_Studies, Adventures, and Travels of Linnaeus, from 1733 to 1738._
Linnaeus returns to Upsal--Is prevented from lecturing by
Rosen, whom he attempts to assassinate--Accompanies some
young Men on an Excursion to Fahlun, where he is introduced
to the Governor of the Province, with whose Sons he travels
to Norway--Returning to Fahlun, he delivers Lectures, falls
in Love, is furnished with Money by his Mistress, and
prepares to go Abroad for his Degree--He visits Hamburg,
detects an Imposture there, and is obliged to make his
Escape--Obtains his Degree at Harderwyk--Proceeds to Leyden,
where he publishes his Systema Naturae, and waits upon
Boerhaave--Goes to Amsterdam, is kindly received by Burmann,
and lodges with him--Is employed by Cliffort, publishes
various Botanical Works--Goes to England, visits Sir Hans
Sloane, Miller, and Dillenius--Returns to Holland, publishes
several Works--Goes to Leyden, and resides with Van
Royen--Publishes the Ichthyologia of Artedi, who was drowned
in Amsterdam--Becomes melancholy, and falls into a violent
Fever--On his Recovery goes to Paris, where he is kindly
received by the Jussieus--Returns to Sweden after an Absence
of Three Years and a Half.
On returning to Upsal, Linnaeus was elected a member of the Royal Academy
of Sciences; but this distinction was the only reward which he obtained
for having undergone so many fatigues, excepting a small bursary, of
which he was soon deprived. Now, however, he expected a more favourable
reception in society, and in 1733 began to give public lectures on
botany, chemistry, and mineralogy. Unfortunately for his success, he had
not yet taken his degree,--a circumstance which legally disqualified
him for such an office; and a rival, Dr Nicholas Rosen, professor of
anatomy, instigated, it would appear, by motives of envy, denounced him
to the senate of the university. He was summoned to appear before that
august body; and, although several of its members were disposed to
favour him, he was prohibited from continuing his course.
Fortune then seemed bent upon thwarting him in all his projects.
Stimulated by revenge, he laid wait for Rosen, and, assailing him with
the utmost fury, attempted to run him through with his sword, when the
bystanders interfering, wrested the weapon from his hand. For this
offence he would have been expelled, had not Celsius interposed, and got
him off with no other punishment than a reprimand. Men of quick
tempers seldom cherish hatred; but Linnaeus was of a peculiar
disposition,--ambitious, confident of superiority, irritable, and
obstinate. Moreover, he was in desperate circumstances, utterly
destitute of all means of subsistence, and the world seemed to have
conspired against him. He was still determined to stab his enemy to the
heart, should he ever meet him in the streets. The conflict of his mind,
under such excitement, must have been truly painful. He awoke one night
from a dream of horror, seriously considered what he was about, and
resolved, instead of assassinating Rosen, to expel the demon from his
own breast.
An assistant-professorship being vacant in the University of Lund, he
endeavoured to procure it, but, although his claims were supported by
Stobaeus and others, was unsuccessful. Prohibited from lecturing, he was
only prevented from falling into despair by the consciousness of
superior intellect, by cherishing a plan of botanical reform, and by
still fixing his eyes on the prospect, however distant, of future
independence. In the mean time, some of his former pupils, resolving to
make an excursion to Norberg, Bipsberg, Afwestadt, Garpesberg, and
Fahlun, solicited the benefit of his knowledge and experience in
conducting their researches.
At the last-named town, where he occupied himself assiduously in
exploring the mines, he was introduced to Baron Reuterholm, governor of
the province of Dalecarlia, who was fond of natural history, and
especially of mineralogy. Having two sons whom he was desirous of
sending upon a journey, for the purpose of improving themselves in that
department of science, he resolved to place them under the guidance of
Linnaeus. They set out in the spring of 1734, and extended their travels
as far as the mines of Roraas in Norway.
Returning to Fahlun, he commenced lecturing on mineralogy, under the
patronage of the governor, and found himself in all respects more
comfortably situated than he had ever been at Upsal. He also obtained
some employment in the medical line, and contracted an intimacy with
John Browall, the tutor of the baron's children, who afterwards became
bishop of Abo. Although he was now in comparatively easy circumstances,
his friend advised him to procure a degree, and settle as a regular
practitioner. This, however, being impracticable, on account of his want
of funds, he turned his thoughts to matrimony, in the hope of being able
to accomplish a suitable establishment.
There was a physician at Fahlun named More, or Moraeus, who was reputed
rich, and in fact was one of the wealthiest individuals in the
district. He had two daughters, of whom the elder, Sarah Elizabeth, was
in all respects to the mind of Linnaeus, who became a frequent visitor,
and soon ingratiated himself with the family. Finding that the object of
his choice was not less pleased with his person and manners, he
determined to ask her in marriage; and, summoning all his resolution,
made known his views to her father, who, although he had no objection to
the character of the suitor, was little satisfied either with his
fortune or his prospects. However, he promised that, should he succeed
in obtaining his diploma, the young lady should be consigned to him
after a period of three years.
It was customary at this time for Swedish students to take their degree
at some foreign university, where it could be procured at the least
expense. Hitherto Linnaeus had been unable to qualify himself in this
respect for the practice of his profession; but love now came to the aid
of ambition. Miss Moraeus, who was thrifty as well as handsome, had saved
about 100 dollars of the pocket-money which she had received at various
times, and offered them to her lover. To this sum he succeeded in adding
a little by his own exertions, though the whole did not amount to more
than thirty-six Swedish ducats.
After visiting his friends, weeping over the grave of his mother, who
had died some months before, preparing his academical dissertations, and
arranging his papers, he set out from Fahlun, in April 1735, accompanied
by a young man named Sholberg. Travelling through the southern provinces
of Sweden, Jutland, and Holstein, he arrived at Hamburg, where he
remained for some time, inspecting the collections and curiosities
which that celebrated city contained. In the museum of John von
Spreckelsen was a preparation of great value, presenting the appearance
of a serpent with seven heads. It had even been pledged for a loan of
10,000 merks, and was in fact considered one of the most remarkable
objects in the cabinets of the curious. Linnaeus, however, on minutely
inspecting the monster, discovered that the heads consisted of the jaws
of a small quadruped covered over with the skin of a serpent. The wonder
ceased, Spreckelsen nearly became bankrupt, and the stranger was obliged
to leave Hamburg in order to avoid the enmities in which his sagacity
had involved him.
Continuing his journey to Holland, he arrived at Harderwyk at the end of
May, and made application for his degree, which he received on the 24th
June. His thesis was on intermittent fevers, one of the principal causes
of which he maintained to be water impregnated with argillaceous
substances. Though he had now accomplished his chief object, he
resolved, before returning to Sweden, to make himself known to some of
the Dutch literati; and for this purpose proceeded to Leyden, where he
hired a lodging. Here he made the acquaintance of Professor Royen, Dr
Van Swieten, Lieberkuhn, Gronovius, and several others.
By the advice and assistance of the last of these scholars, he published
his Systema Naturae, in fourteen folio pages. This little work,
containing a compendious classification of the three kingdoms of nature,
was very favourably received. Boerhaave, one of the most illustrious
physicians that the world has ever seen, was at the same time the most
eminent individual in the University of Leyden. Linnaeus was therefore
anxious to see him; but finding an interview impracticable in the
ordinary way, on account of the great man's constant occupation, he
resolved to send him a copy of his treatise, accompanied with a letter.
The consequence was an invitation to meet him at his villa near the
city, where he had a botanical garden. On entering into conversation
with the young foreigner, the venerable professor, astonished at his
knowledge, strongly advised him to remain in Holland, where he might be
sure of making a fortune; but the other, prevented by poverty from
adopting this counsel, was obliged to set out on the following day.
Arriving at Amsterdam with a recommendation to Professor Burmann, he was
kindly received by that gentleman, who was then occupied with his
description of the plants of Ceylon. Linnaeus himself relates the
occurrences which took place during this interview: "'Do you wish to see
my plants?' asked Burmann, 'which of them would you inspect?' He held
out one, and observed, 'It is very rare.' I begged a single flower,
which I examined after softening it in my mouth, and pronounced it to be
a species of laurus. 'It is not a laurus,' said Burmann. 'But it is,'
said I; 'it is the cinnamon-tree.'--'It certainly is the cinnamon,'
rejoined Burmann. I then convinced him that this tree was a species of
laurus, and so of other plants. At length he said, 'Will you help me
with my work on Ceylon, and you shall lodge with myself?'" To this
proposal the other assented, delighted with the prospect of at once
adding to his reputation and his knowledge.
In Burmann's house he found a collection of natural objects and an
extensive library, both of which were of great use to him. The time
passed pleasantly enough, and he deferred his return to Sweden till the
following spring; about which period, a circumstance occurred that
proved of great advantage to him. Dr George Cliffort, burgomaster at
Amsterdam and one of the directors of the Dutch East India Company, who
was a zealous lover of natural science, was in need of a domestic
physician to take daily care of his health. Boerhaave, who was his
medical attendant, recommended Linnaeus, whom he represented as being
also an excellent botanist, and capable of arranging his botanic garden.
Cliffort accordingly invited Burmann and Linnaeus to Hartecamp, his
villa, where they found many new plants from the Cape of Good Hope. The
young Swede pointed out those which had not been described, and evinced
so accurate a knowledge of botany, that the burgomaster made him a
proposal of free board and lodging, with a salary of 1000 florins. The
terms were accepted with no small satisfaction.
This year he published a tract which he had commenced at Upsal,--his
Fundamenta Botanica,--in which he exhibited the basis of his new system
in 365 aphorisms. About the same time he printed his Bibliotheca
Botanica, another small work, the materials of which he had found in the
libraries of Spreckelsen, Burmann, Gronovius, and Cliffort. A
description of the banana-tree (_Musa paradisiaca_), which had flowered
in the garden of his patron, formed the subject of a third treatise. The
Imperial Academy of Naturalists at Vienna admitted him as a member,
under the honourable appellation of Dioscorides the Second, and his
name began to be known throughout Germany.
Cliffort being desirous of extending his collection by obtaining new
species from England, resolved to send Linnaeus to that country, which he
did in the latter part of July, limiting the period of his absence to
twelve days. The passage from Rotterdam to Harwich occupied eight; and
the stranger, finding himself surrounded by attractions, was in no haste
to return, even to the elysium of Hartecamp. He arrived in London, with
a letter of introduction from Boerhaave to the celebrated Sir Hans
Sloane. Whether the venerable physician meant to make merry at the
expense of the naturalists, or whether he really thought they both
deserved the compliment which he paid to them in his note, let the
reader determine:--"Linnaeus, who will give you this letter, is alone
worthy of seeing you, alone worthy of being seen by you. He who shall
see you both together shall see a pair, whose like will scarcely be
found in the world."
Notwithstanding this high encomium, Sir Hans exhibited no kindliness of
feeling towards him. He was in fact a person who had grown old in
self-esteem. Cliffort was desirous of procuring some plants from the
garden at Chelsea, and his agent accordingly waited upon Mr Miller, who
listened to his request with very little respect. At a subsequent visit,
however, the Englishman became in some degree sensible of the merits of
the young foreigner, and furnished him with the specimens which he had
solicited. Proceeding to Oxford, he presented himself before the
celebrated Dillenius, professor of botany, who received him much in the
same way as the others had done. "See," quoth Dillenius to his patron
Sherard, who happened to be present at the interview, "this is the young
man who confounds all botany." Although the Swede was ignorant of the
language spoken by these islanders, he readily guessed at the meaning of
"confounds," but thought it prudent to take no notice of the accusation.
They then went to the garden, but the professor still treated the
presumptuous youth with undisguised contempt. Next day, he waited upon
Dillenius previous to his departure. "Before I go," said he, "I have one
favour to request; tell me why you lately used those words about
confounding botany." He refused to explain; but when Linnaeus insisted
that he should, "Come this way," said he; so the sheets of half of the
Genera Plantarum were referred to. On almost every page were the letters
N. B. When he asked what they meant, Dillenius said they marked the
false genera. He maintained that the genera were not false, and the
Oxonian referred to a plant in the garden, which he and other botanists
considered as having three stamens. It was found to have only one, as
his opponent had alleged. "O!" quoth Dillenius, "it may be so
accidentally in a single flower;" but behold, all the flowers were the
same; for when they examined a number, all turned out as the Swedish
youth had described them. The professor had been slow of belief, it is
true; but he now gave due honour to his visiter, detained him several
days, and supplied him with all the plants which Cliffort required.
In a letter to his friend Dr Richardson, dated August 25, 1736,
Dillenius expresses the following opinion of him:--"A botanist is
arisen in the North, who has founded a new method on the stamens and
pistils, whose name is Linnaeus. He has published Fundamenta Botanica,
Bibliotheca Botanica, Systema Naturae; and is now printing in Holland his
Characteres, and his Flora Lapponica. He is a Swede, and has travelled
over Lapland. He has a thorough insight and knowledge of botany, though
I am afraid his method will not hold. He came hither, and stayed about
eight days, but is now gone back to Sweden."
On his return to Holland, which took place in September, Linnaeus
continued his researches with increased diligence. In the course of the
year 1737, he laid before the scientific world about two hundred printed
sheets, not of compilation, nor of fiction, but for the most part
completely original. The Genera Plantarum, containing the characters of
all the genera of plants according to the number, form, situation, and
proportion of their organs of generation, was the first work published
by him after his return from England. This treatise exhibited 935
genera, to which were added during the same year sixty others, in a
supplement, to which he also appended a concise view of his system. A
full account of the plants observed by him in Lapland, arranged
according to the method invented by himself, formed his next
undertaking. It was dedicated to the Royal Society of Upsal, and
contained a brief physico-geographical description of the country. At
the solicitation of Gronovius, he permitted one of the productions of
that northern region to be named after himself, _Linnaea borealis_. The
great object of his residence at Hartecamp was now completed by the
publication of his Hortus Cliffortianus, in which were described all the
species of plants cultivated in the burgomaster's garden. The Critica
Botanica, in which he attempted to reform the absurd nomenclature that
then prevailed, and the Viridarium Cliffortianum, describing the
greenhouse-plants of Cliffort's establishment, were the other books
published by him during this year.
Boerhaave, who had been in a great measure the author of his good
fortune in Holland, now procured for him the appointment of physician in
ordinary to the Dutch colony of Surinam, which, however, he declined,
both on account of the insalubrity of the climate, and because he could
now entertain the prospect of a more eminent station. He therefore
recommended a young friend named Bartsch, who died in six months after
his arrival in South America.
When about to depart from Leyden, Linnaeus went to take leave of
Boerhaave. The interview, which, however melancholy, was very
flattering, is thus related by him: "That great man, who was affected
with a dropsy of the chest which forced him to keep himself always
sitting in his bed to prevent suffocation, would not receive visiters,
but admitted me to bid him farewell. Summoning the little strength that
remained in him, he raised my hand to his lips, and said: 'I have
finished my career, and all that I have been permitted to do I have
done; may God preserve you, who have yet a greater task to perform! What
the learned world expected from me it has obtained; but it expects much
more from you, my dear son. Farewell, farewell, my dear Linnaeus!'"
Having gone with Cliffort to Amsterdam, and afterwards to Leyden, he
visited among others his friend Van Royen, professor of botany, who
having made proposals of marriage to Miss Boerhaave, the sole heiress of
the great physician, had been rejected, and therefore vowed hostility to
the family. The botanic garden there had been arranged and described
agreeably to Boerhaave's method; but the other now resolved to alter the
disposition, and adopt the system of Linnaeus. He accordingly offered him
a salary of eight hundred florins, if he would live with him, and assist
in the execution of this scheme. Influenced by respect for his deceased
friend, he would not countenance the alteration, although he devised a
plan by which neither his benefactor nor himself should receive the
honour. He remained with Van Royen, classed the plants after a principle
of his own invention, and drew up a catalogue of them, which was
published in the name of that teacher.
The next work which he printed was produced by the genius and industry
of Artedi. When he resided at Leyden, previous to his going to
Hartecamp, he had the pleasure of meeting this friend of his youth, who
had left Sweden in 1734, and gone to England to prosecute his scientific
labours. From thence he went to Holland for the purpose of obtaining his
degree, which he was unable to accomplish on account of his extreme
poverty. Linnaeus recommended him to Seba, an apothecary at Amsterdam,
and author of a large work on natural history, who received him as his
assistant. But soon after, returning home in a dark night, he fell into
a canal and was drowned. His countryman had the melancholy satisfaction
of depositing his remains in the grave; and having induced Cliffort to
purchase his manuscripts, which were detained for debt, he arranged and
committed them to the press. This tract, in his opinion, was the best
that had appeared on the subject of fishes. He also published his own
Classes Plantarum, in which he presented a general view of all the
botanical systems that had been previously proposed.
His ambition was now on the point of being attained. Not only were his
works received with approbation, but his principles had been adopted by
several teachers. He had also formed connexions in Holland which
promised to be of the greatest advantage to him; and the Dutch, desirous
of securing his services, proposed that he should make a botanical
voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, with the promise of a professorship on
his return.
But Linnaeus about this time was seized with an ardent desire to revisit
his native country, and fell into a state of extreme depression of
spirits, succeeded by a violent fever, which lasted upwards of six
weeks. His excessive application to study may be considered as the
source of his complaints; and perhaps to this may be added his
disquietude concerning the daughter of Moraeus. But it does not, however,
appear that his love for Elizabeth was equal to that for botany or even
for his own renown; for though the stated period had elapsed, he still
resolved to make a journey to Paris before returning to the place of his
birth.
He reached that capital in the beginning of May 1738, and was kindly
received by the two Jussieus, one of whom was the successor of
Tournefort.--It is related by M. Fee, that on his arrival he went first
to the Garden of Plants, where Bernard de Jussieu was describing some
exotics in Latin. There was one which the demonstrator had not yet
determined, and which seemed to puzzle him. The Swede looked on in
silence, but, observing the hesitation of the learned professor, cried
out,--"Haec planta faciem Americanam habet,--It has the appearance of an
American plant." Jussieu, surprised, turned about quickly and
exclaimed,--"You are Linnaeus."--"I am, sir," was the reply. The lecture
was stopped, and Bernard gave the learned stranger an affectionate
welcome. Through the kind offices of these amiable men and excellent
botanists, he was introduced to many of the literati of Paris, and
obtained access to the libraries, collections of natural objects, and
public institutions. The French, however, were by no means disposed to
adopt his views: "He is a young enthusiast," they said, "who confounds
all, and whose only merit consists in having reduced botany to a state
of anarchy." He was, notwithstanding, admitted a corresponding member of
the Academie des Sciences. He then visited Versailles, accompanied by
his two friends, who defrayed all his expenses, and showed him the
public libraries, the museums, and the most celebrated private
collections, especially that of Reaumur. "Linnaeus," says he, in his
autograph memoirs, "was now desirous of returning to Sweden without
further delay, for time seemed to him too valuable to allow him to
engage in studying the manners and language of the French. He never had
a genius for languages, nor could he ever render himself familiar with
the English, French, German, or even the Lapland tongues. He felt the
same difficulties with respect to Dutch, although he had resided three
years in Holland. This, however, fortunately did not prevent him from
making himself sufficiently understood. After seeing all the curiosities
at Paris, he went to Rouen in the dog-days. There he embarked for the
Cattegat, with a favourable wind, and after crossing the Sound landed at
Helsingburg. He immediately visited his old father at Stenbrohult,
rested there a few days, and set out for Fahlun. After being formally
betrothed to his bride, he proceeded to Stockholm, where he arrived in
September."
He had left his native country in April 1734, and returned in the autumn
of 1738, having been absent three years and a half. In the course of
this period, he visited Holland, England, and France, formed
acquaintance with many eminent naturalists, obtained his medical degree,
published numerous works on botany, and extended his fame over all
Europe.
With respect to the improvements which he made in that branch of natural
history, it is unnecessary here to enter into any detail, as it is
proposed to speak particularly of them in a subsequent volume. It may be
sufficient to remark, that there had not previously been any good
arrangement of plants; that the principles of the science had not been
laid down in a satisfactory manner; that the nomenclature was barbarous
and unsuitable; the mode of distinguishing species rude and inefficient;
and that, in short, the works on this subject were little better than a
chaos of names and unintelligible descriptions. Some writers maintain,
indeed, that he did more harm than good, when he became the legislator
of botany. But their opinion can deceive those only who, too idle or too
weak to judge for themselves, adopt the sentiments of their teachers
with a deference unworthy of the student of nature.