hounds.[754] He has fifty aspers
a day, and has under him about seven hundred of the Janissaries.
The Janissaries number about twelve thousand: they have each
from three to eight aspers of pay per day. Each ten has its
_Oda-bashi_, and each hundred has its _Boluk-bashi_. And
these heads of ten or of a hundred go on horseback. And the
_Oda-bashis_ have forty, and the _Boluk-bashis_ sixty aspers
a day. The remainder of the Janissaries go on foot. They are
clothed once a year by the Signor with coarse blue cloth.
They have their residence in two barracks in Constantinople
given by the Signor. Those who have no wives reside in these.
Those who are married reside at various places in the city.
For their living expenses each contributes so much a day, and
they have a steward and a cook, who provide their necessary
living: and those who have less pay than the others are obliged
to serve those who have more pay than they. Every hundred of
them when they take the field transport a tent. They go on
foot, and part of them are musketeers, and part halbardiers,
and part use the scimetar alone. Every three lead a horse
which carries their clothing. And when they come to old age,
or when for some other reason the service of one of them does
not please the Signor, they are stricken from the book of the
Janissaries, and are sent as _Hissarlis_[755] or castle guards;
and those of their officers who are deposed for such a reason,
are sent as castellans with a feudal grant equivalent to the
pay which they had previously, in such a way that none of
them suffers hardship. Such of them as succeed in war are made
_Voivodes_,[756] and raised to high positions. They come as
boys to this soldiery and are taught by the experienced ones.
They choose healthy ones, well-built, but nimble and dextrous,
lively above all, and more often cruel than compassionate.
In them rests the force and all the firmness of the army of
the Turk; they, because they are always exercising and living
together, all become as it were a single body, and of a truth
they are terrible.[757]
From the Janissaries are chosen a hundred and fifty _Solaks_,
who are footmen of the Signor, with fifteen to twenty aspers a
day each: they march surrounding the person of the Signor every
time he goes forth.
Two _Solak-bashis_, chief officers of the _Solaks_, who go
on horseback, with thirty aspers per day. And these and the
_Solaks_ are in obedience to the _Agha_ of the Janissaries.
An _Agha_ of the _Spahi-oghlans_, an office of great honor.
He has from feudal grant and pay ten ducats a day, and he
has a large number of slaves, with a _Kiaya_ under him, or
lieutenant: this man has from feudal grant and pay a hundred
aspers a day. And also a _Yaziji_, or secretary, with thirty
aspers, and with large perquisites.
The _Spahi-oghlans_, or youths on horseback, who may be
called _Spahi-oghlan_, are more than three thousand; and they
have twenty to forty aspers each; and every twenty have a
_Boluk-bashi_. These serve on horseback, each with five or six
slaves and a like number of horses. And they always journey,
and also encamp, at the right hand of the Signor. They are
great people. From them the Signor is wont to choose his chief
men. They are first put as boys into the palace, and when they
grow up they succeed well if they attain this grade: it is like
a ladder to mount to higher positions.
An _Agha_ of the _Silihdars_, who has thirty thousand aspers
a day,[758] and under him a lieutenant, a secretary, a
_Kiaya_,[759] with thirty aspers and more each.
There are three thousand _Silihdars_. They moreover ride and
encamp at the left hand of the Signor. They have twenty to
twenty-five aspers per day each, and they have four or five
slaves and a like number of horses, with feudal income for
their living. They are trained by the same education with
which the _Spahis_ are brought up: nor is there any difference
between them, except that the _Spahis_ go on the right, and
these on the left, of the Signor.
Two _Ulufaji-bashis_, or chief officers of soldiers, with
two thousand _Ulufajis_, who go on the right hand and the
left of the Signor. The chief officers have a hundred and
twenty aspers, and the others eight to sixteen aspers; then
under them[760] they have a _Kiaya_, a secretary, and a
lieutenant,[761] with slaves and with horses, some more and
some fewer.
Two _Aghas_, chief officers of the _Ghureba-oghlans_, or poor
youths[762] with eighty aspers each. _Kiayas_, thirty aspers.
Secretaries, twenty-five. And they have under them about two
thousand _Ghureba-oghlans_ with seven to fourteen aspers per
day: these have slaves and horses.
Two _Emir-al-Akhors_,[763] or masters of the stable, a greater
and a lesser. The greater has five hundred aspers, the lesser
two hundred, with lieutenant and _Kiaya_[764] and others, who
have thirty to forty aspers each.
Sixteen thousand altogether of _Serraj_, who have charge
of bridles[765] and saddles; _Ceyssi_, or stable servants;
_Carmandari_, who take care of the mules; _Deveji_, who take
care of the camels, and _Cavriliji_, who herd the cattle and
horses in various places. These have two to twenty aspers per
day each.
Thirty to forty _Peiks_, or runners on foot, men who when boys
have had their spleens removed:[766] and they run post on foot
with great speed. These when the Signor goes forth remain
continually near, so that he may employ them according to his
needs.
Select horses about four thousand for the person of the Signor;
on these the pages of the palace and the eunuchs ride for
exercise in their turns.
A _Chakirji-bashi_, chief Vulturer, and a _Shahinji-bashi_,
chief Falconer. The first has a hundred and fifty aspers, and
the other has eighty; with _Kiayas_, lieutenants,[767] and
others, with ten to twenty-five aspers each per day. Under
these are about two hundred _Zanijiler_,[768] only a hundred of
whom have ten aspers a day, and the others have feudal income,
or exemption from taxation. And they take the field when the
Signor has need.
A _Jebeji-bashi_, chief armorer. He has sixty aspers, a _Kiaya_
and a secretary with twenty aspers each. He has under him about
one thousand five hundred _jebejis_, with seven to twelve
aspers. These all go on foot when the Signor takes the field.
A _Topji-bashi_, chief of artillery. He has seventy aspers, a
_Kiaya_ [and] secretary with twenty aspers: and under him are
two thousand _Topjis_ with six to ten aspers, and they go on
foot.
An _Arabaji-bashi_, chief wagoner. He has forty aspers, a
_Kiaya_ [and] secretary with twenty aspers: and under him three
thousand _Arabajis_ with three to six aspers each.
A _Mihter-bashi_, or chief of trumpeters and drummers. He has
thirty [aspers] per day, and under him two hundred _Mihters_,
part of them on foot and part on horseback with three to five
aspers per day.
An _Emir-Alem Agha_, who carries the standard of the Signor.
He has two hundred aspers a day, and is captain of all the
musicians.
An _Arpa-emini_, who is Provider of the grain, with a
Lieutenant and a Chancellor.[769] He has sixty aspers, the
Lieutenant thirty and the Chancellor twenty: this _Arpa-emini_
has under him twenty persons who receive among them all about
eight hundred aspers.
A _Shehr-emini_,[770] or Commissioner of public works, who
takes care of the streets of Constantinople, and also of the
road when the Signor goes forth to war: and he has charge also
of public buildings, fountains, and aqueducts. He has fifty
aspers, and keeps under him four hundred men: among all of
these is given a thousand aspers. He has also a _Kiaya_ and
secretary with about thirty-eight aspers each.[771]
A _Berat-emini_, who is deputed to distribute the ordinances
of the Signor in writing and who receives the fees; and he has
forty aspers, with two secretaries, and two superintendents
with twenty aspers each.
A _Terjuman_,[772] or interpreter of all the languages. This
position is highly reputed in proportion to the worth and
intelligence of him who holds it. He has five hundred ducats
of fixed income each year, and has also a like sum from feudal
grant, and more than four times as much of extraordinary
income; and he is wont to be highly respected.
Proceeding now further as I have begun, I shall leave it for
another time and eye to reduce this Porte to better order and
put everything in its proper place. I find that to all the
above-mentioned things should be added a PALACE of the ladies
of the Signor.[773] This is very large, with a circuit of about
a mile and a half; and it is provided with different chambers
and other rooms, where the sons of the Signor reside separately
with their mothers, and with a great number of eunuchs for
their guard and service. There also reside the Sultanas, that
is the mothers and the wives of the Signors; and there are
three hundred damsels, placed there virgins, and given to the
government of many matrons. To all of these damsels the Signor
has it taught to embroider different designs, to each he gives
pay of ten to twenty aspers per day; and twice every year at
the two Bairams he has them clothed in stuffs of silk. And
when one of these pleases him he does what he wishes with her,
and when he has lain with her he gives her a golden bonnet
and ten thousand aspers, and has her placed in a separate
apartment from the others, increasing her ordinary pay.[774]
In the aforesaid Palace there is an _Agha_ of the Eunuchs:
to these are given a hundred and twenty aspers for all.
Three _Kapuji-bashis_, and with them a hundred _Kapujis_ and
Janissaries at the gate: among all these is given six hundred
aspers a day. Ten _Sakkas_, who carry water, forty aspers in
all. And the damsels are served and educated up to the age of
twenty-five years. The teachers are the matrons, the servants
are the youngest among them; and when they have arrived at
twenty-five years, if it does not please the Signor to keep
them for his own use, he marries them to _Spahi-oghlans_,
and to others of the slaves of the Porte according to the
degree and condition of both parties; and in their place he
substitutes others.
There is also a palace near Pera for about four hundred boys,
who have pay of six to ten aspers, and are clothed with silk
twice a year. These have an _Agha_ and eunuchs, as have
those in the great palace, [and] _Kapujis_, _Ajem-oghlans_
and a hundred teachers of various arts. Among all these is
distributed eight hundred aspers a day. They are not so
noble, or of so beautiful appearance or show of intelligence
as are those who reside with the Signor; but from these also
many become great, and some of them are taken into the great
palace. And similarly in Adrianople there is a palace of
three hundred boys under pay, an _Agha_, eunuchs, _Kapujis_,
Janissaries, and teachers, about two hundred in all, who have
all together two thousand eight hundred aspers a day. These are
of third grade, but they are carefully taught and well kept
like all the others, and from them according to the spirit
and worth which they show promotions are made. There is also
in that region another palace, recently built, with a large
and beautiful garden: this is located on the river Maritza,
and in it reside about three hundred _Ajem-oghlans_; on these
[palaces] they spend every year two hundred thousand aspers
for each, and they have an _Agha_ with forty aspers and a
lieutenant and secretaries with thirty aspers each per day. In
various other places in Adrianople there are gardens: in these
reside continually as on deposit one thousand five hundred
_Ajem-oghlans_ with _Agha_ and secretaries, and on these they
spend six thousand aspers a year[775] or a little more.
There is also an _Agha_ of the _Ajem-oghlans_, or Janissary
recruits, who resides in Constantinople; he has sixty aspers
per day, and under him are about five thousand _Ajem-oghlans_:
these they clothe twice a year, and on their teachers and
chiefs they spend ten thousand aspers[776] a year. They put
them on ships and buildings to carry wood and perform other
tasks. They become cooks or servants of the Janissaries, and
finally they become Janissaries.
And every four years the Turkish Signor sends into Greece and
into Anatolia to seize boys, sons of Christians, ten or twelve
thousand each time: these he sends into Anatolia in the region
of Brusa or Caramania to dig the earth, so that they will
become accustomed to hard labor, and so that there they may
learn the Turkish language. These boys remain in such a place
and occupation three or four years: then they are ordered to be
gathered again, and are given to the government and discipline
of the _Agha_ of the _Ajem-oghlans_. For these the Signor does
not have any expenses so long as they reside in Anatolia,
because they are clothed and have their living from those whom
they serve by plowing the ground and doing other work for them.
It seemed best to me to make mention in this place of all the palaces,
because they are as it were of the same body as that of the Signor, and
all the expenses of these are computed in the book of the expense of
the great palace, or that of the Signor. To these expenses are added
those, which are incurred in clothing twice each year the Pashas, the
_Kaziaskers_, the _Defterdars_, the _Beylerbeys_, and the _Nishanji_, and
the expenses which are incurred for the extraordinary presents of the
Signor. These in all amount to and go beyond a million aspers a year.
There is also an Arsenal in the region of Pera, small and of
short circuit: this has on the sea-front ninety-two vaults, and
so little area and ground within that not merely no galleys
but not even materials and timbers can be contained there. In
it usually work each day about two hundred men; although there
are under pay two hundred patrons with two thousand aspers per
day for all.[777] A thousand _Azabs_, who have among them four
thousand aspers. Foremen, or masters fifty in number, who have
in leisure, that is, when not working, six aspers, and when
working, twelve aspers each. An Intendant, forty aspers. A
Secretary, twenty-five aspers, with ten clerks under him, who
have a hundred aspers. All these fulfil their duties when there
is great need; but they understand ill the trade and art of
building galleys. For this reason they do not turn out good and
ready ones like ours; and what few there are are overseen by
Christians, who are well paid.
Over this Arsenal and all these persons, there is one who
is called the _Beylerbey_ of the sea; that is to say, Lord
of lords, an office created at the time when I was in
Constantinople; since in the past he who was _Sanjak_ of
Gallipoli was wont to be called Captain of the Sea. And
Khaireddin Bey called Barbarossa was the first who had this
title; he was then made fourth Pasha. To him is given the
government of all the fleets, and he has for income every year
a feudal grant of fourteen thousand ducats, besides that from
Rhodes, Euboea, and Mytilene; so that he receives twice as much
more.
I find nothing else that pertains to arrangements for the rule and watch
of the sea which are worthy of note: wherefore I will now come to those
of the land; these are in truth well and usefully ordered.
There is first one called the _Beylerbey_ of Greece: in this
are included all the lands which the Turkish Signor possesses
in Europe: this _Beylerbey_ is greater than all the others.
He has from feudal grant sixteen thousand ducats a year, and
gets more than double this. He sits at the Porte after the
Pashas,[778] and is of great repute with everybody. He has
under him besides his slaves, who number more than a thousand,
a _Defterdar_ with feudal income of three thousand ducats a
year; a hundred clerks who keep the books and accounts of the
feudal grants assigned to _Subashis_, _Kazis_, _Spahis_, and
others; among all of whom are distributed ten thousand ducats a
year.
Thirty-six _Sanjaks_: these are in obedience to him, and have
for feudal income from five to twelve thousand ducats a year
each. They are distributed through the provinces: in these they
reside only so long as pleases the Signor: he changes them, as
seems best to him, from one province to another. Their duty is
to rule the _Spahis_, and to have them trained in arms, and to
keep them in obedience.
Four hundred _Subashis_, who have among them all from feudal
income four hundred thousand ducats, and have about five
hundred slaves each.[779]
Thirty thousand _Spahis_: these are horse soldiery set apart
some to the service of the _Beylerbey_, and some to that of
all the _Sanjaks_ of Greece. They have from feudal grant two
hundred ducats each, and each of them, for every hundred ducats
of feudal income, is obliged to maintain an armed man, with
horse and lance. And then they have besides the armed man two
or four or five servants and horses. These _Spahis_ are all
slaves of the Signor, and sons of slaves, and of _Spahis_.
Twenty thousand _Timarjis_ who have ten to forty ducats of
feudal income each year, and because they do not reach a
hundred ducats, they are not called _Spahis_. These have each
a horse and two or three servants, and they serve distributed
through all the _Sanjaks_ of Greece. The feudal grants are by
assignment of land; the income of this assignment they get
partly from rent, but the greater part from the tithes of all
the income, which Turks as well as Christians pay, and from the
poll-tax, which is twenty-five aspers per head from Christians
alone, and from the imposts laid on animals, fruit-trees, and
other things. These imposts, moreover, are in addition to those
which they pay ordinarily to the Signor.
Sixty thousand _Akinji_, or mounted adventurers, inscribed for
the lands of Greece and obliged to go to war without payment.
But they are exempt from any burden, and cities and villages
are bound to give them, when they pass through, living expenses
only.
There are in all Greece, that is, in all the countries which
the Turkish Signor possesses in Europe, sixty-eight thousand
villages of Turkish and Christian people, subject to public
burdens.[780]
There follow next six _Beylerbeys_ of Asia, and a separate
one of Egypt. The first of these is called the _Beylerbey_ of
Anatolia which was anciently Asia Minor: he has from feudal
income fourteen thousand ducats, but gets a great deal more.
This man has under him and in his government Pontus, Bithynia,
Asia proper, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia: these provinces under a
single name are called at present Anatolia. This man’s place at
the Porte is after the _Beylerbey_ of Greece. And he has under
him, besides his own slaves, who are more than a thousand,
twelve _Sanjaks_ with feudal income of from four to six
thousand ducats each. Ten thousand _Spahis_, with five to ten
aspers a day, and also more or less feudal income according to
their degree. Next after these follows
The _Beylerbey_ of Caramania, which was anciently Cilicia and
Pamphylia, with feudal income of ten thousand ducats. This man
has under him seven _Sanjaks_ with four to six thousand ducats
of feudal income each, and five thousand _Spahis_, with five to
ten aspers a day each and feudal income besides.
The _Beylerbey_ of Amasia and Tokat, which was Cappadocia and
Galatia, with feudal income of eight thousand ducats. Four
_Sanjaks_ with four to six thousand ducats of feudal income
each. Four thousand _Spahis_ with five to ten aspers a day each
and feudal income.
The _Beylerbey_ of Anadole, which is a region between Syria,
Caramania, and Tokat, which was anciently Paphlagonia, and
is the half of Armenia Minor. He has ten thousand ducats of
feudal income, and under him seven _Sanjaks_ with four to five
thousand ducats of feudal income. Seven thousand _Spahis_, with
five to ten aspers per day and feudal income. In this province
of Anadole, they say that when the Signor is there, besides the
paid troops thirty thousand persons are obliged to ride without
any pay, but only with expenses from the villages.
The _Beylerbey_ of Mesopotamia, under whom is the remainder of
Armenia Minor and part of the Major, the other parts belonging
to the Persians and the Kurds. This borders with Bagdad, or
Baldach, which was anciently Babylonia. He has of feudal income
thirty thousand ducats: and besides his own slaves, who number
two thousand, he has under him twelve _Sanjaks_ with feudal
income of four to six thousand ducats a year, and ten[781]
_Spahis_ with ten to fifteen aspers per day each, and with
large feudal income because of being at the confines of the
Persians: with these they are continually in conflict.
A _Beylerbey_ of Damascus and Syria and Judea, with feudal
income of twenty-four thousand ducats; he has more than two
thousand slaves, and under him twelve _Sanjaks_ with feudal
income of five to seven thousand ducats, and twenty thousand
_Spahis_ with ten to fifteen aspers per day each and with good
feudal income.
A _Beylerbey_ of Cairo: he holds jurisdiction as far as Mecca,
or as far as into Arabia: this Arabia is possessed by the
Turkish Signor in the way in which he possesses Albania, where
he is not yielded such obedience as he is accustomed to receive
from all his other states and countries. But [Arabia] Felix
stands in somewhat greater obedience than the rest. He has for
feudal income thirty thousand ducats, with numerous slaves:
these amount to more than four thousand; sixteen _Sanjaks_ with
feudal income of six to eight thousand ducats each; and sixteen
thousand _Spahis_ with fifteen to twenty aspers each per day.
Near Mecca, and the countries of the Persians, are some Arabic
lords who do not obey any one. The rest[782] then borders
the Persians as far as Mesopotamia, in which is Bagdad.[783]
Passing Mesopotamia it borders the Persians again to the plain
of Naximan, then touches Erzinjan[784] and Erzerum, which are
the chief places of Armenia Major. This Armenia borders with
the Iberians and Georgians. In these Armenias, Major and Minor,
are many Kurds, people of the mountains and warlike, those of
[Armenia] Major obedient partly to the Turkish Signor, and
partly to the Persian; those of [Armenia] Minor to no one.
Next Trebizond borders with the Georgians and Mingrelians,
and with part of the Iberians, which people were anciently
called Colchians. And Ajemia,[785] which anciently was Assyria,
belongs to the Persian: he is absolute master of it.
There are in all Anatolia, or in all the countries which
the Turkish Signor possesses in Asia, villages of Turks and
Christians to the number of more than seventy-two thousand, not
counting those which are in Egypt, which are many.
The _Sanjaks_ truly [set forth]: these (as I said above)
have under government the provinces entrusted to the
_Beylerbeys_; they are men of much and very great reputation
and esteem, especially in the affairs of war; they are named
as below by the names of the places which are given to their
government. And first the _Beylerbey_ of Greece holds as his
sanjakate the places about Salonika. Then follow the others
of Kaffa, Silistria, Nicopolis, Vidin, Semendria, Servia and
Belgrade,[786] Zvornick, Bosnia, Hersek, which is the Servia
called the Duchy,[787] Scutari, Avlona, Yanina, Karli Ili,
Lepanto, Morea, Negropont, Trikkala, Gallipoli, Kirk-Kilisse or
Forty Churches, Viza, Chirmen, Kostendil, Vishidrina, Prisrend,
Okhrida, Alaja Hissar, Elbassan, Voinuch, Chiuchene, Zaiza.
These are usually counted thirty-five, but five are regions
united to neighboring places, namely Philippopolis, Sofia,
Durazzo, Albania, and Uskup.
ANATOLIA, or Asia Minor: Pontus, Bithynia, Lydia, Caria, and
Lycia. The sanjakate of the _Beylerbey_ is at Kutaia. And the
others are in Hoja-ili, Boli, Kastamuni, Angora, Kanghri,[788]
Tekke-ili, Menteshe-ili, Aidin-ili, Alayeh,[789] Bigha, and
Manissa,[790] which is that of Sultan Mustapha, the oldest son
of the Signor. This place is opposite the middle of Chios near
the sea.
AMASIA, and Tokat, which is Paphlagonia, Galatia, and
Cappadocia. The sanjakate of the _Beylerbey_ is in Amasia, of
the others in Chorum, Janik, Kara-hissar, Samsun, Trebizond.
CARAMANIA, which is Cilicia opposite Cyprus and Pamphylia.
The sanjakate of the _Beylerbey_ is in Konia. The others
have theirs in Naranda, Hissar, Eski-hissar, Versag-ili,
Sivri-hissar.
ANADOLE, or Armenia Minor. The sanjakate of the _Beylerbey_
is in Marash. Those of the others in Sarmussacli,
Albistan-ovassi,[791] Adana, Tarsus.
DIARBEKIR, or Mesopotamia, and part of Armenia Major, of which
the remainder belongs to the Persians and the Kurds. The
sanjakate of the _Beylerbey_ is in Diarbekir. And the others
have theirs in Kara Amid, Arghana, Toljik, Hassan-Kief, Mardin,
Kharput, Mosul, Erzerum, Baiburt, Bitlis, and Naximan-ovassi.
SYRIA, and Judea. The sanjakate of the _Beylerbey_ is in
Damascus. Of the others in Malatia, Divirigi, Aintab, Antioch,
Aleppo, Tripoli, Hama, Homs, Safita, Jerusalem, Gaza.
EGYPT, with part of Arabia Deserta as far as Jeddah;[792]
Mecca, with all of Arabia Felix, where are many Arab lordlings,
who are partly in devotion to the Turkish Signor, partly to no
one. The sanjakate of the _Beylerbey_ is in Cairo, and of the
others....[793]
All the aforesaid _Sanjaks_, _Beylerbeys_, Pashas, and other
officials have salary or feudal income, as I have said above,
by fixed arrangement, that is, regularly: but they obtain from
extraordinary sources about as much more. And they live with
very great expenses for slaves: these they are accustomed to
clothe and they give them also wages besides, so that they will
not steal.
How great the revenues of this Signor are, may be estimated from the
expenses. These revenues are obtained from the Kharâj, which is paid by
the non-Turkish subjects; this gives a million and a half ducats: from
the tax on animals, which gives eight hundred thousand ducats: from
mines, which give six hundred thousand ducats: from countless other
duties, salt-taxes, commendations, inheritances, gifts, the revenues of
Egypt over and above the expenses, rents, and tributes. And they are so
great that they not only meet the expenses, which amount besides the
feudal income in ready money drawn from the Treasury to more than twelve
thousand ducats a day;[794] but there remains over a great sum of money
from the surplus of each year. And it is believed that all the revenues
amount to fifteen millions in gold: five of which enter the Treasury, and
the other ten remain for the servants of war.[795]
APPENDIX II
PAMPHLET OF JUNIS BEY AND ALVISE GRITTI
Printed in 1537. Presented in the original Italian.
OPERA NOUA LA QUALE DECHIARA
tutto il gouerno del gran Turcho & tutta
la Spesa che il gran Turcho ha sotto
di lui cosi in pace como in guerra
& il numero de le Persone & nome
& gouerno de le sue Donne
& Garzoni che lui tene
nel Serraglio serrati &
de tutta la Entrata che
lui ha a lanno & nomina
tutti li Signori
de le sue
prouincie:
E il nome de tutte le sue terre chelha
sotto se: & la ordināza del suo Campo
quādo ua ala guerra como
ua in ordinanza tutte le
persone a sorte per
sorte & come
uanno e
che arme portano. Nouamente stampata
nel M D X X X V I I.
Il Signor grāde cioe il grā Turcho ha uno serraglio principale doue tene
la sua sedia, & ha una camera deputada per lui doue dorme, & al gouerno
dessa ha 8. gioueni ch’ lo uestano e suestano doi al giorno deputati ala
guardia, & seruitii suoi, & la notte li fanno la guardia uno da capo,
laltro da piede con due torce accese: & q̄lli doi che li hāno fatto la
guardia la notte lo uestano la mattina, & li mettano ne la Scarsella
del dulimano cioe de la casacha sua aspri Mille uno aspro ual soldi do
di Milano, & in laltra duchati 20 doro: questi dinari sel Signor nō li
dona uia quel giorno restano a colori ch’ lo spogliano la sera, & q̄sti
giouani hāno uno capo ch’ si domāda Oddabassi cioe capo de li camarieri
uno Papugi che li porta le scarpe, laltro Selictare che porta larco &
frezze, laltro Ciochadar ch’ li porta le ueste, laltro Seracter che li
porta il mastrapā zoe il ramī da lacq̄, laltro schēni ch’ porta la sedia
questi sono li nomi che hanno li otto gioueni, & il capo de questi cioe
Oddabassi ha aspri 30. al di di soldo, & li altri 8. gioueni hano chi 15.
chi 20. aspri per uno secondo il loro grado.
El Capagasi e monuco cioe castrato & e portinaro de la porta del gran
Turco ha aspri 60. di soldo.
El Capiagabasi cioe il capo del Serraglio doue sta il Turcho quādo il
Signor e fora de Cōstantinopoli ha aspri 50. & ha sotto lui 12 mōuchi
cioe castrati che hāno aspri 16. al di per uno di soldo & spesa.
El Casnādarbasi e monucho, cioe Tesorero de la Saluaroba del Signor ha
aspri 60. al di di soldo.
Ha in el serraglio il Signor gioueni de anni 8. fino in 20. numero 700.
che hāno di soldo al giorno chi 10. chi 14. secondo il suo grado &
sono uestiti dal Signor q̄sti hàno maestri che li insegnano a legere e
scriuere & la lege loro, & como escano del serraglio hanno nella porta
cioe ne la sua corte officii chi Spacoglài chi Selictari chi Solachi &
altri stipēdii secondo gratia e ualore loro.
Spacoglani sono gétilhomini che cortigiano il Signor quādo caualca: &
li Selictari sono q̄lli che uano alla mā sinistra del Signor q̄ndo ua
in campo: & li Solachi sono stafferi del Signor, & li suoi maestri sono
Talasimāi uecchi detti Cogia dotti nella lege loro, cioe sacerdoti &
questi putti sono ogni 10. in gouerno d’uno monucho detto Capogliano,
ognuno ha uno schiauinotto nel qual dormino détro la notte de sorte che
non si toccano insiemo & stanno in uno salotto & li Monuchi dormeno in
mezo desso salotto & stanno le lume accese tutta la notte.
Ha uno giardino nel serraglio che uolge circa doi miglia doue stanno
circa 400. putti giardineri detti Bustāgi sono Ianicerotti, & hanno uno
capo che si domanda Bustāgibassi che e sopra tutti li giardini del Signor
ch’ sono molti e lui ha aspri 40. il di di soldo & altre molte regalie & a
li giardineri chi 3. chi 5. aspri al di & sono ognuno uestiti del Signor
di pāno azuro turchesco & una gamisa e uno paro di braghe do uolte a
lanno & quādo escano del serraglio che sono grādi diuentano Ianizari cioe
guardiani del Signor, Solachi cioe staffieri & Capigi cioe Portinari: &
il ditto Bonstāgibassi e q̄llo ch’e timonero quādo il Signor ua in Fusta
hāno uno p̄toiro cioe loco tenente che ha aspri 20. al di & ogni 10 de
detti hāno uno capo ditto Balucasi che ha aspri 20. il di & questi putti
uāno per tutto dentro del Serraglio & mai escano fino che non sono homeni.
El Signor ha due Fuste che li nauegano li sopraditti giardineri, & lo
capo loro sta al timone con le quale il Signor ua a spasso assai per
canale & a li giardini lor.
El calualgibasi capo de le cōfettioni ha aspri 40. il di con 30. homini
sotto di lui & hanno chi 5. chi 6. aspri al di.
El Vechilargibasi capo deli despésieri ha aspri 40. il di cō uno scriuano
cō aspri 20 il di di soldo.
El Cessignirbassi capo de li cardēceri ha aspri 80. il di & questo porta
la sera & mattina il piato al Signore & ha sotto di lui homini 100. che
hanno chi 5. chi 6. aspri al di di soldo.
Vno Asgibassi capo de li coghi ha aspri 40. al di & ha da circa 80.
coghi sotto di lui che hāno chi 5. chi 6. chi 8. aspri il di, & ha da
80. Ianicerotti da 10. in 20. anni ditti baltagi cioe taglia legne che
tagliano le legne per la cucina del signore & per tutto il serraglio che
hanno da 3. in 5. aspri il di per uno & sono uestiti dal Signore.
Ha circa 20. garzoni Ianicerotti carretteri che portano con li carri
le legne nel serraglio & hanno aspri 3. in 5. al di & sono uestiti dal
Signore.
Sacha 10. cioe acquaroli che portano lacqua con li caualli nel serraglio
hanno 3. in 5. aspri il di & uestiti dal Signore.
Vna stalla con 200. caualli per la ꝑsona del Signore con 100. homini al
gouerno suo che hanno aspri 5. in 8. al di di soldo per uno. Vnaltra
stalla con 4000. caualli per li schiaui soi con 2000. homini al suo
gouerno che hāno da 3 in 5 aspri al di di soldo & spesa.
Il gran Turcho ha molti giardini & si uendano li frutti & del tratto di
essi si fa le spese a lui per essere entrate licite, & il suo serraglio
paga di liuello aspri 1000. al giorno a la moschea cioe a la gesia del
padre de suo padre Soltan memet.
Spesa nel piato del Signor aspri 5000. & per li garzoni soi aspri 2500.
ogni giorno.
Vno Capigilarchi caiasi idest gouernator & capo de tutti li capigi cioe
di portineri de la porta ha aspri 500. il di: & 3 capigibassi de la porta
del signore hanno aspri 100. il di & uestiti, sotto q̄sti sono Capigi
cioe Portinari numero 250. che hanno aspri 57. il di per uno, & questi
fanno la guardia a la porta del Signor di 24. in 24. hore, & quando
qualche Ambasciator ua a basciare la mano al Signor bisogna chel presenta
tutti costori. Vno Capigi la che chi si Protoiro idest locotenente di
Capigi ha aspri 40. il giorno.
El Ciausbasi capo de li ciausi cō 100. ciausi sotto lui q̄sti sono homini
grādi & quādo uāno ꝑ fare morire alcuno sia dassai quāto si uoglia sono
obediti senza altra cōmissione in scritto, & q̄ndo il Signor caualca uāno
semp’ ináci a lui faciādo fare largo, hāno di soldi da aspri 25. sino in
40. al di secūdo lor grado & il ciaubasi ha aspri 200.
El Mecterbasi capo de quelli che destendano li padiglioni & tapedi &
spazzan la porta & altre simile cose ha aspri 40. il di con il suo
Protoiro che ha aspri 20. il di con 60. homini sotto di lui che si
domandano Mecteri che hanno aspri 5. in 6. il di per uno & sono uestiti.
Sono ordinatamēte 4. Bascia soi cāzelleri e cōseieri el primo ha duchati
24000 di entrata a lanno: li altri tre hāno chi 16000. chi 18000. duchati
a lanno & li sono date entrate doue cauano il tutto, & hāno molte altre
regalie & p̄senti.
Abrain ch’era de la pargha albaneso e morto, hora li e Aiisbassa de la
sinita ch’e il prícipale Albāeso uno altro mostafa bascia ch’e mamalucho
di Alchayro & uno Casin bascia ch’e Crouato & Cayradibeii cioe Barbarossa
ch’era greco di metelí Isola & niuno puo essere bascia se non Christiani
renegati. Ayas ha numero 600. schiaui. Mostafa ne ha numero 200: Casin
crouato ne ha numero 150. Barbarossa ne ha da numero 100. A liquali danno
soldo caualli scufie doro & spade fornite dargento & di questi essi
Bascia fanno la corte loro & sono uestiti da essi Bascia.
Doi Cadilescher talasimani uno de la Grecia laltro de la natolia cioe
Asia, & ha di entrata ducati 6 in 7 milia a lanno per uno: q̄sti sono
executori de la lege loro & hano 10. homini executori per uno dati dal
Signor sono q̄lli che metteno li Cadi cioe podesta per tutto il paese del
Signor & quādo uanno dal Signor entrano auanti deli Bascia hanno per uno
mocturbasi cioe cursor, & como cauallieri de li executori & questi tutti
uiuano di regalie, hāno lo Cadilescheri 200. in 300. schiaui per uno che
se ne fanno la lor corte.
Doi Defterderi cioe thesoreri uno di Asia laltro di Europa che scodano
tutte le entrade del Signor & gouernano quasi il tutto hanno di entrada
ducati sie in sette milia a lanno per uno, & hanno 200. schiaui per uno &
ne fanno la lor corte.
Hanno q̄sti Defterderi 50. scriuani per uno con li cogitori quali tengano
conto del thesoro del Signor, questi scriuani sono posti dal Signor con
soldo di 15. in 50. aspri al di per uno secondo il grado loro & hāno 15.
in 20. schiaui per uno.
Secretarii 25. posti dal Signor che hanno 25. in 30. aspri il di & suoi
schiaui sono doi Rosanamagi idest capi de li scriuani che reuedano li
cōti & ch’ receuano dāno fora con 20. cōpagni sotto loro doi, hanno aspri
40. il di & li 25. compagni hāno aspri 8. in 10. al di per uno di soldo.
Cinque Seraferi idest Bancheri che uedano tutti li danari che si scodano
hanno aspri 10. in 15. al di di soldo.
Vno Tescheregibassi che segna tutti li commandamenti del Signor ha di
entrata ducati 7000. & 300. in 400. schiaui.
Vno Casmandarbassi di fora con 10. Casandari il capo ha aspri 50. il di &
ha aspri 10. in 15. al di di soldo sintéde sopra la saluaroba del Signore
di fuora del serraglio.
Vno Defterdaro emino cioe douanero sopra le intrade & tene il libro de li
timarati ha aspri 40. il di con lo scriuano che ha aspri 10. in 15. al di.
Vno Agha de Ianiceri cioe Capitano de tutti li Ianiceri che ha intrata
duch. 7000. lāno, & ha aspri 10000. per far pasto a li Ianizari quādo
el da audiétia in casa sua che 2. o 3. uolte la settimana la da & ha
400. schiaui sotto se questi Ianizari sono la guardia del Signor tutti
schiopetteri & uanno a piede.
Vno Gachaia de Ianizari cioe locotenéte ha 200 aspri al di & ducati 300. di
timaro cioe entrata a lanno con 25. schiaui suoi.
Vno Scriuan di Ianizari che tien conto de loro Ianizari ha aspri 100. al
di & circa a 200 schiaui.
Secmébassi capo di brachi da caza ha aspri 100. il di & ha del numero di
Iāizari 200 sotto di lui.
Il Zarcagibassi capo de li liureri da cazza ha aspri 50 il di & ha del
numero di Ianizari 700. sotto di se che menano li cani a spasso quādo
bisogna.
Sono li Ianizari numero 12000. li quali hanno da 3. sino in 8. aspri il
di di soldo & ogni 10. hanno il suo Odabassi cioe capo de numero dece &
ogni cento hanno il suo capo che si domanda Bolucbassi, & li capi loro
quando uanno in cāpo uāno a cauallo & hāno aspri 40. in 60. al[796] di
per vno secondo il grado loro.
De li Ianizari si caua da 150 solachi che sono staferi dil Signor & 2
solachibassi capi de q̄lli & tutti sono sotto lagha de Ianizeri, & sono
vestiti vna volta alanno dil Signor di pāno azuro, & hāno le stantie
loro in 2 lochi in Constantinopoli fatto fabricare dil Signor & li stano
q̄lli che non hāno moglie li maritati stano fora cō le dōne loro, & nel
vitto ogniuno mette tāto al di & hano dispēsieri choghi & q̄lli che hāno
pocho salario seruan al altri, & ogni 100 di loro quādo vano in cāpo
portano vno padiglione, & sono soldati apedi schopeteri & alabarderi e
simitarre. Quādo li ditti venghano in desgratia dil Signor o in veghieza
si mādan a sario zoe castelli che sono guardiani & si cassano del libro
de Ianizari & hāno entrate equalmente al suo primo soldo & li capi loro
similmente vano castellani con timaro vtsupra.
Vno agha di Spachoglani capo cioe di destri giouene gentilhomo che a tra
timaro e soldo ducat 10 il di con reghalie & 400 schiaui.
Vno Iaxagi scriuano de questi spachoglani ha aspri 30 il di con reghalie
& 30 schiaui.
Vno Cacaia de ditti zoe protoiro a tra timaro e soldo aspri 100 al di.
Sono li Spachoglani 3000 che hano aspri 20 in 40 il di secondo il grado
loro & ogni 20 hano vno capo domandato Bolucbassi & questi seruano a
cauallo con 5 o 6 schiaui & altri tanti caualli per vno questi vano sempre
ala man destra dil Signor, & alogiano appresso a lui in campo.
Vno Agha deto Selicterbassi capo de li sinistri che sono ala mā sinistra
dil Signor ha aspri 250 il di & vno Protoiro cioe loco tenēte & vno
scriuano cō aspri 30 il di per vno questo Aga e capo di 3000 Selictari a
cauallo che stano a la man sinistra dil Signore & hano aspri 20 in 25 al
di ꝑ vno & hano 4. o 5. schiaui & altri tanti caualli & lui capo a 200
schiaui soi.
Doi Holofagibassi da la man destra & sinistra uno per banda capi de li
soldati a aspri 120 al di & hano 200 Holofagi sotto se cō aspri 16 il di
pervno il suo logo tenente cō aspri 20 e vno scriuano cō aspri 20 & vano
a cauallo con 2. o 3. caualli & tanti schiaui.
Doi Aga capo de li carippoglani zoe poueri gioueni che hano aspri 30 il
di per vno cō il suo protoiro & scriuano con aspri 15 in 30 al di & sono
li Carippoglani numero 2000 che hano da 7 sino in 14 aspri al di per vno
li capi hano 25 schiaui per vno.
Doi Bracorbassi zoe maestri di stalla vno grande vno picolo il grāde
a aspri 500 il di, & il picolo ne a 200 al di di soldo con protoiro &
scriuano con 30 sino in 40 aspri il di per vno.
Sedici milia Sarachi zoe famigli che cōzano brene & selle Caysli zoe
fanti di stalla Carmādari zoe mulateri deuegi zoe gābeleri che vano dreto
a gambeli circirgli zoe mandreri che pascolano le mādre de li caualli
in varii lochi hano di soldo da 2 sino ī 20 aspri il di pervno secōdo il
grado loro chi piu chi meno.
Caualli da caualcare per il Signor & soi puti & monuchi zoe castrati
numero 4000.
Vno Zarchigibassi capo de li astori che a di soldo aspri 150 il di &
schiaui & vno Zarchigibassi capo di falconeri che a aspri 80 il di &
schiaui con il suo protoiro & scriuano con aspri 25 per vno al di.
Vintimilia zainogiler homini a cauallo di lāza & mili soli de questi hāno
soldo aspri 10 il di & resto hāno timari o vero exemption di angarie per
essere homeni dil Signor & vano in campo.
Vno hebegibassi capo de le armature a aspri 60 il di con il suo protoiro
& scriuan con aspri 20 per vno di soldo & à da 160 Ebegi zoe famigli
sotto se con 7 fino in 10 aspri il di per vno, & vano a pede.
Vno Topgibassi capo de li bombarderi che ha aspri 60 il di con protoiro &
scriuan con aspri 20 pervno & a 2000 Topgi sotto se zoe bombarderi cō 6
sino in 10 aspri il di di soldo per vno e vano a pede.
Vno Arabagibassi capo de li careteri a aspri 40 il di con protoiro &
scriuano con aspri 20 per vno & a 1000 Arabagi zoe careteri sotto se con
3 sino in 6 aspri il di per vno.
Vno Mecterbassi capo de li trombeteri & tamburini a aspri 30 il di con
protoiro & scriuan con aspri 12 ꝑ vno di soldo al di & a 12 millia
compagni sotto se che hano di soldo 3 sino in 5 aspri il di per vno parti
vano a piedi & parti a cauallo & altre regalie.
Imralem aga Capitanio che porta il stendardo dil Signor a di soldo
aspri 200 al di & e sopra tutti li mecteri zoe trombetti & tamburini &
banderali.
Vno Arpaemin prouiditore de le biaue per il campo con vno protoiro & vno
cursor lemin a aspri 60 il di di protoiro a aspri 30 il cursor aspri 20
al di di soldo & a 20 persone sotto di lui con aspri 800 al di fra tutti
quelli 20 persone.
Vno Saremin prouiditore de comun a cōzare le strade & fabricare in
Constantinopli a aspri 50 il di, & a sotto di lui 400 homeni cō aspri
1000 al di fra tutti cō protoiro & scriuano cō aspri 57 il di per vno.
Vno Baratemin che dispensa tutti li comandamēti & che scode li denari de
li ditti a aspri 40 il di & a 2 scriuani & doi soprastanti con aspri 60
il di per vno di soldo.
Vno Seraglio di donne in Constantinopli che circōda vno miglio e mezo cō
stantie & camere doue stano li figlioli separati luno da laltro cō loro
madre & monuchi, & soltane zoe molier dil Signor & li sono da 200 in
300 dōzelle sotto la custodia di molte matrone veghie alequa il Signor
fa insegnare a ricamar diuersi lauori & a cadauna li da di soldo asp
10 fino in 20 per vna secondo il grado loro & ogni anno doi volte a li
bairami zoe a le sue pasque li veste tutte di setta, & lequal donzelle
quādo piace alcuna desse al Signore lui sta con lei & fa il fatto suo, &
como la hauta li dona vna schufia doro che val duc. 200 & aspri 10 millia
di cōtadi & la fa stare in vna camera separata da le altre & li cresse il
soldo suo & q̄lla che fa prima fioli quella e la sua moglie prima.
In ditto seraglio & de tutti li altri monuchi zoe castrati che sono in
detto seraglio a aspri 60 il di di soldo & stano in questo seraglio 20
monuchi & hano aspri 120 il di tra capigibassi zoe portinari & Ianizari
nu. 100 a le porte ꝑ guardia hāno aspri 500 al di fra tutti & numero 10
Sacha che portano laqua dētro zoe aquaroli & hāno aspri 40 al di fra
tutti di soldo.
Quando le donzelle sono in eta de anni 25 il Signor le maritta a li
schiaui di la porta zoe di la sua corte & in loco loro ne mete de le
altre & le piu giouane seruano a le altre.
A vno seraglio appresso a pera a de garzoni nu. 400. in circa che hano
di soldo da 6 fin in 10 aspri il di ꝑ vno & li veste dói volte alanno
di panno di seda si como fa a le dōne & vno Agha zoe capo del seraglio
& 20 monuchi como nel altro seraglio & capigi & Ianizeri & maestri che
imparano voltegiare a cauallo & īparano a sonare in tutto numero 100
homeni che hāno aspri 600 al di di soldo tra tutti & laga a aspri 60 il
di di soldo & 10 sacha con aspri 40 il di di soldo fra tutti li aquaroli.
Vno Seraglio in Andranopoli nouo con vno bel giardino appresso a la
mariza fiumera nel qual stano Ianizerotti numero 300 & hāno aspri 12 al
di per vno Andranopoli e 5 zornate lōtan da Constantinopoli.
Vno capo de detti zardineri a aspri 40 il di con vno protoiro & vno
scriuano che tengono cōto de ditto zardino con aspri 30 per vno al di.
In diuersi lochi il Signor ha piu giardini in liquali son assai
Ianizerotti garzoni & soi capi hāno di soldo aspri 6000 al di fra tutti
questi giardini.
Vno aga de agiamoglani Capitanio zoe gioueni greci in Cōstātinopoli a
aspri 60 il di & a 4 in 5000 Ianizerotti sotto lui & li da di soldo tra
tutti alāno ne a di spesa aspri 100 millia & liveste due fiate alanno
& hano li loro capi como li altri & questi se metano sopra fabriche &
condutte legne cō nauigli in Constantinopoli per il Signor & altre
stente poi si fano coghi & famegli di Ianizeri & in fino si fano Ianizeri.
Ogni 4 anni il Signor manda a tore di gretia & di Natolia piu figlioli
de christiani per il paxe zoe ꝑ leville & doue vno padre ha 2 fioli li
piglian vno fiol ꝑ forza & lo fano turco & cosi a ognuno christiani ꝑ
il suo paese fano zoe soi subditi & ne piglia 10 ī 12000 a la volta
liquali puti li fano stare in la Natolia zoe in asia a zapare la terra
acio imparano la lingua turcha & cosi stentano 3. o vero 4. anni & poi
li manda a scriuere sotto laga di agiamoglani ditto vtsupra & di questi
il Signor non ne a spesa alcuna per che sono vestiti & fatto le spese da
quelli a che seruano per che li mete a stare cō altri sino chano imparato
la lingua & poi quando sono scritti li da soldo per la prima 2. in 3
aspri per vno & secōdo li mete in altri officii li cresce il salario.
Ha di spesa in li altri seragli di viuere aspri 5000 il di ditto di sopra.
Veste due fiate alanno li Bassa zoe confieri defterderi zoe texoreri
beglerbeii zoe Signor de Signori nesangibei zoe quello che sopra di
frutti dil Signor & presenti di spexa aspri 5000 per volte.
Vna Arsenale doue ten le sue galere che a volti 100 zoe 30 di galere
grosse che si domandano maone ꝑ portare caualli & il resto sono galere
futile.
Tene continuamenti numero 200 patroni de galere pagati che hāno soldo fra
tutti aspri 200000 alanno di spexa.
Tene continuo mille homeni axapi zoe marinero di galeri & ne a di spexa
alāno fra tutti aspri 400000.
Maistri ouero proti numero 50 che sono sopra a far lauorare le galere zoe
farle che in ocio hanno soldo aspri 6 il di & quando lauorano hāno aspri
12 il di.
Emino zoe capo de questi a aspri 40 il di vno scriuan che ten conto ha
aspri 28 al di con 10 scriuani sotto lui con aspri 80 al di fra tutti.
El Zustiniano zoe vno zentilomo Venetiano che serue il Turcho & e sopra a
far fare galere ancora lui spexe straordinaria ha di soldo aspri 50 il di.
Vno Beglerbei dil mar zoe Signor de Signori capo sopra le terre maritime
che a di entrata duc. 14000 & traze piu dil duplo sopra rodi metelino
negropōte & il tributo di sio isole in mar.
Il Beglerbei di la gretia zoe capo di tutto il paese di la gretia magior
de tutti li altri a di entrada ducati 260 millia a lanno & traze il duplo
& a schiaui 1000.
Vno protoiro zoe loco tenente di la gretia a ducati 4000 di entrada a
lanno & a schiaui 300.
Vno Deftero zoe texorero de le entrate di la gretia che loro domandano
timari a ducati 3000 de entrada a lanno & ha 900 schiaui soi seruitori.
Cento scriuani che tengono li libri & cōti dil Signor a di entrada fra
tutti a lanno ducati 10000.
Trentasette Sanzachibei zoe contadi Signori per il paese che han di
entrada di 5 in 12 millia ducati a lanno secondo il grado loro chi piu
chi meno & hāno vno per laltro in tutto duca. 260 millia a lanno & 300
schiaui per vno.
Quatrocento Subasi per il paxe dil Signor zoe Capitanio di Iustitia che
hāno duc. 100 alanno per vno di entrada & hāno 50 schiaui per vno soi
famigli.
Trenta millia Spachi che hanno di entrada luno per laltro ducati 200 per
vno alanno & ciaschaduno de ditti per ogni ducati 100 che hāno di entrada
deue tener vno homo armato di lanza a cauallo & oltra le lanze hanno tre
o 4 famigli per vno & altri tanti caualli zoe li Spachi.
Vintimillia Trimarati zoe q̄lli che scodano le entrate per il paese hano
duc. 40 di entrata alanno ꝑ vno & per che non ariuano a li 100 ducati
dintrada nō si chiamano spachi & sono homeni a cauallo & vano in campo.
Li Spacoglani li sopradetti timari cioe entrade de le decime de tutte
le entrade cosi de christiani como di turchi splenza aspri 25 per testa
da li christiani & da langaria de li animali & altra quanto pagano dil
Signor zoe piu o meno secondo diuersi paesi.
Sesantamillia Iaching zoe ventureri scritti per il paese obligadi andare
in campo quando piace al Signor senza soldo & quando vano a la guerra le
ville & cita li dano il modo dil viuere.
Tutti li spachi sono schiaui & figli de schiaui del Sig.
Sette Beglerbei zoe Signor de signori sopra bassavno che se chiama di
la natolia ilquale era antichamēte in assia minore il qual a di entrata
ducati 24000 & ne traze assai piu & a sotto se il ponte labitinia azia
ꝑpia Lidia carian, licia prouincie & a schiaui 1000 soi seruitori & a
sanzachi 12 sotto lui zoe Signoroti cō entrada da 4 in 6000 ducati alanno
per vno & schiaui 500 pervno & Spachi 1000 sotto se cō soldo da 5 in 10
aspri al di pervno secōdo la cōdition loro & q̄sto Beglerbei e di piu
authorita de li altri & e forte nominato per il paese questi Spachi nō
hano tanta entrata como vtsupra per essere piu abondantia la.
Beglerbei de caramania chera silicia & pamfilia prouincie ha di entrata
ducati 10 millia & a 7 sanzachi sotto se con soldo ditto & spachi numero
500 sotto cō soldo como laltro beglerbei & schiaui mille.
Beglerbei di anādoule che e tra la soria & Caramania & tocat ch’era gia
Pamphlagonia che e la mita di larmenia minore ha di entrada ducati 10
millia alanno & sette sanzachi che hano di entrada da 4 in 5000 ducati
alāno & a schiaui 100 & Spachi 700 sotto lui quando il Signor hera fora
si dice questo Beglerbei faceua persone da caualcare senza soldo numero
30 millia.
Beglerbei di la mexopotania sotto ilqual e il resto di larmenia minor &
parte di la magiore che laltra parte e dil Sophi & de cordi a di entrata
ducati trenta millia & schiaui due millia & sanzachi 12 con entrada vt
supra & spachi diece millia cō soldo vtsupra & confina con baldach zoe la
babilonia vera.
Beglerbei di Damascho & Soria & Giudea a di entrada ducati 24 millia &
schiaui due millia & sanzachi 12 con entrada vtsupra & a Spachi numero
vintimillia sotto di lui.
Beghlerbei di Alcario ha di entrada ducati trentamillia & schiaui quatro
millia Sāzachi 16 con entrada vt supra pervno & Spachi sedeci millia
sotto lui & Ianizeri tre millia & va fina alamecha cioe fina a la arabia
liquali ello possede como si fa deli albanesi per forza benche la arabia
felize stia in magior obedientia.
Tra lamecha & Sophi sono alcuni Signori arabi poi il resto confina con
il Sophi fina in la mexopotania in laqual e baldach zoe Babilonia poi
passato la mexopotania cōfina il Suphi ne la pianura di nassimō poi
exdrun & extum che sono in la armenia mazore laqual cōfina con Zorgiani
& hiberi & ne larmenia mazor & minor sono assai cordi obedienti quelli
de la mazor parte al Signor Turcho & parte al Sophi Re di persia &
trabixonda lucho de Imperio in mar magior cōfina con mengreli zoe
mengrelia doue non si spende danari & ancora confina cō giorgiani che
antichamente si dimandauano colchi azamia chera asiria e dil Sophi.
Armenia magior e minor sono christiani assai di quelli di san Thomaso
trabixonda sono greci & mengreli sono christiani & giorgiani sono
christiani.
Ottomā hebe in sua cōpagnia ad acꝗstare il dominio vno michali greco
fatto turco dal qual son dissexi li mazalogli zoe mamaluchi de laqual
stirpe n’e vno hora sanzaco in bosina zoe Conte devna prouincia.
Malco greco renegato alqual sono nasiuti li malcozogli, & di quella
stirpe n’e vno & e Sanzaco in gretia. Aurami che si chiamano Eurcassi de
laqual stirpe non si sa che ne sia alcun hora.
Tutti questi generatione promisse ottoman di nō mettere mai mane nel
sangue loro ne mancharli mai di magistrato & ancora si conserua la
promessa fatali & questi furono quelli che aiutorno la caxa ottomana.
Intrada dil gran Turcho de caragi zoe tributarii caua ducati 1300000
da la Natolia & grecia caua ducati 1600000 di Egipto caua duc. 700000
de Soria caua ducati 150000 de mexopotania ducati 250000 questi danari
caua si non di terra ferma senza le Isole che sotto lui & li douane di
Constantinopli e pera.
Le entrate che se dice disse il Signor Aluise Gritti che sono piu presto
piu che meno & la spexa di la porta zoe di la corte dil Signor penso che
cōsuma tutta la entrada o poco meno.
Li Beglerbei di egitto stano sotto il beglerbei di Alcairo per la magior
parte & li sono Sanzachi sino in lamecha doue sta larcha de macomet
Zingil Ghebur Iurcan & Tibris fiumi dil Paradiso Terestro.
Li Beglerbei & li Sanzachi a chi piu chi meno secōdo la autorità sua &
son pagati de li territori doue stano escetto quelli che pigliano soldo
dil gran Turcho la entrada de li ditti non si po sapere a ponto bisogna
per arbitrio pensarla zoe de quelli di egitto.
QVI SI DICHIARA TVTTI LI SANZACHI
zoe contadi che sono sotto li Beglerbei & si nomina li paexi doue sono &
Prouincie doue stano e prima.
Li Sanzachi zoe Contadi che sono sotto il Beglerbei di la Gretia prima.
1 Gretia.
2 Cafa.
3 Silistria.
4 Nicopoli.
5 Vidin.
6 Suornich.
7 Bossina.
8 Ersech del Ducato.
9 Samandria belgrado.
10 Seruia.
11 Belgrado.
12 Schutari.
13 Valona.
14 Carlali.
15 Negroponte.
16 Lepanto.
17 Morea.
18 Trighala.
19 Galipoli.
20 Quaranta Giexie.
21 Vissa.
22 Crimen.
23 Ochria.
24 Giostaudil.
25 Vlzitrin.
26 Pisdren.
27 Alzasar.
28 Albasan.
29 Voinuch.
30 Ciuchene.
31 Zaiza.
Filipopoli.
Sofia.
Durazo.
Albania.
Schopia.
Li Sanzachi che sono sotto il Beglerbei di la Natolia zoe Asia minor.
1 Giotachie.
2 Cogia olli.
3 Bolli.
4 Castamoni.
5 Anghori.
6 Caugri.
7 Tescheli.
8 Metesseli.
9 Haeid neli.
10 Allaye.
11 Buga.
12 Manguixa il statto.
Li Sanzachi che sono sotto il Beglerbei di Cappadocia.
1 Amassia.
2 Cioriun.
3 Giauich.
4 Caraister.
5 Sauisum.
6 Trapixonda.
Li Sanzachi che sono sotto il Beglerbei di Caramania.
1 Siogna.
2 Naranda.
3 Assar.
4 Eschi assar.
Li Sanzachi che sono sotto il Beglerbei di Auandoule.
1 Maras.
2 Sarmus Sachi.
3 Albistanouasi.
4 Adaria.
5 Tersis.
Li Sāzachi che sono sotto il beglerbei di mesopotāia.
1 Dierbech.
2 Carachmit.
3 Argni.
4 Solgich.
5 Casangieph.
6 Meridim.
7 Carput.
8 Mussul.
9 Exrun.
10 Haiburth.
Dittilis. Nassim nouasi.
Li Sanzachi che sono sotto il Beglerbei di Soria.
Damasco.
Malatia.
Dirmighi.
Antep.
Antiocha.
Aleppo.
Tripoli.
Cama ama.
Cams.
Sefetto.
Ieroxalem.
Gazara.
Questi sono i lochi che ha sotto il Turco.
Questa sia la ordenanza dil Cāpo dil Signore zoe dil gran
Turcho quādo va a la guerra primamente vna quātita di
spacoglani gētilomini con lanza & spada.
Inanze al primo bassa li va numero 15 caualli ornati ꝑ la sua
persona con vno Ianizero per banda.
E poi tre garzoni vestiti doro con schufie doro rosse vno li
porta larcho vno li porta le veste & vno li porta il ramin da
laqua.
E poi vno Aga con schufia doro zoe Capitanio.
E poi doi garzoni senza milza arente al bassa.
E poi mille Ianizeri schopeteri a piedi.
E poi da 60 Sanzachi zoe stendardi a cauallo.
E poi trombetti e tamburin insiema a cauallo.
E poi il campo a refuso de diuersi generationi e de diuersi
lanze tutti a cauallo.
E poi gambelli muli bagaie del campo.
E poi Gentilomeni Spachi a cauallo con spada & archo e frize
solle.
E poi li cari de lartelaria.
E poi caualli numero 30 con briglie doro per la persona dil
Signor.
E poi tutti li capi de li Ianizari zoe Boluchbassi Odabassi
a cauallo con barete doro aguze con vno penagio di garzette
bianche in zima con lanze & con le banderolle zalle.
E poi 12 milia Ianizeri con schiopetti alabarde apedi.
E poi li solachi apedi staferi dil Signor cō archi e frize.
E poi il gran Turcho sollo in mezo di Solachi.
E poi 3 garzoni con schufie doro vestiti di pāno doro che li
portano archo e frize e laqua & veste.
E poi 2 monuchi sēza coioni a cauallo dreto al signor.
E poi Imralemaga ch’ porta il stēdardo dil Signor tutto verde
sollo.
E poi 6 Sanzachi zoe bandere vna rossa vna biācha vna verde due
diuixa vna rossa e bianca & vna verde e rosso a cauallo.
E poi trombeteri & tamburi a cauallo.
E poi il campo a refuxo con li dulipante a cauallo cō lanze e
spada con le banderole rosse.
A la banda destra dil Signor Spacoglani a cauallo cō lanze con
banderole zalle.
A la banda sinistra dil Signor Selictari a cauallo con lanze
con banderolle rosse e bianche.
E poi gambelli & mulli e bagaie dil campo e pagi.
E poi Spachi con lanze a cauallo con dulipāti biāchi.
E poi vno bassa solo con soi Stafeti.
E poi 22 Sanzachi zoe stendardi a cauallo.
E poi trombeteri tamburi a cauallo.
E poi il campo a refuso de diuerse sorte con dulipant & barette
rosse de piu sorte generatione.
E poi gambelli e muli e bagaie dil campo insema.
E poi tutti li Iachingi zoe ventureri.
Questo libro e stato cauato da Ionus bei il qual era greco & hora e
turcho & e interpetro grande dil Signor & dal Signor Aluise gritti fiol
dil Duxo di Venetia & tutto e vero.
APPENDIX III
INCOMPLETE TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE KANUN-NAMEH, OR COLLECTION OF EDICTS,
OF SULEIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT AS ARRANGED BY THE MUFTI EBU SU’UD
Translated from the Turkish
[From folios 69-70 of the Turkish MS. Fluegel No. 1816, Imperial
Library, Vienna: “Fundamental Laws of Sultan Suleiman, according to
the arrangement of the Mufti Ebu-Su’ud.” The table does not begin
till folio 27 of the manuscript. The page references are to Hammer’s
_Staatsverfassung_, where a translation of the paragraphs may be found.]
FOLIO
27. Law concerning mortgage and loan contracts. p. 396
28. Law concerning fallow fields. p. 397
29. Law concerning uncultivated lands. p. 398
29. Law concerning absent and missing [tenants]. p. 398
30. Law concerning the hereditary tenancy of land (_tapu_), and
regulations determining what sort of lands are given in
hereditary tenancy. p. 399
31. Regulations for the case when a _Spahi_ of either a large
or a small fief possesses his fief in common ownership. p. 401
32. Regulations for the case when a _Spahi_ dies or is
dispossessed before the delivery of the hereditary lease.
(In Hammer the heading is different and is not logically
placed.) p. 403
33. Regulations for the case when the tenant dies before the
expiration of the hereditary lease. p. 404
33. Law concerning the giving out of the winter and summer
pastures and concerning the legal relationships of
meadow lands. p. 199
34. Law concerning the ground tax, concerning the taxes upon
state-lands, sandy fields, peasants’ houses, etc. p. 406
35. Law concerning the tenth, the tax upon vineyards, leased
vineyards, the bushel, and the bushel-tax. p. 407
36. Law concerning the tenth, the fifth, and the fodder tenth
(_salariyeh_). p. 407
37. Regulations for the case of joint ownership when more than
the tenth of the crop, namely, the half or the fifth, is
demanded from the _Spahi_. (Not found in Hammer.)
38. Special regulations regarding the tenths of the _Spahis_.
(Not found in Hammer.)
39. Law concerning the taxes on mills and green produce. p. 408
39. Law concerning the landlord’s share, the tenths and the
fruits. p. 408
40. Law concerning the tenths [of honey, the tax on] bees,
other taxes, etc. p. 409
41. Law concerning the sheep-tax and the fold-tax. p. 410
42. Law concerning the obligations of subjects and the tax on
prisoners. (Hammer, the slave-tax.) p. 410
42. Law concerning the half-hide-tax. (Hammer, the bride-tax.) p. 411
43. Law concerning the hide-tax and the taxes on abandoned lands. p. 411
44. Law concerning fleeing the country. p. 412
45. Law concerning the wandering hordes. p. 413
46. Law concerning the wagoners. p. 413
47. Law concerning the irregular cavalry. (Hammer, fiefs for
public service.) p. 414
48. Law concerning the Yayas and Mosellems (free foot-soldiers). p. 415
49. Law concerning the imperial foundations and the _vakfs_. p. 416
49. Regulations concerning lawsuits over land. p. 417
51. Law concerning the time of the harvest. p. 418
52. Law concerning the harvest and the designation of those
persons who receive their income out of landed property
but not at the time of harvest. (Not a separate heading
in Hammer.) p. 419
53. Special regulations concerning fiefs in regard to dating,
registering, etc. (Not found in Hammer.)
54. Law concerning the intendants of the fiscus, the receivers
of taxes, and regulations concerning the revenues of the
court. p. 419
55. Law concerning the holders of great and small fiefs, and
concerning the freedom of some military persons from
certain occasional taxes. p. 421
56. Law concerning the _Beylerbeys_, the _Sanjak Beys_, and
the _Kapuji-bashis_. p. 422
57. Law concerning the fees of judges. p. 423
57. Law concerning the contents of the _berats_ of the judges
(their diplomas of appointment). (Omitted in Hammer.)
58. Regulations concerning lawsuits between _Spahis_ and
non-Mohammedans or between two _Spahis_. p. 424
60. Law concerning taxes which are demanded from leased land
when the tenth alone is insufficient. (Not found in Hammer.)
APPENDIX IV
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE MOGUL EMPIRE IN INDIA[797]
“The uncommon abilities of most of the princes, with the
mild and humane character of all, rendered Hindostan the
most flourishing empire in the world during two complete
centuries.”—DOW.
GENERAL COMPARISON OF OTTOMAN AND INDIAN CONDITIONS
When Baber first rode down through the grim gates of India’s northwest
mountain-wall, the accession of Suleiman lay but a year in the future;
the Mogul won the battle of Panipat but four months before the Turk
was victorious at Mohacs. Thus the founding of the Mogul Empire nearly
coincided with the meridian splendor of the Ottoman power, and its
decisive battle of establishment with the victory which led to the last
great extension of Ottoman authority into Europe. Not Baber or even
Akbar, Suleiman’s contemporaries, but Aurangzeb, whose reign began a
century after Suleiman’s death, affords the closest comparison with
the Turkish monarch; yet the third battle of Panipat in 1761 marked
the virtual destruction of the Mogul Empire, whereas the second battle
of Mohacs in 1687 meant but the first noteworthy step of the Ottoman
retreat. The house of Timur has disappeared from history, while the house
of Osman still reigns over wide territories; less than two and a half
centuries of genuine sovereign rule were enjoyed by the Moguls, while six
centuries have not sufficed to measure the independent existence of the
Ottomans.
The Mogul emperors perhaps never ruled so large a territory as the
Ottoman sultans, but their lands were far more productive; moreover,
having from five to ten times as many subjects as their Western cousins
and an income in proportion, they could surpass even the Magnificent
Suleiman in display and largesse. The inferior persistence of their
dominion, therefore, suggests inferior strength and stability in their
institutions, a suggestion to which even a limited investigation lends
much support.
The Moguls shared with the Ottomans their relation to the ideas of the
Mongol and Turkish Tatars of the steppe lands, and to those of the
Persians and the Arabs. They were more directly and vitally influenced
by the Tatars and Persians, and less directly by the Arabs. Farther
than this their relations were not to the comparatively organized and
energetic civilization of the Mediterranean but to the more speculative
and passive culture of India. Over the lands into which they entered as
conquerors lay the shadow not of sternly practical Roman legalism, but of
Hindu and Buddhist contempt for things mundane.
They founded a despotism, but one that was never, even under Aurangzeb,
so closely related to the Sacred Law of Mohammed as was the government of
Suleiman. They ruled a variety of lands in a variety of relationships,
but never with the stern control exercised by the _Kaisar-i-Rûm_
(Roman emperor), the name which they gave to the Turkish ruler at
Constantinople. They enforced the obedience of many peoples, who spoke
many languages and practised many forms of religion; yet they never held
these peoples under any such iron system of subjection as that which
dominated the Christian subjects of the sultan, even to the seizure of
their children for tribute.
Since the passing of those prehistoric times when all human ideas were
solidified together into a single “crust of custom,” every nation
has probably had two leading institutions, more or less closely
connected,—the one of religion and the other of government. The foregoing
pages have shown how powerful and pervasive were the Ottoman Ruling
Institution and the Moslem Institution in the Ottoman Empire. In the
parallel organizations of the empire of the Moguls, however, it is
not possible to discern comparable unique individuality, systematic
structure, and ordered efficiency. Some allowance must be made for a
comparative lack of information, since not many Western observers have
described the more distant empire; but this fact can hardly alter the
conclusion materially. The institutional structure of the Mogul Empire
was decidedly inferior to that of the Ottoman Empire in solidity, system,
and persistent energy.
THE PERSONNEL OF THE MOGUL GOVERNMENT
Baber’s following consisted of the comrades of his many years of
fighting, an army of cavalry, artillery, and musketry composed in
ancient Turkish fashion of high-spirited men attached to their chief by
impressive leadership and open-handed generosity. Courage, military
prowess, and the nominal profession of Islam were the necessary
qualifications; differences of race, education, and Moslem doctrine
were disregarded. Warriors of Turki stock, Persians of Shiite leanings,
hardy Afghans, “Roman” artillery engineers from Stambul, were equals in
the rough brotherhood of Baber’s camp. The principle of subordination,
at least among persons of consequence, was not that of slaves to their
master, but of tribesmen to their chief, of vassals to their honored
suzerain.
When Turks had first invaded India, five centuries before, slavery as
a means of recruiting and training soldiers and governors was in full
swing. Mahmûd of Ghazni was the son of a father who had risen through
slavery. The thirteenth century saw enthroned at Delhi a dynasty of slave
kings which antedated by several decades the Mamelukes of Egypt. Late in
the fourteenth century Firoz III owned 180,000 slaves, of whom 40,000
constituted his household. The Mameluke government endured for more
than two and a half centuries, until overthrown by the more centralized
and efficient slave system of the Ottomans; but in Central Asia and
ultimately in India a new force speedily rendered the slave method, save
for some survivals, antiquated and impossible.
The dominance of the Mongols was based on the discipline of an army
of freemen who were intelligent enough willingly to render absolute
obedience to their officers as the well-tested condition of certain
success. With the break-up of the vast Mongol Empire, the lands now in
Russian Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Persia lapsed toward the horde
organization of nomad Tatars, but became more and more modified by Moslem
feudalism. Under such conditions, Timur, high-born and adventurous,
chivalrous and literary, fanatical and cruel, achieved an empire that
was large and splendid, but personal to himself, and destined to vanish
almost with its founder. Yet he presaged a time when in Asia and Europe
alike there should come, after the disintegrating individualism of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a period of the gathering together of
lands and peoples into large units under strong personal governments.
Baber, descendant of Timur in the sixth generation, descendant also of
Genghis Khan, came at the beginning of the new era. Less ruthless than
either of his great ancestors, less legal than the “Inflexible One,”
less Moslem than the “Scourge of Asia,” but possessed of much of the
leadership and military genius of both, he stands forth, by reason of
his memoirs, as one of the best known conquerors of history. His love
of carousing, his family affection, his literary bent, his toleration of
heretics and infidels, his bold leadership, his liberality in dividing
spoil, presented qualities and suggested modes of activity which were to
characterize all his descendants down to the puritanical Aurangzeb.
Thus the family life of the house of Baber was far more normal than
that of the house of Osman. In contrast with an almost unbroken line
of Ottoman slave mothers and wives, whose names with those of their
daughters have hardly survived, many of the Mogul imperial ladies are
well known. Witness the princess Gul-Badan, daughter of Baber, who like
her father wrote memoirs; the empress Nur-Jehan, who ruled India for a
time; and the empress Mumtaz-Mahal, for whom her devoted husband built
the fairest of all mausoleums. Turki princesses, ladies of high Persian
descent, and daughters of Hindu _Rajahs_, were taken into the imperial
harem, where, though women and eunuchs were present “from Russia,
Circassia, Mingrelia, Georgia, and Ethiopia,” no emperors sprang from
slave mothers during the period of greatness. With such a policy in
the family which constituted a chief element in the unity of the Mogul
Empire, it was but natural that officers and soldiers, statesmen and
public servants, should be accepted with a like catholicity. The best
fighters, of course, continued to be those who came down newly from the
high country beyond the northwest passes; and since such of these as met
success were apt to send for relatives and friends, there was continual
recruiting from among Tatars, Persians, Afghans, and Arabs,—all Moslems,
but of various sects. “Rûmis” from the Ottoman Empire were especially
useful in the artillery service. Some of them were doubtless European
renegades, but “Firinjis” or Franks were likely to come more directly
from Portugal and other European countries. Yet by no means all the brave
were from foreign lands. Many Rajputs under their own _Rajahs_ served the
Mogul emperors most acceptably, and when treated without prejudice they
were faithful. The high officers of government were usually Persians; but
Akbar was nobly served by the great Todar Mal, and appointed _Rajahs_
to govern the Punjab and Bengal. About one in eight of his paid cavalry
chiefs was a Hindu; and of the lesser civil-service positions the mere
necessity for numbers, apart from superior skill and training, required
that many should be held by Hindus.