_Decline and Death of Linnaeus._
Review of the Medical Writings of Linnaeus--His Materia
Medical System of Nosology, Theory of Medicine--His last
Work, a Continuation of the Mantissa, published in
1771--Declining State of his Health--In 1774, has an Attack
of Apoplexy, followed by Prostration of his Intellectual
Powers--Another Attack in 1776, from the Effects of which,
and Tertian Fever, he never recovers--His Death in
1778--Honours paid to his Memory.
Hitherto we have considered Linnaeus principally as a naturalist; but his
merits in another department of science were such as to entitle him to
rank among its more eminent cultivators. It will be recollected, that he
practised medicine with success at Stockholm; that he was appointed
physician to the Admiralty; that on the resignation of Roberg he
obtained the professorship of anatomy, which in the following year he
exchanged with Rosen, and became, with the consent of the chancellor of
the university, professor of botany. As the latter chair, however, was
essentially a medical one, he was bound to direct his attention to the
sanative powers of plants, as well as to their uses as articles of food,
and was moreover obliged to deliver lectures on materia medica and
dietetics. He may even be said to have been the founder of the
first-mentioned of these branches of medical science. As a text-book for
his lectures, he published an account of the medicinal substances
derived from the vegetable kingdom. This treatise, which appeared at
Stockholm in 1749, bears the title of Materia Medica, Liber I. de
Plantis digestis secundum Genera, Loca, Nomina, Qualitates, Vires, &c.
The author seems to have regarded it as one of his most successful
performances; for in his private memoirs he remarks of it, that "it is
undoubtedly the best work that has appeared in this department of
medical science."
In treating of each plant, he first gives its specific character, then a
synonyme from Caspar Bauhin, or its discoverer,--thirdly, the country of
which it is a native,--fourthly, the Swedish officinal name, the part
used, the preparations made of it, and the doses. Its qualities and
uses, its effects, the diseases in which it is employed, and the
compound medicines of which it forms an ingredient, are then mentioned.
At the end of the volume is an index of diseases, with the plants proper
for each. Haller's opinion of this work confirms that of Linnaeus
himself; for, in his Bibliotheca Botanica, he says of it,--"He has
referred to their proper genera very many plants which were highly
celebrated for their use in medicine, although their true genus was
unknown. He also praises various plants, unknown in the shops, for their
healing powers. But it is necessary to read the whole work, which is
among the best that its author has produced." Two other parts were
published afterwards, one on the animal, the other on the mineral
kingdom.
The subject of dietetics also engaged his attention in an eminent
degree. In this department, however, he did not write any specific
volume, but confined himself to his lectures, which were copious and
highly interesting.
In pathology, or rather in nosology, by which latter term is meant the
systematic arrangement and precise definition of diseases, his merits
are very considerable. His practice was no doubt too limited, and of too
short duration, to enable him to form, from his own experience, correct
ideas of all the ailments to which man is liable; but it was sufficient
to render him capable of methodizing the observations of others; and it
requires little penetration to perceive, that one man may learn more in
three years than another in fifty. The several classifications of
diseases which have been given to the world, possess various degrees of
accuracy. Dr Cullen of Edinburgh, whose Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae has
been almost universally acknowledged as one of the most successful
attempts to reduce to order the complicated phenomena of morbid action,
considers the Genera Morborum of Linnaeus as the most important work on
the subject, next to that of Sauvages. It was first published in 1759 as
an academical dissertation, and afterwards as a separate work.
In the system now mentioned he arranges the genera of diseases under
eleven classes, as follows:--
I. EXANTHEMATICI. Fevers attended with eruptions on the
akin.
II. CRITICI. Critical fevers.
III. PHLOGISTICI. Fevers from local inflammation.
IV. DOLOROSI. Painful diseases without fever.
V. MENTALES. Diseases in which the functions of the mind are
disturbed.
VI. QUIETALES. Diseases in which the voluntary and
involuntary motions and the senses are impaired.
VII. MOTORII. Diseases attended with involuntary motion of
parts whose action is ordinarily under the influence of the
will.
VIII. SUPPRESSORII. Diseases characterized by oppression of
the organs, or impeded excretions.
IX. EVACUATORII. Diseases attended with increased excretion.
X. DEFORMES. Diseases causing deformity of the body, or
change of colour in the skin.
XI. VITIA. Cutaneous, external, or palpable diseases.
Systems of nosology are no doubt useful or convenient, in the same
manner as systems of zoology and botany; but so complicated are the
phenomena of Nature, and so diversified her productions, that no
arrangement, made according to any principles hitherto assumed, can
possibly discriminate objects in conformity with all their connexions.
If this remark required illustration, it might readily be afforded by
the mere inspection of any one of the Linnaean classes or orders. Thus,
in the class Vitia there are eight orders.
1. _Humoralia._ Diseases attended with vitiated or
extravasated fluids; as emphysema, oedema, inflammation,
abscess, and gangrene.
2. _Dialytica._ Solutions of continuity; as fracture,
dislocation, contusion, wound, laceration, burn,
excoriation, chapped skin.
3. _Exulcerationes._ Purulent solutions of continuity; as
ulcer, cancer, caries, fistula, whitlow.
4. _Scabies._ Cutaneous diseases; as lepra, itch, pimples,
warts, pustule, eschar.
5. _Tumores._ Tumours or swellings; as aneurism, varix,
scirrhus, anchylosis, ganglion, exostosis.
6. _Procidentiae._ Swellings arising from dislocation of soft
parts; as rupture, prolapsus, phymosis.
7. _Deformationes._ Distortions; as rigidity of joints,
humpback, curved bones, squinting, harelip, plica polonica.
8. _Maculae._ Spots; as mole, scar, freckle, sunburn.
Now it is obvious that, in a pathological point of view, aneurism,
anchylosis, and scirrhus, have no affinity to each other, nor to spina
binda or scrofula, which are all genera of the same order. Nor have the
different orders, deformationes, procidentiae, humoralia, &c. any very
perceptible bond of affinity. But the nosological, like the botanical
system of Linnaeus, without being natural, may be useful; and it were
absurd to reject all attempts to classify diseases, because no scheme
has been or can be invented, capable of giving each state of the body,
or its various parts, its precise position in the mind. However, we have
no reason to join the outcry of his biographers against the criticism of
M. Vicq d'Azyr, who says, "he should have been the last to write on
objects that were foreign to him, because he had recourse to that spirit
of detail, and that aphoristic and figurative style, which have been
considered as defects even in the works which established his
reputation."
"The whole class of envious persons at Upsal," says Dr Stoever, "and in
other parts of Sweden, found it strange and inconsistent at first to see
the botanist Linnaeus appear on the scene as a pathologist. They made
very merry at his expense; but the goodness of his cause soon became
triumphant." That his nosology was contemptible can hardly be admitted;
but that it ever was triumphant, excepting in his own university, no
one who is desirous of adhering to truth can assert.
His theory of medicine is amusing, if not instructive. He supposes the
human body to consist of a _cerebroso-medullary_ part, of which the
nerves are processes; and a _cortical_ part, including the vascular
system and its fluids. The nervous system, which is the animated part,
derives its _nourishment_ from the finer fluids of the vascular system,
and its _energy_ from an electrical principle inhaled by the lungs. The
circulating fluids are capable of being vitiated by _acescent_ or
_putrid_ ferments, the former acting on the serum, and causing _critical
fevers_; the latter on the crassamentum, and exciting _phlogistic_
diseases. Eruptive ailments are excited by external causes, which he
supposes to be animalcula. The cortical or vascular system undergoing
continual waste, requires continual reparation, which is effected by
means of suitable diet. Its diseases arise from improper food, and are
to be remedied by _sapid_ medicines; while those of the medullary system
are cured by _olid_ substances.
Systems of nosology, theories of medicine, and classifications of
natural objects and phenomena, agree in this one respect, that they are
all eagerly embraced, strenuously defended, fall into disuse, and become
subjects of ridicule. Such must be the fate of the Linnaean system of
botany, as it has been of the other fancies of its author; and such must
be the fate of every system not founded on organic structure and its
modifications, or upon external form as connected with internal
disposition.
In 1766, he published a small work extending to only twenty-nine pages,
entitled Clavis Medicinae duplex, Exterior et Interior, which may be
considered as a syllabus of his lectures. It contains a view of his
theory of medicine, and an arrangement of drugs in thirty orders,
according to their sensible qualities.
The last book which he produced was a continuation of his Mantissa,
containing new species and genera, with a variety of emendations. Such
of his writings as have not been already mentioned, will be noticed in a
subsequent section; and in the mean time we resume our narrative,
remarking, that few individuals had a longer scientific career than he;
forty-four years having elapsed between the appearance of his first
tract, the Hortus Uplandicus (in 1731) and the Mantissa (in 1771).
It would appear that Linnaeus possessed a good constitution, although we
have seen him suffering under attacks of rheumatism, nephritis, and
gout. In 1764, as already mentioned, he had a violent attack of
pleurisy; after which he passed the period of his convalescence at his
villa of Hammarby, where, on the 9th July, he celebrated the 25th
anniversary of his marriage. The same year he had the pleasure of
marrying his eldest daughter to Lieutenant Bergencrantz.
It does not seem very easy to determine the precise nature of the
disease under which he laboured, although it is probable that it was
rheumatism and not gout. In the Latin diary of Dr Gieseke, as quoted by
Stoever, is the following passage relative to this subject:--"In 1750, I
(Linnaeus) had such a violent attack of rheumatism (malum ischiadicum),
that I had great difficulty in getting home. For a whole week the pain,
which was insupportable, prevented me from sleeping; for which reason I
would have taken opium, but was prevented by a friend who came in on the
seventh evening. My wife asked me if I would eat some strawberries. I
will try, said I. It was about the beginning of the strawberry-season,
and they were in good condition. Half an hour after, I fell asleep, and
continued so till two in the morning. When I awoke, I wondered that the
pain had abated, and asked whether I had been asleep, which the persons
who were watching assured me had been the case. I asked if they had more
of the strawberries, and ate up the remainder. I then slept till
daylight, when the pain was about my ankles. Next day I ate as many
strawberries as I could, and on the second morning was free of pain. I
thought that mortification had taken place; but the part was entire, and
I was able to get up, although I felt weak. Next year, about the same
time, I had an attack, and another the following year, but milder, and
it was always alleviated by the strawberries; and from that time I have
been free of the disease." This conversation took place in 1771.
In the spring of 1772, he was visited by Dr Murray, professor of
medicine and botany at Gottingen, who had been one of his pupils, and
had long enjoyed his confidence and esteem. At this period he possessed
good health, and was as ardent as ever in his endeavours for the
improvement of science. He was appointed rector of the university for
the third time, and, during the six months in which he discharged the
duties of that office, the conduct of the young men was highly
exemplary. When he retired, deputations from all the nations of the
students came to present their warmest thanks, and to beg his
permission to print the address which he delivered on resigning.
In 1773, he had another attack of lumbago, and was moreover affected
with an epidemic sore throat; but on the whole his health did not suffer
materially. This year, a committee of six bishops, six doctors of
divinity, and eight literary and scientific individuals, was appointed
by the government to undertake a better translation of the Bible into
the Swedish language. Linnaeus was among the number, having been chosen
on account of his knowledge of the animals and plants mentioned in the
Scriptures; but it does not appear that he ever engaged seriously in the
undertaking, although he made two journeys to Stockholm for the purpose.
While delivering one of his lectures in the botanic garden, in the
beginning of May 1774, he had a slight attack of apoplexy, from which he
did not recover for some time; and from this period his health rapidly
declined. It is said, that the vexation produced by the publication of a
letter in which he had confidentially disclosed to a friend the history
of his youth, and especially the progress of his courtship, was the
exciting cause of this fatal affection. The illustrious Haller, with
whom he had corresponded from 1737 to 1766, published a volume of
letters, written in Latin by men of literary eminence, and addressed to
himself; and, having been always extremely jealous of Linnaeus, thought
proper to print all his epistles, in order to defend his own character
against the accusations of envy which had been but too justly preferred.
When he read these communications he was violently agitated, and from
that moment his health became perceptibly worse. The apoplectic attack
followed soon after; and from a comparison of testimonies on the
subject, it seems to us extremely probable that it was occasioned by the
causes now assigned.
He did not, however, despair, nor give himself up to inactivity under
these distressing circumstances. A Swedish gentleman returning from
Surinam, where he had been residing on his estates, brought with him a
collection of plants preserved in spirits of wine, which he presented to
the king. The latter sent them to Linnaeus, whose health was much
benefited by the pleasure which the possession of these treasures
inspired. He immediately commenced a description of them, which was
published in the Amaenitates Academicae,--a work respecting which we shall
have occasion to speak in another section.
After this period, however, little remained of his former vigour. His
body feeble and emaciated, his mind stripped of its distinguishing
faculties, he rapidly sunk into decrepitude. In 1775, he thus describes
his state in his diary:--"Linnaeus limps, can hardly walk, speaks
unintelligibly, and can scarcely write." Even in this condition he
received pleasure from occasional visits to his museum, and more
especially from the regard of his sovereign, who did him the honour of
going from Ekhelsund to Upsal for the purpose of seeing him, and
continued in conversation with him a whole afternoon. The following
year, finding his infirmities greatly increased, he requested permission
to retire from his offices; but the king would not grant it. On the
contrary, his majesty doubled his salary, and gave him two farms, which
his children were to inherit. The last words inscribed in his diary are
the following:--"Horrebow and Berger, both Danes, and Gruno from
Hamburg, came to Upsal as pupils; but Linnaeus is so ill that he can with
difficulty speak to them; for the tertian fever is added to paralysis,
and his weakness is extreme."
In the winter of 1776, he was reduced to the most deplorable condition;
and as in the day of his mental vigour he had presented a brilliant
example of the human intellect, so now in that of his prostration did he
afford an instance of the utter feebleness of our nature. Another attack
of apoplexy caused paralysis of his right side, in which he had most
frequently suffered pain; his memory failed him to such a degree that he
could not remember the names of the most familiar objects; his
incoherent and unconnected words indicated a total decay of the powers
of his understanding; he could no longer feed, dress, or clean himself;
he could not even move from one place to another. The fever continued,
and he became extremely emaciated. Yet even in this state he contrived
to write a few scarcely-legible letters, one of which was to his friend
Baek. It was dated the 9th December 1776, and contained the following
sentence:--"God has determined to break all the bonds that attach me to
terrestrial objects." Yet to the last he clung to these with a
pertinacity as deplorable as it is surprising in a man who had
manifested in his writings, if not in his actions, no small degree of
piety. For several years previous to his death, his diary contains
little else than an enumeration of the incidents most calculated to
gratify his vanity; such as a visit or letter from the king, the
adoption of his system in the botanic garden of Paris, the Pope's
approval of his works, and similar occurrences.
At the beginning of 1777, he was still at Upsal, and continued in the
same lamentable state, although he occasionally enjoyed intervals of
intellectual vigour. In general, however, his powers had so much failed,
that he ceased to recognise his own works when they were placed before
him; and, it is said, even forgot his name. When the season advanced, he
was carried to his country-house at Hammarby, where he remained during
the summer. In fine weather he was occasionally taken into the garden or
museum, that he might see his collections and books, which always gave
him pleasure. In autumn his health improved a little, and he returned to
Upsal; but, although he had intimated that he was still desirous of
rendering himself useful to the university, so far as his decayed
faculties might permit, he was unequal to the delivery of his
introductory lecture, which was therefore read by his son.
He was still able to go out, however, although the coachman had orders
not to take him beyond the limits of the town. In December, he got upon
a sledge, and forced his servant to drive him to Safja, about a league
distant. The family, finding that he did not return as usual, became
extremely uneasy, and sent in search of him. He was found stretched on
the covering of his vehicle, and quietly smoking his pipe by the
farmer's fire; nor was it without difficulty that he was induced to go
home. This is the last remarkable act of his life that has been
recorded; and we have nothing more to add, but that his sufferings
daily increased, until, worn out with disease, he expired on the 10th
January 1778, in the 71st year of his age. According to the report of
his son, in a letter to Mutis, he died of a gouty suppression of urine,
terminating in gangrene.
The honours paid to the memory of this great naturalist were
correspondent to the high estimation in which he was held. His death was
regarded as an irreparable loss to science; and he is said to have
"carried to the grave, with the grief of his fellow-citizens, the
admiration of the learned of all countries. Upsal was in deep sorrow on
the day of his funeral." His body was conveyed to the cathedral, where
it was committed to the tomb. Eighteen doctors, who had been of the
number of his pupils, supported the pall, and all the professors,
officers, and students of the university, followed in procession.
The king, Gustavus III., ordered a medal to be struck in commemoration
of him who had contributed so essentially to elevate the Swedish
character in the scientific world; and in 1778, at a convention of the
Diet, expressed himself in the following terms:--"The University of
Upsal has also attracted my attention. I shall always remember with
pleasure that the chancellorship of that university was intrusted to me
before I ascended the throne. I have instituted in it a new
professorship; but, alas! I have lost a man whose renown filled the
world, and whom his country will ever be proud to reckon among her
children. Long will Upsal remember the celebrity which it acquired by
the name of Linnaeus." The Academy of Belles Lettres, History, and
Antiquities of Stockholm, offered a prize for the best panegyric in
Latin, French, or Italian. One written in French was received in 1786,
but the Academy judging it unsuitable, offered a second prize, which in
1792 was conferred on Mr Gunnar Baekmann, a Swede. The late Dr Hope of
Edinburgh erected to his memory, in the botanic garden there, a monument
bearing the simple inscription, "Linnaeo posuit, J. Hope;" and the Duc
d'Ayen-Noailles placed in his garden a cenotaph, with the bust of the
naturalist in a medallion, surrounded by the _Linnaea_ and _Ayenia_,--the
latter plant having been dedicated to himself. Three eloges or
panegyrics were pronounced; the first by his friend Dean Baek, at a
meeting of the Royal Society of Stockholm; the second by M. Condorcet,
in the Parisian Academy of Sciences; the third by M. Vicq d'Azyr, in the
Medical Society of Paris. In 1787, an association was formed in that
city, under the name of La Societe Linneenne, which subsequently changed
its designation into that of Societe d'Histoire Naturelle. In 1788, the
Linnaean Society of London was established by Dr Smith and other admirers
of the Swedish sage; and in 1790, another, bearing the same appellation,
was constituted at Leipsic. It is unnecessary to mention all the honours
that have been paid to this illustrious professor, as his name has been
distinguished in all civilized countries beyond that of any cultivator
of natural history, and in our own is as familiar as that of Newton or
Herschel. We shall therefore conclude with stating, that in 1822 the
students of the university of which he had so long been the chief
ornament, resolved to erect a statue as a token of their admiration of
his character. It was executed by a native artist, and in 1829 was
erected upon a pedestal of porphyry.
Besides the three medals which were struck in Sweden to perpetuate his
memory, his portrait has been repeatedly engraved. It appears, for
example, in the edition of the Systema Naturae, published at Leipsic in
1798; in the second edition of the Species Plantarum, published at
Stockholm in 1762; and in the sixth edition of the Genera Plantarum,
which appeared in 1748. In Trapp's translation of his life by Stoever is
another likeness engraved by Heath, which, being the most characteristic
that we could find, has been selected for the purpose of adorning the
present volume. In the biography of Linnaeus by M. Fee, are two
lithographic portraits, one taken at the age of 20, the other at that of
60.
On inspecting our engraving, the physiognomist will readily detect
several of the more prominent traits of his character. The person
represented is evidently an active, lively little man, possessed of much
acuteness, great judgment, love of order, a self-estimation not
susceptible of being diminished by opposition, and a love of
approbation, prompting his benevolent mind to generous labours.