to chastise the barbarians, that Constantine is said to have
witnessed the supernatural appearance which induced him to embrace
Christianity, and establish it henceforth as the religion of the
empire. While meditating in his tent on the dangers that surrounded
him, and praying for divine guidance and protection amidst them,
there is said to have appeared over against him in the heavens a
pillar of light in the form of a cross, bearing this inscription,
“By this overcome.” Those who were attached to paganism looked
upon this as a most inauspicious omen, but it made a different
impression on the Emperor. He caused a royal standard to be made,
like the appearance he had seen in the heavens. This was always
carried before him in his war as an ensign of victory and celestial
protection. Soon after this event he embraced the religion of
Christ, and a little while after encountered Maxentius, his
opponent, whom he utterly defeated in a terrible battle--Maxentius
himself having been drowned while attempting to cross the river
Tiber.
CONSTANTINOPLE.--Taken by the western crusaders in 1204. Retaken in
1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew 6000 of the people, A.D.
1453. Ever since possessed by the Turks.
COPENHAGEN.--Capital of Denmark. It was bombarded by the English,
under Nelson and Admiral Parker. Of twenty-three ships belonging
to the Danes, eighteen were taken or destroyed, April 2nd, 1801.
Again, after another bombardment of three days, the city and fleet
surrendered to Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart, September 7th,
1807. Immense naval stores and eighteen sail of the line, fifteen
frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gunboats were captured.
CORNET.--An instrument of music of the nature of a trumpet. In
modern usage, a cornet is a commissioned officer of cavalry next
below a lieutenant who bears the ensign or colors of a troop.
CORONEA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Athenians and Allies and
the Spartans. The King of the Spartans, engaging the Allies,
completely defeated them, B.C. 394.
CORPORAL.--The lowest officer of a company next below a
sergeant. The corporal of a ship of war is an officer under the
master-at-arms, employed to teach the sailors the use of small
arms. Napoleon was familiarly known among his troops by the name of
the Little Corporal, and as he used to say there was just one step
between the sublime and the ridiculous, so opposite extremes are
taken in his titles. Emperor! Corporal!
CORUNNA, BATTLE OF.--Sir John Moore commanded the British army of
about 15,000 men, and had just accomplished a safe retreat, when
they were attacked by the French with a force of 20,000. They were
completely repulsed, but the loss of the British was immense. Sir
John Moore was struck by a cannon ball which carried off his left
shoulder and part of his collar bone, leaving the arm dangling by
the flesh. He died immediately. In the evening of the day of battle
the remains of the splendid British army embarked at Corunna,
January 16th, 1809. Previous to the battle, the army under their
illustrious leader, had accomplished an arduous yet honorable
retreat, for many leagues through an enemy’s country.
CRACOW.--It was taken by Charles XII, in 1702. Taken and retaken
several times by the Russians, and Kosciusko expelled the Russians,
March 24th, 1794, but it surrendered to the Prussians the same
year. Occupied by 10,000 Russians, September, 1831; seized by
Austria, and incorporated into that empire, November 16th, 1846.
CRESSY.--Fought between the English and French, August 26th, 1346.
In the month of July in the year 1346, King Edward, at the head
of an army of 30,000 men, landed at La Hogue, in Normandy. He was
accompanied by his son, the Prince of Wales, though only fifteen
years of age, and by his principal nobility. Having taken several
towns, he moved along the left bank of the Seine, which river he
wished to cross, in order to join an army of Flemings in Picardy.
But he found the bridges all broken, and King Philip, at the head
of a numerous army, followed his motions on the opposite bank of
the river. At length Edward contrived to repair one of the broken
bridges, and to pass over unknown to Philip; and he then marched
rapidly till he reached the river Somme; but he there again found
all the bridges secured, and learned that Philip was at Amiens with
100,000 men. Being informed that there was a ford near the town
of Abbeville, which might be passed when the tide was low, Edward
set out for it at midnight; but when the English reached it, the
waters were not sufficiently low; and while they were waiting, a
large body of French cavalry came down to oppose their passage. The
English horsemen, however, gallantly plunged into the stream, drove
off the enemy, and gained the opposite bank. The whole army was
over when King Philip arrived, and the rising of the tide obliged
him to go round by the bridge of Abbeville.
Though the French army was nearly four times as numerous as his
own, King Edward resolved to give it battle. He drew up his troops
in three divisions on an eminence behind the village of Creci or
Cressy. The prince of Wales, aided by the Earls of Oxford and
Warwick, led the first, the King himself commanded the last. At
dawn (the day was the 26th of August), Edward having heard mass
and received the sacrament, rode along the lines, cheering his
men, and at ten o’clock they sat down and took their breakfast
in their ranks. The French, meantime, advanced from Abbeville in
confusion and disorder. A storm of thunder and rain came on and
lasted through a great part of the day; but at five o’clock in the
afternoon, the sky becoming clear, Philip ordered a body of Génoese
cross-bowmen, in his service, to begin the battle. The Génoese
gave a shout, and discharged their bolts; the English archers, who
were posted in front, showered in return their arrows of a yard
in length; and the Génoese, unable to re-charge their ponderous
crossbows, fell into disorder. The count of Alençon then charged
the first division of the English with a numerous body of cavalry.
The second line advanced to its aid, and a knight was sent off to
King Edward, who was viewing the battle from the top of a windmill,
to pray him to send more help. “Is my son slain or wounded?” said
the King. “No, sire.” “Then,” replied he, “tell Warwick, he shall
have no aid. Let the boy win his spurs.” When this message was
brought to the English, it redoubled their courage; and the French
were at length totally routed, with immense loss. “Fair son,” cried
Edward to the Prince, as he clasped him to his bosom after the
battle, “Fair son, continue your career. You have acted nobly, and
shown yourself worthy of me and the crown.”
The person of the highest rank who fell in this great battle was
John, king of Bohemia. This prince, who was blind from age, ordered
four of his knights to lead him into the thick of the battle. They
interlaced his and their own bridles, and rushed forward, and
all were slain. The crest of the King of Bohemia, three ostrich
feathers, and his motto, _Ich dien_, i.e. _I serve_, were adopted
by the Prince of Wales, and still are those of the heir-apparent of
the crown of England.
CRIMEA, LANDING IN THE.--_Crimean War._--The following graphic
description is from Emerson’s Sebastopol:--“At length the great
fleet, nearly 400 vessels in all, on the 7th of September, 1854,
a memorable day thenceforth, set sail for its destination. What
that destination was none knew. Orders were issued to rendezvous
off the Isle of Serpents, near the Sulina mouth of the Danube. The
scene, when the immense flotilla was fairly under weigh, was of
the most exciting and animating character. Every ship bore on its
side the number of the regiment and nature of troops it conveyed,
and carried a distinguishing flag. As night closed in, lanterns
signalling the division to which it belonged were displayed, and
an illumination, such as the waters of the Euxine never reflected,
was witnessed by the sharers in the daring adventure. No incident
of these modern practical times, perhaps, has partaken so largely
of the character of romance as the departure of this renowned
expedition. The great armada, which taxed the energies of the most
powerful maritime nation of the sixteenth century, was a puny
flotilla compared to the one we are now writing of. The largest
vessel of that celebrated fleet was a cockleshell to many of our
noble steamers, detached from their customary vocation of carrying
on the commercial intercourse of nations, and devoted to the
service of war. Resources of science, unknown before the present
generation, and adapted by skill to our naval requirements, were
there in abundance, rendering a single steamer more than a match
for a dozen vessels of an earlier age, and almost independent of
the adverse winds and strong currents which had dispersed many a
gallant fleet and defeated many a deep-laid scheme of conquest.
Iron, naturally one of the densest of bodies, became, in the hands
of the scientific shipwright, buoyant as cork; and vessels, each
large enough to carry a regiment of cavalry besides its proper
crew, and to which a Spanish brig-of-war of the days of Philip
might have served for a jolly-boat, breasted the broad waves of the
Euxine, freighted with as brave and chivalrous warriors as menaced
Troy, or did battle with the infidel possessors of Jerusalem.
Brave and chivalrous indeed, for they sailed they knew not whither,
to encounter an unknown enemy. It might be that they were to force
a landing at once under the very guns of Sebastopol, and by sheer
audacity achieve the capture of the renowned fortress. It might be
that, debarking at a distance from that spot, they would be exposed
to toilsome marches, in an enemy’s country, harassed by clouds
of Cossacks, and opposed by great armies, in strong positions,
infinitely outnumbering their own force, when even continuous
victory would necessarily be almost entire annihilation. But, like
the errant-knights of old, they anticipated no difficulties, and
bore a stout heart for any fate. English and French, officer and
man, seemed to have but one desire, that of meeting all foes at all
hazards, and winning gallantly or dying gloriously.
The general instructions furnished to Marshal St. Arnaud (who, by
reason of the French army being so numerically superior to the
English, and his military rank as marshal being higher than that of
Lord Raglan, assumed the rank of generalissimo of the expedition),
and which were understood to have been drawn up by the Emperor
Louis Napoleon himself, though leaving to the discretion of the
Generals the point of debarkation on the shores of the Crimea, yet
strongly recommended--so strongly, in fact, as almost to amount to
a command--the choice of Kaffa as the most convenient spot. It was,
we cannot help believing, exceedingly fortunate that the allied
Generals resolved upon examining for themselves the locality,
and ultimately rejected the plans of the Emperor. Kaffa, it is
true, affords the largest bay and the most secure anchorage in
the Crimea, and, had they been the only requisites, there could
have been little doubt that the imperial scheme would have been
adopted. But the fleet was only valuable in the expedition as an
auxiliary to the army--as a basis of operations, a depôt of stores,
a means of conveying reinforcements, an assistant in the actual
bombardment, or a medium of retreat in event of a disaster. For all
practical purposes Sebastopol was the Crimea; and Sebastopol is
on the western coast, while Kaffa is on the eastern, at least 100
miles distant. Had the object been to provide for the security and
comfort of the fleet, it might as well have been in snug quarters
at Spithead or Cherbourg, as at Kaffa, and there it would have
been about as useful. The plan of Napoleon was to seize the town
of Kaffa, thence to march across the peninsula, taking possession
of Karu-Bazar, Simferopol, and Baktchi-Serai, thus advancing to
Sebastopol, and securing the harbour of Balaklava, as a naval basis
near the scene of intended operations. But the Emperor, by some
strange oversight, seems to have forgotten his own previous caution
not to separate from the fleets, when he sketched out the march of
an army, only 50,000 strong, encumbered with necessary ammunition
and baggage, along a road forty miles from the sea in some parts,
through a mountainous district, in an enemy’s country, for a 100
miles, exposed to continued encounters with immense armies, and
necessitated to seize and retain possession of, at least, three
large towns, strongly garrisoned. It is true, a force stationed at
Kaffa might intercept reinforcements arriving from Asia, or along
the narrow strip of land bridging the Putrid Sea; but what was to
hinder the arrival of the legions which should be poured into the
Crimea, through Perekop, the most direct and available route from
the very heart of the military strength of Russia, on the first
intelligence of the invasion? Supposing, too, that a sufficient
force to hold Kaffa had been left in occupation there (and if it
had not been, what would have prevented the arrival of troops from
Asia and the north, which would have followed the invaders, and
enclosed them between two fires?)--that the three great towns had
been captured and consequently garrisoned--or where the utility of
taking them?--deduct the necessary casualties of the march, and
the inevitable results of the unavoidable battles, even supposing
them to have been victories, and how many men could possibly have
arrived before Sebastopol out of 50,000? The expedition to the
Crimea at all was romantic, and is said to have been strongly
opposed by some of our most able Generals; but this contemplated
march through a mountainous region, interposing innumerable
obstacles to transit, in the face of a powerful enemy, far from
assistance, cut off from supplies of food or ammunition, with
three fortified towns to capture, at least several pitched battles
to fight, and, as a finish to the prospect, the most strongly
fortified town in the world to reduce, was the very absurdity of
Quixoteism.
Fortunately, we say, the generals were wiser than their teacher.
When the ships collected at their appointed rendezvous, orders
were received to proceed to a spot about forty miles west of
Cape Tarkan, in the north of the Crimea; then, embarking in the
_Caradoc_, a small English steamer, Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord
Raglan, accompanied by their seconds in command, Generals Canrobert
and Brown, and Sir Edmund Lyons, proceeded to survey the coast and
select the spot most favourable to their purpose. They skirted the
western shore, ran close into Eupatoria, examined the coast thence
to Sebastopol (where a few weeks previous, General Canrobert and
Sir George Brown had closely scanned the fortifications on a flying
visit, penetrating, under cover of night even into the harbour,
and not retiring until the grey light of morning had revealed to
them a considerable amount of information), passing almost within
range of the guns, and coasting round to the little harbour of
Balaklava; which having scrutinized, they returned in safety to
the fleets. Had any of the large Russian steamers crossed the path
of the little _Caradoc_, and attacked it, a very different fate
might have awaited the Allies from that which they anticipated. But
the Russian Admirals little dreamed of the prize they might have
secured, and our modern Agamemnons were borne back unscathed from
their perilous cruise.
On the morning of Monday, the 11th of September, the chiefs
returned from their trip and rejoined the fleet; and the anxious
expectation as to the point of debarkation, which had agitated
the minds of all on board, during the two days’ tedious riding
at anchor, was in some degree alleviated by the order to make
sail, and rendezvous thirty miles west of Sebastopol. Even then,
uncertainty seemed to cloud the counsels of the Commanders. The
fleet was dispersed, the heavy sailing vessels having failed to
keep in company with their more alert fellows of the steam fleet.
At length, the English and French fleets, in one compact flotilla,
approached the shore, and the town of Eupatoria, and the hills of
the south-east, were presented to the eager gaze of the soldiers.
A small steamer was despatched to summon the town to surrender at
discretion, and a refusal being received, a small body of English
and French marines was landed, their appearance soon stifling
any qualms of conscience the local authorities might have felt
at yielding up their trust to the enemy. The fleet then shaping
a course in a south-easterly direction, the plans of the allied
Generals became apparent. About eight miles from Eupatoria the
ships cast anchor at a mile from the shore, in the Bay of Kalamita,
near a place known as Old Fort. A narrow strip of level land
was the spot selected for debarkation, and the enemy exhibited
no signs of opposition, or even preparation. It had been not
unnaturally anticipated that a formidable resistance would have
been made to the expected landing of the Allies, which could only
then have been accomplished with much loss. On the contrary, the
only signs of Russian life apparent, was the presence of a mounted
Russian officer, who, attended by three or four Cossacks, securely
stationed on a neighbouring eminence, was calmly sketching the
scene.
It had been arranged that the ships of the Admirals should occupy
the centre of the bay, thus dividing the two armies. Had this
determination been carried out, the landing might have been
effected with the least imaginable difficulty; but the French
Admiral, with an exclusive attention to his own branch of the
allied force, which subsequent events of the campaign paralleled,
thought proper to anchor his vessel at the extreme right of the
bay, thus throwing the vessels into considerable confusion. One
transport was grounded, and several fouled in their endeavours
to get into their proper positions. In an incredibly short space
of time, however, order was restored; and, under the energetic
superintendence of Sir Edmund Lyons, the steamers and transports
commenced to discharge their living freights. The sea was literally
covered with boats, laden with soldiers in their varied uniforms,
and bearing rations for three days, every article that could
possibly be dispensed with being left in the ships. Those who
landed first marked out with flags the spots to be occupied by each
division and regiment; and the sailors, standing knee-deep in the
water, lent hearty assistance to those who were less amphibious
than themselves. Nothing could exceed the delight of the sturdy
seamen, as they lifted their red-coated compatriots from the boats,
and placed them dry-footed on the shore; or lent a hand, with more
zeal than knowledge, to disembark the horses. Frequently, a noble
charger, startled by the novelty of his situation, would roll into
the water, half a dozen ancient mariners clinging to his mane or
tail, and sharing his immersion,--emerging at length, dripping with
brine, but in a high state of jollity at having rescued their
steed, and overwhelming him with caresses of a nautical fashion, as
they soothed his fears or indulged him with a short trot on _terra
firma_. The two or three Cossacks who had watched our landing now
deemed it prudent to withdraw, though not until a few shots had
warned them of the prowess of the English riflemen, and one of
their number had received a compliment from Major Lysons, of the
23rd, which would probably render his sitting in the saddle, or
elsewhere, exceedingly inconvenient for some time to come. It so
chanced, however, that even these few Cossacks were very nearly
inflicting a heavy blow on the English army, by the capture of one
of its most distinguished officers. Sir George Brown, general of
the Light Division, had no sooner landed, than with characteristic
daring he mounted his horse, and advanced alone to gain a view
of the surrounding country. He had ridden some distance, and had
closely approached the retreating party, quite unconscious of their
neighbourhood, when he was suddenly astonished by the unwelcome
apparition of three ferocious horsemen, lance in hand, in full
career towards him, and at but a few yards’ distance. Sir George,
who was almost unarmed, was too old a soldier to mistake rashness
for courage, and wisely considering the odds too great, discreetly
put spurs to his horse and galloped off, followed by his Cossack
pursuers. A few of our men had fortunately, however, followed in
the steps of their leader, and when they saw his danger, hastened
to the rescue. Half a dozen levelled rifles proved too strong an
argument for the valour of the Russian horsemen, and they, in their
turn, made a precipitate retreat. Sir George Brown rejoined the
main body, and proved, when the time came, that he could attack as
bravely as he could retire discreetly.
By the time when the approaching darkness rendered it necessary to
suspend operations for the day, 20,000 English, with thirty-six
guns, and numerous horses, had been landed, and the French in
about equal force. Our men had left their tents in the ships, and
officers and common soldiers were alike unprovided with means of
shelter. Their rations consisted of provisions for three days;
and in this respect, those high in command shared with their less
distinguished followers. As night closed in, torrents of rain began
to descend, and in a brief space of time, the narrow strip of land
on which they stood, bounded on the one side by the sea, and on
the other by a salt lake, was a dismal swamp. Wrapping themselves
in their blankets, which were thoroughly soaked in a few minutes,
the men lay down in the mud, and endeavoured to sleep. A moderate,
and not very luxurious supper of cold pork, washed down with a
single sip of rum, was their first meal in the Crimea; and then,
officers and men strove to drown in slumber the wretched aspect
of affairs which thus initiated their invasion. Sir De Lacy Evans
was fortunate enough to possess a tent, which some considerate
member of the veteran’s staff had contrived to bring on shore. An
old cart, the property probably of some Tartar peasant, frightened
from his accustomed labour, made, when overturned, a canopy such
as royalty seldom couches beneath; but under its welcome shelter
the Duke of Cambridge pressed, no doubt for the first time, the
bare earth. The French were better provided. They had contrived
to land a considerable number of tents; and, moreover, many of
their regiments were supplied with the little _tentes-abris_, a
portion of which was borne by each soldier; and several of these
parts could be united into a small tent, sufficiently commodious to
afford some protection from the severity of the weather.