_Ivor Noël Hume_
The Salt-Glazed Stoneware
Attention was first drawn to the potential importance of the
18th-century pottery factory at Yorktown in 1956 when an examination
of the National Park Service artifacts from the town revealed large
quantities of stoneware sagger fragments visually identical to those
previously retrieved from a site at Bankside in London.[247] On the
assumption that where kiln "furniture" is found there also must
be examples of the product, a more careful search of the Yorktown
collections was made, yielding numerous fragments of brown salt-glazed
stoneware tankards and bottles which, although at first sight
appearing to be typically English, were found to have reacted slightly
differently to the vagaries of firing than did the average examples
found in England.
The largest assemblage of stoneware and sagger fragments came from the
vicinity of the restored Swan Tavern, although the actual relationship
of the pieces, one to another, was not recorded in the National Park
Service's archeological report on the excavations. Nevertheless, the
presence on the same lot of fragments of pint tankards adorned with
a sprig-molded swan ornament (fig. 3) along with numerous pieces of
sagger (fig. 12) seemed positive enough evidence. English tavern mugs
of the 18th century were frequently decorated with an applied panel
copying the sign which hung outside the hostelry.[248] The Swan Tavern
at Yorktown was probably no exception, and to the often illiterate
traveler it would have been identified either by a painted sign or
perhaps by a swan carved in wood and set above the entrance. The
significance of the swan-decorated tankards is simply that the tavern
keeper would have been unlikely to have sent to England for such
objects when, as the saggers so loudly proclaim, a local potter could
supply them as needed and without cost of transportation.
The above reasoning seemed to link the saggers with brown salt-glazed
stonewares rather than with products in the Rhenish tradition, which
would have been the other obvious possibility.[249] Wasters were thinly
represented among the sherds from Yorktown, although many underfired
or overburned pieces were initially claimed as such. A more mature
study of the Yorktown potter's products has shown that these variations
would not have been considered unsalable, nor, in all probability,
would they have been marked down as "seconds." Examples exhibiting both
extremes of temperature have been found in domestic rubbish pits at
Williamsburg, clearly showing that such pieces did find a ready sale.
Figure 4 illustrates a mug fragment from Williamsburg with a large,
heavily salted roof-dripping lodged above the handle and overflowing
the rim, a blemish the presence of which is hard to explain if the mug
was fired in a sagger. Such a piece found in the vicinity of a kiln
reasonably could be considered a waster. It must be deduced, therefore,
that, providing the Yorktown potter's vessels would hold water and
stand more or less vertically on a table, they would find a market.
The site of Rogers' kilns in or near Yorktown has not been found, nor
have his waster tips and pits been located. In the absence of such
concrete evidence, a study of his wares may be thought premature.
But, while numerous questions obviously remain to be answered,
sufficient data have now been gathered to identify a considerable
range of brown stoneware as being of Tidewater Virginia manufacture.
There is, of course, good reason to suppose that much, if not all,
of it is a product of the Rogers factory, although until that site
is dug one cannot be certain. It can be argued, perhaps, that if
there was one more or less clandestine stoneware potter at work in
the area, there might well be others. It could also be added that
two earthenware-pottery-making sites have been discovered in the
Jamestown-Williamsburg area for which no documentary evidence has been
found. The very fact that such enterprise was officially discouraged
reduces the value of the negative evidence to be derived from the
absence of documentation.
The most convincing evidence for the identification of Rogers'
stoneware comes from the already mentioned Swan Tavern mugs and from
a quantity of sherds found in a 4-to 7-inch layer beneath Yorktown's
Main Street in front of the Digges House in the spring of 1957. This
material was exposed during the laying of utilities beside the modern
roadway. So tightly packed were the fragments of saggers and pottery
vessels that they appeared to have been deliberately laid down as
metaling for the colonial street. Several years later Mr. Watkins
discovered that in 1734 William Rogers had been appointed "Surveyor of
the Landings, Streets; and Cosways in York Town." It is reasonable to
suppose, therefore, that Rogers disposed of his kiln waste by using it
for hard core to make good the roads under his jurisdiction. Such a use
of potters' refuse has ample precedent in that the wasters and sagger
fragments from the 17th-century-London delftware kilns were dumped on
the foreshore of the river Thames to serve the same purpose. Similarly,
stoneware waste from the presumed Bankside factory[250] was used there
to line the bottoms of trenches for wooden drains.
The pottery fragments found in the Yorktown road metaling comprised
unglazed, coarse-earthenware pans and bowls; pieces of badly fired,
brown, salt-glazed stoneware jars and bottles; and numerous sagger
fragments.
In the years since interest first was shown in the products of the
Yorktown factory, a useful range of examples has been gathered from
excavations in Williamsburg and in neighboring counties. The single
most significant item was recovered from another kiln site in James
City County (known as the Challis site) on the bank of the James River.
This object, a pint mug (fig. 5), is the best preserved specimen yet
found. It is impressed on the upper wall, opposite the handle, with
a pseudo-official capacity stamp[251] comprising the initials W R
beneath a crown (William III Rex) which, perhaps, might have led to an
intentional misinterpretation as the mark of William Rogers' factory.
The official English marks generally were incuse or stamped in relief
with the cypher and crown within a borderless oval. They were always
placed close to the rim, just left of the handle. Rogers' stamp was set
in a much more pretentious position and was enclosed within a rectangle
marking the edges of the matrix (fig. 6).
The Challis site mug was a key piece of evidence, being the first
example found that illustrated the position of the W R stamp, and
it was sufficiently intact for a drawing to be made, its capacity
measured, and its variations of firing studied. The association of the
Challis mug with the Rogers factory is based on the fact that there is
an identical stamp among the Park Service's artifacts from Yorktown
(fig. 7), along with another pseudo W R stamp which had been applied to
the _base_ of a tankard.
A measured drawing of the Challis mug was given to Mr. James E. Maloney
of the Williamsburg Pottery,[252] who kindly agreed to undertake a
series of experiments to reproduce the piece in his own stoneware
kiln, using local Tidewater clay. The results of the first trials were
extremely successful, and they showed that it would be possible to
reproduce exact copies of the Yorktown wares from this clay (fig. 8).
Thus any doubt as to the supply source was dispelled.
The conditions of firing at the Williamsburg Pottery, however, are
somewhat different from those that would have prevailed in the 18th
century. Mr. Maloney's kiln is fired by oil rather than wood, so that
the localized variations of color resulting from the reducing effects
of wood smoke have been eliminated. In addition, Mr. Maloney's pots
are fired without the use of saggers, thus providing more uniform
atmospheric and salting conditions than would have been possible with
the 18th-century method of stacking the kilns.
[Illustration: Figure 3.--PINT AND QUART MUGS of brown salt-glazed
stoneware made for the Swan Tavern at Yorktown. Each mug is decorated
with an applied swan in high relief.]
The Yorktown mugs were hand thrown, but a template was used to shape
the ornamental cordoning. It was first assumed that a single template
had served to fashion both the cordons at the base and the groove below
the lip. We had such a tool made of aluminum, copying the Challis
mug's ornament, and proportionately enlarged to allow for shrinkage in
firing. But in using this template Mr. Maloney discovered that it was
impossible to shape the whole exterior of the vessel in one movement
without the tools "chattering" against the wall. Since none of the
Yorktown sherds nor, indeed, any of the brown-stoneware mugs I have
studied in England exhibit this feature, it is clear that the potters
used only a small template which molded the base cordoning alone, a
technique in marked contrast to that of the German Westerwald potters
of the same period, whose mass-produced tankards and chamberpots
invariably exhibit considerable "chattering." Shaping the lip of the
Yorktown tankards appears to have been accomplished entirely by hand as
was the application of the encircling groove below it. Because the clay
used in the manufacture of these brown stonewares is relatively coarse,
it does not lend itself readily to the thin potting so characteristic
of English white salt-glaze or the refined Nottingham and Burslem brown
stonewares. Consequently, it was necessary to pare down the mouths
of the mugs to make them acceptable to the lips of the toper. This
interior tooling, extending about half an inch below the rim, is found
on all the Yorktown and English brown stonewares of this class. The
technique is the reverse of that used by the Westerwald potters, whose
mugs are thinned from the outside, leaving the straight edge on the
interior.[253] Having imbibed from both types of tankard, I believe
that the English (and Yorktown) technique is distinctly preferable.
One's upper lip does most of the work; the paring of the inside of the
vessel shapes the rim away from that lip and carries the ale smoothly
into the mouth.
[Illustration: Figure 4.--YORKTOWN STONEWARE MUG FRAGMENT marred by
kiln drippings lodged above the handle. The fragment was found in
Williamsburg. Height of sherd 4 centimeters.]
The treatment of the single-reeded handle on the Challis site mug
equals the best English examples, being thin and of sufficient size to
accommodate three fingers, with the top of its curve remaining below
the edge of the rim so that the thumb cannot slip over it. In addition,
the lower terminal is folded back on itself and impressed. While it
has often been said that the signature of a potter is found in the
shaping of his rims and his handles, we must remember that in a large
commercial pottery the person who applies the handles often is not the
same workman as he who throws the pot. This explains the considerable
variety among the handles of supposed Yorktown tankards, some of them
very skillfully fashioned and applied, others appallingly crude. It is
inconceivable that all can be the work of a single craftsman.
[Illustration: Figure 5.--YORKTOWN STONEWARE MUG, found in James City
County, which was discarded about 1730. Height 12.5 centimeters;
capacity 17 fluid ounces.]
The iron-oxide slip into which the upper part of the body and handle
of the Challis site mug was dipped provided the vessel with a pleasing
purplish-to-green mottling when struck by the salt, but, compared to
its English prototypes, the variations of color and the unevenness
of the size of the mottling label it a product of inferior firing.
Nevertheless, in criticizing the Yorktown stoneware, we might remember
Dr. Johnson's comment on women preachers, whom he likened to a dog
walking on its hind legs, saying: "It is not done well; but you are
surprised to find it done at all."
[Illustration: Figure 6.--SILVER REPRODUCTION of the matrix used by
the Yorktown potter to apply unofficial excise stamps. Height 1.45
centimeters.]
[Illustration: Figure 7.--EXAMPLES OF W.R. STAMPS on Yorktown stoneware
mugs. Right, from below the rim; left, on the underside of the base.
Enlarged.]
On the evidence of the many fragments of Yorktown mugs found in
Williamsburg excavations, it may be supposed that the Challis example
was of above-average quality. Many of the Williamsburg sherds are both
badly overfired and poorly mottled, owing either to inadequate salting
or to the use of a slip of the wrong consistency. The much-restored
specimen shown in figure 9 was found in a mid-18th-century rubbish
deposit[254] and apparently had belonged to John Coke, who kept tavern
in Williamsburg east of the Public Gaol. In this example, the intended
mottled effect has become a solid band of purple, and the body color
below has turned dark gray. I had long supposed that both were the
result of overfiring. Experiments by Mr. Maloney, however, clearly
showed that the gray body may result from a reducing atmosphere as
readily as by excessive temperature, while the purple zone could be due
to the slip's being too thick. Two test mugs fired side by side at
a temperature of 2300° F., using thick and thin slips of iron oxide,
produced the solid-purple band and the brown mottle respectively.
[Illustration: Figure 8.--REPRODUCTION OF A YORKTOWN salt-glazed
stoneware mug made from local clay at the Williamsburg pottery. Height
12.8 centimeters.]
[Illustration: Figure 9.--POOR-QUALITY MUG of probable local stoneware,
discarded in the mid-18th century. Found in Williamsburg. Height 13.4
centimeters; capacity 23 fluid ounces.]
Before dismissing the John Coke mug as merely an example of wrong
slip consistency, it should be noted that this piece has none of the
characteristics of the Challis mug; the handle is quite different in
both size and shape and is applied without the folded terminal, the
proportions are poor, and the template used for the base cordoning
is so worn on its bottom edge that the wide upper cordon is more
pronounced than the base itself, thus giving the whole vessel a feeling
of stubby instability. In addition, the body appears to have been
scraped round after the slip had been applied, possibly to remove the
excess. All in all, it is a miserable mug, and we may be forgiven for
wondering whether it is really a product of William Rogers' operation.
Some of his tankards may have been made by apprentice potters, which
would account for somewhat varying shapes. But the handle is not an
inept creation as handles go; it is simply an entirely different type
from that used on the English stoneware that Rogers copied. Even
more curious is the question of the template, which should have been
discarded long before. While the throwing variations of Rogers' potters
may have been overlooked, little can be said for a master craftsman who
would allow the use of tools so worn as to mar the esthetic quality of
every mug produced. We may wonder whether there was another stoneware
potter at work in Virginia in the mid-18th century or whether, after
Rogers' death, his factory's standards were allowed to deteriorate to
the level of the John Coke mug.
Although the tavern tankards are the most informative of the Yorktown
products, numerous other stoneware forms were produced. These are well
represented in the National Park Service and Colonial Williamsburg
collections. The most simple and at the same time the most attractive
of these is a group of hemispherical bowls (fig. 10), two of which
were found in the same deposit as the Coke mug.[255] One, which had
been dipped into an iron-oxide slip in the same manner as were the
tankards, has a pale gray body with a narrow band of brown mottling
below the rim. The other Coke bowl has a dirty greenish-gray body,
while the slipped band is a heavy purplish-brown with little mottling.
The entire bowl is too heavily salted, an infirmity which often may
have afflicted these pieces. A fragment of a slightly smaller and even
more heavily salted bowl was found in 1961 by Mrs. P. G. Harrison in
her flower bed at Yorktown,[256] thus seeming to confirm the Yorktown
origin of the Coke bowls.
[Illustration: Figure 10.--HEMISPHERICAL BOWLS of Yorktown stoneware,
discarded in the mid-18th century. Found in Williamsburg. Rim diameter
of both 17.15 centimeters.]
There is no doubt that bottles and jars, some of considerable size,
were among the Yorktown factory's principal products, but this does not
mean necessarily that all such items found in the vicinity of Yorktown
or Williamsburg are Rogers' pieces. Just as the tavern tankards were
copies of English mugs, so the bottles and jars had their prototypes
among the wares of English, brown-stoneware potters. The difference is
simply that the kitchen vessels have rarely attracted the attention of
collectors and therefore are poorly represented in English museums.
Consequently we have little opportunity to study them and to determine
how such pieces differ from those made at Yorktown. At this stage it
is possible to be sure only of the Virginia origin of those examples
whose clay is clearly of the local variety. Such an identification
can be made only when the piece is markedly underfired and retains
the coloring and impurities characteristic of earthenwares of proven
Virginia manufacture. Fortunately, the large bottles are small mouthed
and neither slipped nor glazed on the inside, thus ensuring that, if
the piece is underfired the earthenware characteristics will be readily
discernible. Fragments of underfired stoneware bottles were among the
most common sherds recovered from the colonial roadway at Yorktown,
providing invaluable evidence to aid the identification of the Rogers
stoneware body composition and color. It must be reiterated, however,
that this guide is confined to underfired products and that those
correctly burned cannot be distinguished as yet from others of English
manufacture.
The globular bottle shown in figure 11 is underfired and consequently
not a true "stoneware," but from the outside it bears all the
characteristics of a good quality product. This undoubtedly local
and almost certainly Yorktown example was found on the John Coke
site in Williamsburg[257] in a context of about 1765. The body is
evenly potted, the cordoning below the mouth neatly tooled, and the
broad strap handle rugged and tidily shaped into a finger-impressed
rat-tail terminal. The handle can, perhaps, be faulted, in that it will
accommodate only two fingers with comfort, and it is a little wider in
proportion to its size than any I have seen in England. The iron-oxide
slip which extends to the midsection of the body is well mottled and
predominantly of good color. Ignoring the under-firing, this bottle may
be classed as a very creditable piece of potting, seemingly quite as
good as most such vessels turned out by English potters in the mid-18th
century.[258]
[Illustration: Figure 11.--AN UNDERFIRED YORKTOWN "stoneware" bottle,
discarded about 1765. Found in Williamsburg. Surviving height 24.77
centimeters.]
Globular-bodied jars with everted collar-like mouths can be proved to
have been made at Yorktown on the evidence of a few small under-and
over-fired sherds recovered from the old road metaling in front of the
Digges House. The best example recovered from a dated archeological
context in Virginia is a jar found in a rubbish deposit of about
1763-1772 at the plantation of Rosewell in Gloucester County.[259] But
like the well-fired bottles, its Yorktown provenance cannot yet be
proved.
The last major category of kitchen stoneware believed to have been
made at the Yorktown pottery is a group of pipkins (fig. 13, no. 7).
These were often overburned and improperly salted, turning the body
a greenish gray and the iron-oxide slip to a coarse brown mottling
with a similar greenish hue. The bodies of these vessels are generally
bag-shaped and are broader toward the base than at the rim, which
is slightly everted and tooled into a rounded lip over a cordon of
comparable width. The handles were made separately in solid rolls that
were pierced longitudinally with a stick or metal rod to avoid warping
in firing or heat retention in use. They possess pestle-like terminals
that were luted to the body after shaping. No definite evidence has yet
been found to identify these vessels as Yorktown products, but they do
exhibit color characteristics, particularly when overfired, comparable
to those of one of the Coke hemispherical bowls as well as to some of
the tankard fragments.
[Illustration: Figure 12.--AN INCOMPLETE SAGGER and lid for quart
tankards, with a Swan Tavern pint mug seated in it. Found at Yorktown.]
[Illustration: Figure 13.--YORKTOWN STONEWARE BOTTLE AND PIPKIN, and
characteristic earthenware rim forms.]
Figure 13
1. Creampan, rim sherd of typical Yorktown form, slightly flaring
externally and incurving within, hard red earthenware with
grey-to-pink surface and one spot of dark-brown glaze on the
outside; presumably biscuit and rejected before glazing.
Diameter approximately 10-1/4 inches. Found at Yorktown along
with other similar rims beneath the roadway south of the Digges
House. Colonial Williamsburg collection.
2. Creampan, section from rim to base, a typical example of the
"rolled-rim" technique, the body poorly fired, pink earthenware
flecked with ocher, presumably biscuit and rejected before
glazing. The sherd is badly twisted and is an undoubted waster.
Diameter approximately 16 inches. National Park Service
collection from Yorktown. No recorded context.
3. Creampan, rim and wall fragment, rim technique similar to no.
2, but heavier and the body thicker; pale pink earthenware
flecked with ocher. Presumably biscuit and rejected before
glazing. Diameter uncertain. National Park Service collection
from Yorktown. No recorded provenance.
4. Creampan, rim and wall fragment, the rim form a variant on
the everted and rolled technique, seemingly having been
turned out and then rolled back toward the interior. The body
orange-to-pink earthenware flecked with ocher, presumably
biscuit and rejected before glazing. Diameter approximately
10-1/8 inches. National Park Service collection from Yorktown.
No recorded provenance. Fragments of three pans of this type
were present in the as-yet-unpublished group of artifacts from
the Challis site in James City County whence came the key
Rogers stoneware tankard (fig. 3), all of which were buried
around 1730.
5. Funnel, lower rim fragment, lead-glazed pale pink-bodied
earthenware similar to the two examples illustrated in figure
15; the rim everted and tooled beneath, a technique paralleled
by those on numerous bowls found at Yorktown and Williamsburg.
A rim sherd of this form was among the pieces found in front
of the Digges House. The funnel is thin walled, well potted,
and coated with a ginger-to-yellow mottled glaze both inside
and out. National Park Service collection from Yorktown; no
recorded context. The comparable funnels cited above were
discarded in the mid-18th century.
6. Porringer, small rim fragment only, but bearing traces of
handle luting which thus identifies the vessel; the rim everted
and flattened on the top, pale pink-bodied earthenware,
presumably biscuit and rejected before glazing. Diameter
approximately 6-1/8 inches. National Park Service collection
from Yorktown; no recorded provenance.
7. Pipkin, brown salt-glazed stoneware, bag-shaped body with
slightly rising base, the rim thickened, slightly everted, with
a tooled cordon beneath. The handle (not part of this example)
was made as a solid roll and when soft pierced longitudinally
with a stick. The glaze is well mottled and a purplish green.
The body was thrown away in the mid-18th century, but the
handle is unstratified. Colonial Williamsburg archeological
collection (body) E. R. 140.27A, (handle) 30B. Other fragments
from Williamsburg show that the rim usually was drawn slightly
outward at a point at right angles to the handle to create a
simple spout. Excavated examples of these pipkins range in rim
diameter from 4-1/8 to at least 5-5/8 inches.
8. Bottle, brown salt-glazed stoneware, neck and handle fragment
only, the body dark gray and the oxide slip a deep purple to
yellow as a result of overfiring. Glazing also occurs on the
fractures, identifying this piece as a waster and therefore of
considerable importance. Other blemishes include roof drippings
on the handle and body which indicate that the bottle was fired
without the protection of a sagger. The cordoning on the neck
is well proportioned, and the handle terminates in a neatly
fingered rat-tail. National Park Service collection from the
Swan Tavern site at Yorktown; unstratified. S. T. 213.
[Illustration: Figure 14.--BROWN LEAD-GLAZED EARTHENWARE CREAMPAN of
typical Yorktown type, probably dating from the second quarter of the
18th century. Found in Williamsburg. Rim diameter 35.56 centimeters.]
Stoneware Manufacturing Processes
The types of kiln used by the Yorktown potters as well as their
techniques of manufacture will not be known until the factory site
is located and carefully excavated. Until that time, the Yorktown
stonewares raise more questions than they answer. The most important of
these is the shape of the kilns and how they were fired. The wares run
the gamut from such under-burning that the iron-oxide slip has evolved
no further than a zone of bright-red coloring, to overfiring which has
turned the slip a deep purple and the body to almost the hardness and
color of granite. Do these differences result from a lack of control
over entire batches, or do they stem from temperature variations
inherent in different parts of the kiln? Mr. Maloney's experiments,
made without the use of saggers, have shown that close proximity to the
firebox can unexpectedly and dramatically affect the wares.
Thus, one mug of his first test series was placed much closer to the
direct heat than were the rest, with the result that it emerged with an
overall dark, highly glossed surface somewhat reminiscent of Burslem
brown stoneware.
The only real evidence of the Yorktown manufacturing process comes from
the many sagger fragments that have been found around the town. The
largest single assemblage was discovered on the Swan Tavern site, but
another group of large pieces was recovered from beneath the Archer
Cottage at the foot of the colonial roadway leading down to the river
frontage. In neither instance is it likely that the sherds were serving
any practical purpose, and so it is hard to imagine why they would have
been taken to these widely distant locations.
The Park Service Yorktown collection includes sections through three
saggers of different sizes, one for holding quart tankards (fig. 12),
another for pint mugs, and a third which might have served for the
bowls, the last being 5-3/4 inches in height and having an interior
base diameter of approximately 8 inches, with walls 1/2 inch thick and
side apertures 5-1/2 inches apart.[260] These apertures are pear shaped
and are common to all the Yorktown saggers, as they are also to the
examples excavated at Bankside in London.[261] The tankard saggers have
three such holes plus a vertical slit which extends from the top to the
bottom to house the handles, but it is not known whether the wide and
shallow example described above would have possessed this feature. If
this example was intended only for bowls, a slot would not have been
needed and an extra aperture probably would have been substituted:
but were it also used for pipkins, a handle opening would have been
essential. The purpose of the pear-shaped apertures was to enable the
salt fumes to percolate freely around the vessels being fired. For the
same reason sagger lids sometimes were jacked up on small pads of clay,
or the sagger rim scooped out here and there to let the fumes enter
from the top. A careful examination of some of the Yorktown vessels
shows that those closest to the salting holes received excessive fuming
through the sagger apertures, the outlines of which were transferred to
the pots in patches or stripes of heavy greenish mottling.
[Illustration: Figure 15.--YELLOW LEAD-GLAZED EARTHENWARE CREAMPAN
of local Tidewater manufacture, probably dating from the second
quarter of the 18th century. Found in Williamsburg. Rim diameter 34.29
centimeters.]
Other kiln furniture found in Yorktown includes fragments of sagger
lids having an average thickness of 3/4 of an inch and various lumps
of clay which served as kiln pads and props.[262] Without knowing the
type of kilns used it is impossible to determine how the saggers were
employed. It is obvious, however, that they prevented the pots from
sticking together in the kiln, from being dripped upon by the fusing
brickwork of the roof, and from becoming repositories for the salt as
it was thrown or poured into the kiln. But, as Mr. Maloney demonstrates
daily, it is perfectly possible to make good stoneware without saggers,
though wasters will accrue from the mishaps just described. If a
single-level "crawl-in" or "groundhog" type kiln is used, the number
of pots discarded as wasters is more than offset by the space saved
through not using saggers. It can be argued, therefore, that Rogers'
kiln was of a type in which the saggers served the additional function
of allowing the pots to be stacked one on top of the other instead of
being spread over a wide flat area, in which case it is possible that
the kiln or kilns were of the beehive variety.[263]
[Illustration: Figure 16.--LEAD-GLAZED EARTHENWARE BOWL of typical
Yorktown type, probably dating from the second quarter of the 18th
century. Found in Williamsburg. Rim diameter 18.95 centimeters.]
The manufacture of stoneware requires only one firing at a temperature
of about 2300° F., and it takes Mr. Maloney approximately 13 hours
to burn them, although at Yorktown the use of saggers may have
necessitated prolonged "soaking" of up to 24 hours or more. The salt
was thrown in at the peak temperature and repeated at least twice
at intervals of about a half hour. When the fire was extinguished
the kiln would have been allowed to cool for up to two days and two
nights before it could be unloaded. Mr. Maloney has stated that his
stoneware kiln, which he considers small, takes approximately three
hours to load. Thus, if the Yorktown factory worked at full capacity,
it probably would have been possible to fire each kiln once a week.
But, not knowing how many workmen were engaged in the operation, we
would be unwise even to guess at the size of its output. The listing
of stoneware and coarse earthenware included in Rogers' inventory is
not particularly large, although £5 worth of "crackt" stoneware might
have represented a considerable quantity of "seconds" or wasters when
one considers that 26 dozen good quart mugs were worth only 4 shillings
more.
Pint mugs are the most commonly found stoneware relics of the Yorktown
factory. Following the "26 doz. qt Mugs £5.4.," a value of 4d. per
mug, we find "60 doz pt Do 7.10."[264] A stock of 60 dozen would be
reasonable because, as Mr. Maloney has stated, a good potter can throw
approximately 12 dozen a day.
[Illustration: Figure 17.--A PAIR OF BROWN LEAD-GLAZED local
earthenware funnels, paralleled by a fragment from Yorktown, discarded
in the mid-18th century. Found in Williamsburg. Rim diameters: left,
18.25 centimeters; right, 18.42 centimeters.]
Before leaving the evidence of the inventory it should be noted that
the vessels which we usually term storage jars are probably synonymous
with Rogers' "9 large Cream Potts 4/6"; but where are the large stone
bottles? The "4 doz small stone bottles 6/" were likely to have been
of quart capacity. We can only suppose that the large bottles were
not included in the batches fired just before Rogers died and that,
consequently, he had none in stock.
The Earthenwares
Besides the stonewares, the inventory includes the following items of
earthenware:
11 doz Milk pans £2.4
9 Midle Sized Do 3/
2 doz red Saucepans 4/
6 Chamber potts 2/
3 doz Lamps 9/
4 doz small dishes 8/
9 large Cream potts 4/6
12 Small Do 2/
2 doz porringers 4/
4 doz bird bottles 12/
4 doz small stone bottles 6/
6 doz puding pans 2/
This listing might be read to indicate that the Yorktown factory
produced considerably less earthenware than stoneware, a construction
that could be supported by the earlier inventory reference to "a
pcl crakt redware" with a value of only £2 as against the £5 worth
of "crackt" stoneware. We may wonder whether a ratio of 40 to 60
percent may not be a reasonable guide to the proportionate output of
coarse-ware and stoneware, although it must be admitted that we do
not know the relative sizes of the two parcels of cracked wares. It
must be added also that, besides the inventory, the only extant direct
documentary reference to the Rogers' factory products (1745) is to
earthenware, not stoneware. Furthermore, we know that 20 years earlier
he had sold a considerable quantity of earthenware to John Mercer of
Marlborough.
Prior to the discovery of the Yorktown evidence we had known of no
stoneware manufacturing in Tidewater Virginia in the 18th century, but
archeological evidence had revealed the presence of earthenware kilns
in the 17th century, with the possibility of two or three operating
at much the same time.[265] It can easily be argued that there would
have been more in the 18th century, though no kiln sites have yet
been found. These considerations cannot be ignored, and consequently
we must carefully avoid the trap of attributing all 18th-century,
lead-glazed earthenwares made from Tidewater clay to the Rogers
factory. A wood-fired Yorktown kiln burning pottery made from Peninsula
clay and coated with a clear lead glaze would produce wares possessing
variations of texture and color similar to those emerging from a
comparable kiln, say, at Williamsburg.[266] Therefore, in attempting
to assess the range and importance of Rogers' earthenwares we must use
potting techniques alone as our guide to their identification.
[Illustration: Figure 18.--UNGLAZED EARTHENWARE BOTTLE, probably of
Yorktown manufacture, discarded about 1765. Found in Williamsburg.
Surviving height 23.81 centimeters.]
The principal evidence comes from the cut beside Main Street in
Yorktown in front of the Digges House,[267] where numerous rim
fragments of overfired and unglazed creampans were found. Others were
recovered from the edges of the roadways on three sides of the adjacent
colonial lots 51 and 55, shown on the 18th-century plat (Watkins,
fig. 1) as having belonged to William Rogers. The rims from these
deposits flared slightly, were tooled inward, and were flattened on
the upper surface (fig. 13, no. 1). Fragments of such bowls, usually
coated on the inside with a mottled lead glaze varying in color from
light ginger to the tone and appearance of molasses, depending on the
color of the body, are frequently found in Williamsburg (fig. 14) and
on plantation sites in contexts of the second quarter of the 18th
century. This creampan form is one of two made from Virginia clay
which constantly turn up in contemporaneous archeological deposits.
The second form (figs. 13, no. 2, and 15) possesses an everted and
rolled rim,[268] an entirely different technique from that described
above. I am inclined to doubt that these and their variants were made
at the Rogers factory and have termed them products of the "rolled-rim"
potter. Nevertheless, a few unglazed fragments of such pans (fig. 13,
nos. 2-4) are represented in the National Park Service collections
from uncertain archeological contexts in Yorktown.[269] The fact that
they are unglazed suggests that they may have been made there, though
undoubtedly not by the craftsman who threw the flattened-rim creampans.
Other earthenware sherds from the Digges House group include small,
folded-rim fragments which may have come from storage jars or
flowerpots. Another fragment was sharply everted over a pronouncedly
incurving body. This could have been part of a small bowl or porringer.
The Williamsburg archeological collections include a number of bowls
of this form, one of which is illustrated in figure 16. A similar
rim form is present on a pair of lead-glazed funnels (fig. 17) from
a mid-18th-century context at the Coke Garrett House in Williamsburg
and on a presumed funnel fragment (fig. 13, no. 5) in the Park Service
collection from Yorktown.[270] Also from Yorktown comes the only known
porringer fragment (fig. 13, no. 6), a biscuit sherd with a flattened
rim and traces of the luting for a handle.[271] Although the type
is not represented among stratified finds from Yorktown, mention
must be made of an unglazed earthenware water (?) bottle found in
Williamsburg,[272] which is clearly a stoneware form and thus probably
was made at the Yorktown factory (fig. 18).
Perhaps the most baffling item listed in Rogers' inventory was the
reference to "4 doz bird bottles 12/", for it was hard to imagine that
he would have been making the small feeder bottles for cages which
were normally fashioned in glass. However, it now seems reasonably
certain that the Rogers bird bottles were actually bird houses. Figure
19 illustrates two bottle-shaped vessels of Virginia earthenware
coated with lead glazes identical in color to examples found on a
creampan and other presumably Rogers products excavated in Yorktown.
The example on the left has lost its mouth but when complete was
undoubtedly comparable to the specimen at right. The former was found
in 1935 during the demolition of a chimney of the "Pyle House" at Green
Spring near Jamestown.[273] It was mortared into the chimney twelve
feet above the ground with its broken mouth facing out but with its
base stopping short of the flue. The bottle is now in the collection
of the National Park Service at Jamestown, and a recent examination
showed that it still contained a lens of washed soil lying in the
belly clearly indicating the position in which it had been seated in
the chimney brickwork. A stick had been thrust through the wall before
firing and emerged on the inside at the same point that the lens of
dirt was resting. It was apparent, therefore, that the hole was meant
for drainage. The stick hole was present in both bottles as also was an
ante cocturam cut in the base (fig. 20) which removed almost half of
the bottom plus a vertical triangle. It is believed that this feature
was intended to enable the bottles to be hooked over pintles or large
nails which latched into the #V# and prevented them from rolling.
In this way they could have been mounted under the eaves of frame
buildings as nesting boxes (or bottles) and although firmly secure when
hooked, they could be easily lifted off for cleaning. Evidence of such
use is provided by slight chipping on the inner face of the vertical
#V# cut of the second bottle (right) where the bottle had abraded
against the nail or pintle.
The date of the Green Spring bottle is uncertain, though the paper
label accompanying it says "Probably 1720, date of building of house."
However, it is clear that the bottle was not installed in the intended
portable manner and it is possible that it was added at a later date.
The complete example (fig. 19, right) was recently discovered in a
sound archeological context during excavations at the James Geddy House
in Williamsburg, being associated with a large refuse deposit dating in
the period about 1740-60.[274]
It may be noted that in the 1746 inventory of the estate of John
Burdett, tavern keeper of Williamsburg, there are listed "16 bird
Bottles 3/".[275] As it seems unlikely that a tavern keeper would have
a stock of birdcage bottles when he apparently had no birdcage, it
may be suggested that the reference is to bottles similar to those
discussed here. In support of this conclusion, attention is drawn
to the fact that Rogers' new bottles were valued at 3d each, while
Burdett's (used?) seven years later were appraised at 2-1/4d.[276]
[Illustration: Figure 19.--TWO EARTHENWARE "BIRD BOTTLES" believed
to be of Rogers' lead-glazed earthenware showing drainage holes in
sides. Bottle on left is from a house chimney near Green Spring and,
on right, is from the James Geddy House in Williamsburg. Height 18.42
centimeters, and 21.91 centimeters, respectively.]
It seems evident that the Rogers earthenware was fired to biscuit,
glazed, and fired again in a glost oven; no other explanation accounts
for the large quantities of unglazed earthenware found at Yorktown.
Mr. Maloney's experiments at the Williamsburg Pottery have amply
demonstrated that the Yorktown earthenware could have been glazed
in the green state and would not have required a second firing.
Furthermore, the study of a late-17th-century kiln site in James City
County has confirmed that not all potters thought it necessary to make
glazing a separate process. It is curious that the Rogers factory
found it desirable to take this second and seemingly uneconomical
step. The making of stoneware certainly would not have been a
double-firing operation, and, although some of the pieces actually
are fired no higher than the earthenware, they have been slipped and
salted. Consequently we must accept the bottle discussed above as an
intentional earthenware item which had passed through only the first
kiln. Furthermore, its presence in Williamsburg indicates that it was
never meant to be glazed. And finally, it should be noted that an
unglazed handle fragment, probably from a similar bottle, was among the
sherds recovered from the roadway in front of the Digges House.
[Illustration: Figure 20.--BASES OF THE "BIRD BOTTLES" depicted in
figure 19, showing holes for suspension. Base diameters: left, 10.48
centimeters; right, 10.16 centimeters.]
Conclusions
The Rogers inventory contains such a wide variety of forms that one
may claim without fear of contradiction that his factory was _capable_
of producing any of the kinds of kitchen vessels and general-purpose
containers that the colony may have required. Consequently, a Yorktown
origin may reasonably be considered for any of the wares made from
local clay that turn up in contexts of the appropriate period. In the
Williamsburg collections are such varied lead-glazed, earthenware
items as closestool pans, chamber pots, straight-sided dishes, lidded
storage jars, wide-mouthed and double-handled storage bins, pipkins,
and chafing dishes. But whether all these things were made, in fact, at
Yorktown cannot be known until the factory site is found and excavated.
In the meantime, a few conclusions can be drawn on the basis of the
existing archeological evidence. There can be no doubt that the Rogers
factory at Yorktown was a sizable operation and that it employed
throwers as capable in their own field as any in England. Our slender
knowledge of Rogers' own background does not indicate that he himself
was a potter. It must be supposed, therefore, that he obtained the
services of at least a journeyman potter apprenticed in one of the
brown-stoneware factories in England. One can only guess at the center
in which this unknown craftsman was trained, but it is more than likely
that he came from London and might have worked at Fulham,[277] or more
probably at Southwark, or even, perhaps, at Lambeth, the types of
sagger and the wares produced at Yorktown being stylistically identical
to the fragments found on the latter sites.
Not knowing the number of craftsmen employed, we cannot hope to
determine the size of Rogers' output or the number of kilns in
operation. But one would suppose that he had at least two kilns, one
for stoneware and the other for lead-glazed earthenware, although they
could, conceivably, have been interchangeable. An indication that
lead-glazed wares were sometimes burned in the salt-glaze kiln is
provided by a single creampan in the Williamsburg collection,[278]
which is both lead-glazed and heavily incrusted with salt. It is
possible, however, that, knowing that there would be "cold" spots in
the kiln,[279] the potter tried to make use of every available inch and
inserted a few lead-glazed pieces along with the stoneware.
Documentary evidence relating to the distribution of Rogers' products
has been discussed by Mr. Watkins (pp. 83-84), and, although some
of it tends to be equivocal, we are left with the impression that
both stoneware and earthenware were shipped for trade elsewhere,
but that such shipments were probably infrequent and not of large
quantities.[280] When seemingly comparable fragments are unearthed on
sites beyond the environs of the York and James Rivers one must use
extreme caution in attributing them to Yorktown. Clay of a generally
similar character lies beneath much of Tidewater Virginia, and, since
little serious historical archeology has been undertaken in the state
beyond the Jamestown-Williamsburg-Yorktown triangle, it is much too
soon to assume that apprentices trained at Yorktown did not set up
their own kilns in other counties. In short, techniques of manufacture
such as are exhibited by the shaping of earthenware rims and handles
should be the only acceptable guide for identification, and even these
are not infallible. As for the stoneware, the manufacturing techniques
are so English in character that they are of no help. Thus, once the
Rogers stoneware was shipped out of Yorktown, it must have lost its
identity as totally as Governor Gooch presumably had hoped that it
would.
Archeological evidence for the date range of the Yorktown ware is not
very conclusive. The Challis site mug seems to have been thrown away
around 1730, and this provides the earliest tightly dated context in
which the wares have been found. The largest single assemblage of
probable Yorktown products was the extensive refuse deposit believed
to have been associated with John Coke's tavern in Williamsburg,
but this was not discarded before mid-century. Other fragments of
stoneware tankards, jars, and pipkins have been found at the Anthony
Hay and New Post Office Sites in Williamsburg in contexts ranging from
1750 to 1770, while more, possibly Yorktown pieces, were encountered
in a rubbish deposit interred in the period 1763-1772 at Rosewell
in Gloucester County. These are, of course, dates at or after which
the pieces were thrown away; they do not necessarily have a close
relationship with the dates of manufacture. Nevertheless, the recovery
of so many fragments from late contexts does suggest that the factory
continued in operation after the last documented date of 1745.[281]
The most obvious source for dating evidence is clearly at Yorktown
itself, but, unfortunately, little of the large National Park Service
collection has any acceptable archeological associations. The
fragments recovered from the roadway in front of the Digges House
were accompanied by no closely datable items. While it is tempting
to associate this deposit with Rogers' tenure as "Surveyor of the
Landings, Streets; and Cosways" beginning in 1734,[282] it is also
possible that he provided the City of York with road metaling before
that date and that after his death his successors continued to do so.
The quantity of sagger fragments from the vicinity of the Swan Tavern
might have been associated in some way with the fact that Thomas
Reynolds (see Watkins, p. 83) occupied the adjacent lot. More sagger
fragments were found in the backfilling of the builder's trench around
the recently restored Digges House on Main Street, which the National
Park Service believes to have been constructed in about 1760.[283] But
it can be argued that the sagger pieces were scattered so liberally
around the town that their presence in the builder's trench does not
necessarily imply that the factory was still operating at that date.
In summation, it may be said that the quantities of stoneware and
earthenware with possible Yorktown associations which have been found
in archeological sites in Tidewater Virginia leave little doubt that
the venture established by William Rogers was of considerable value to
the colony. There can be equally little doubt that Governor Gooch was
aware of this fact and that he gave his tacit approval to the venture
by minimizing its importance in his reports to the Board of Trade.
The quality of the products was good by colonial standards, and their
quantity impressive. Consequently, in spite of Governor Gooch's
misleading reports, William Rogers begins to emerge as one of the
pioneers of industry in Virginia. It is to be hoped that it will be
possible eventually to undertake a full archeological excavation of his
factory site and so enable Rogers to step out once and for all from
behind the deprecatory sobriquet of the "poor potter" of Yorktown that
has concealed for more than two centuries his name, his acumen, and his
potters' talents.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to Colonial Williamsburg for helping to subsidize
the preparation of this paper and for permission to illustrate
specimens from its archeological collections; also to J. Paul
Hudson, National Park Service curator at Jamestown for similar
facilities; as well as to Charles E. Hatch, senior National Park
Service historian at Yorktown, for access to various archeological
reports in his library.
I am particularly grateful to James E. Maloney of the Williamsburg
Pottery for the immense amount of work which he so generously
undertook not only to reproduce copies of the Yorktown products
but also to recreate the wasters as well, thus providing
information regarding the colonial technical processes that could
not have been obtained in any other way. I am also grateful to
Joseph Grace, Colonial Williamsburg's watchmaker and engraver
who made an accurate copy of the unofficial excise stamp used on
Rogers' mugs, and to my secretary Lynn Hill, who toiled long and
hard to bring order into this report.
I am further indebted to Wilcomb E. Washburn, Chairman, Department
of American Studies, at the Smithsonian Institution, who first
drew my attention to the artifacts in front of the Dudley Digges
House; and to my wife Audrey, to John Dunton and William Hammes,
all of Colonial Williamsburg's department of archeology, who
through the years have helped collect ceramic evidence from
Yorktown.
I. N. H.
U.S. Government Printing Office: 1967
FOOTNOTES:
[183] For example: THOMAS JEFFERSON WERTENBAKER, _The Old South, The
Founding of American Civilization_ (New York: Scribner's, 1942), p.
265; J. PAUL HUDSON, "Earliest Yorktown Pottery," _Antiques_ (May
1958), vol. 73, pp. 472-473.
[184] This material is located in the collection of the Colonial
National Historical Park, Jamestown, Virginia.
[185] "Reasons for Repealing the Acts pass'd in Virginia and Maryland
relating to Ports and Towns," _Calendar of Virginia State Papers and
Other Manuscripts_, edit. William P. Palmer (Richmond, 1875), vol. 1,
pp. 137-138.
[186] VICTOR S. CLARK, _The History of Manufactures in the United
States, 1607-1860_ (Washington, D.C.: The Carnegie Institution, 1916),
pp. 26-27.
[187] Ibid., p. 203.
[188] Ibid., p. 204.
[189] Library of Congress Transcripts: Great Britain, Public Records
Office, Colonial Office 5, vol. 1322, p. 185.
[190] PERCY SCOTT FLIPPIN, "William Gooch: Successful Royal Governor
of Virginia," _William & Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine_
(1926), ser. 2, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 37-38; FLIPPIN, _The Royal
Government in Virginia (1624-1775)_ (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1919), pp. 124 ff.
[191] CHARLES CAMPBELL, _History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of
Virginia_ (Philadelphia, 1810), p. 448.
[192] FLIPPIN (1926), op. cit. (footnote 8), p. 38.
[193] CAMPBELL, op. cit. (footnote 9), p. 414.
[194] Library of Congress Transcripts: Great Britain, Public Record
Office, Colonial Office 5, vol. 1323, p. 82.
[195] Ibid., p. 133.
[196] Ibid., p. 189.
[197] Ibid., vol. 1324, p. 3.
[198] Ibid., pp. 30-31.
[199] Ibid., p. 104.
[200] Ibid., vol. 1325, p. 83.
[201] C. MALCOLM WATKINS, _The Cultural History of Marlborough,
Virginia_, (_Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology_,
U.S. National Museum Bulletin 253), Washington: Smithsonian
Institution, in press.
[202] York County Records: Deeds & Bonds, vol. 2, 1701-1713, p. 365 (In
York County Courthouse, Yorktown, Va.).
[203] York County Records, Book 14: _Orders & Wills_, 1716-1720.
[204] Ibid., pp. 307, 317, 357, 386, 394, 439.
[205] York County Records, Book 17: _Orders, Wills, &c._, 1729-1732, p.
136.
[206] Ibid., p. 296.
[207] York County Records, Book 18: _Orders, Wills, & Inventories_, p.
15.
[208] Ibid., p. 121.
[209] Ibid., p. 157.
[210] LESTER J. CAPPON and STELLA F. DUFF, _Virginia Gazette Index,
1736-1780_ (Williamsburg, Va.: Institute of Early American History and
Culture, 1950); and the _Virginia Gazette, 1736-1780_ (Williamsburg,
Va.: Issued on microfilm by the Institute of Early American History and
Culture from originals loaned by other institutions, 1950), reel 1.
[211] EDWARD M. RILEY, "The Colonial Courthouses of York County,
Virginia," _William & Mary Quarterly Historical Magazine_ (1942), ser.
2 (hereinafter designated _WMQ_ 2), vol. 22, pp. 399-404.
[212] _Virginia Gazette_ microfilm, op. cit. (footnote 28), reel 1.
[213] York County Records, Book 18: _Orders, Wills, & Inventories_, pp.
525, 537 ff.
[214] Ibid., pp. 553 ff.
[215] _Virginia Gazette_ microfilm, op. cit. (footnote 28), reel 1.
[216] Library of Congress Transcripts, op. cit. (footnote 12), vol.
1325, p. 83.
[217] York County Records, Book 5: _Deeds_, 1741-1754, p. 64.
[218] _Virginia Gazette_ microfilm, op. cit. (footnote 41), reel 1
(June 17, 1737).
[219] _Tyler's Quarterly_ (Richmond, Va., 1922), vol. 3, p. 296.
[220] _Virginia Gazette_ microfilm, op. cit. (footnote 28), reel 1
(Sept. 30, 1737; April 17, 1738; June 23, 1738; July 7, 1738; April 20,
1739; July 13, 1739; Aug. 24, 1739; January 25, 1740).
[221] "Reynolds and Rogers," _WMQ_ 1 (1905), vol. 13, pp. 128, 129.
[222] _John Norton & Sons, Merchants of London and Virginia_, edit.
Frances Norton Mason (Richmond, Va.: Dietz, 1937), p. 518.
[223] _Virginia Gazette_ microfilm (Parks' Virginia Gazette, June 20
and July 4, 1745); I. NOËL HUME, Part II, p. 110.
[224] "The Votes of Assembly of the Province of Pennsylvania,"
_Pennsylvania Archives_ (Harrisburg), ser. 8, vol. 3, pp. 2047-2049.
(From Rudolf Hommel, in correspondence with Lura Woodside Watkins.)
[225] _Virginia Gazette_ microfilm, op. cit. (footnote 28), reel 1.
[226] York County Records, Book 18: _Orders, Wills, & Inventories_, p.
290.
[227] "Petition of Isaac Parker, September, 1742," _Massachusetts
Archives_, vol. 59, pp. 332-333 (quoted in LURA WOODSIDE WATKINS, _New
England Potters and Their Wares_ [Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1950], p. 245).
[228] _Bideford-in-Devon: Official Guide to Bideford and District_,
edit. Sheila Hutchinson (Bideford, about 1961), p. 35.
[229] C. MALCOLM WATKINS, "North Devon Pottery and Its Export to
America in the 17th Century" (paper 13 in _Contributions from the
Museum of History and Technology: Papers 12-18_, U.S. National Museum
Bulletin 225, by various authors; Washington: Smithsonian Institution,
1963), pp. 28-29.
[230] LURA WOODSIDE WATKINS, _New England Potters and Their Wares_
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950), p. 16.
[231] Ibid., p. 24.
[232] _The Register of Burials in the Parish of Braintree in the County
of Essex from Michaelmas ... 1740_ (MS in Essex County Record Office,
Chelmsford, England), p. 40.
[233] "Abstracts of Virginia Land Patents," prepared by W. G. STANARD,
_Virginia Magazine of History & Biography_ (hereinafter designated
_VHM_) (1899), vol. 5, p. 186.
[234] "Viewers of Tobacco Crop, 1639," _VHM_ (1898), vol. 5, p. 121.
[235] _Virginia Wills and Administrations 1632-1800_, comp. Clayton
Torrence (Richmond, Wm. Byrd Press, Inc., n.d.), pp. 364-365.
[236] _English Duplicates of Lost Virginia Records_, comp. Louis des
Coquets, Jr. (Princeton, N.J.: Privately printed, 1958), p. 128.
[237] _Virginia Wills and Administrations_, loc. cit. (footnote 53).
[238] LYON G. TYLER, "Education in Colonial Virginia," _William & Mary
College Quarterly Historical Magazine_ (1897), ser. 1 (hereinafter
designated _WMQ_ 1), vol. 5, p. 221.
[239] "Extracts from the Records of Surry County," _WMQ_ 1 (1903), vol.
11, p. 83.
[240] _English Duplicates_, op. cit. (footnote 54), p. 73.
[241] Ibid., p. 210.
[242] Ibid., pp. 81, 83, 86.
[243] _Virginia Wills and Administrations_, loc. cit. (footnote 53).
[244] "Virginia Gleanings in England," _VHM_ (1921), vol. 29, p. 435.
[245] "Tithables in Lancaster County, 1716," _WMQ_ 1 (1913), vol. 21,
p. 21.
[246] From _Orders, Wills, & Inventories_, York County Records, no.
18, pp. 553 ff. The linear totals given in the right-hand column are
not always the sum of the amounts noted in each line, but they are
presented here as faithfully as possible.
[247] ADRIAN OSWALD, "A London Stoneware Pottery, Recent Excavations
at Bankside," _The Connoisseur_ (January 1951), vol. 126, no. 519, pp.
183-185.
[248] J. F. BLACKER, _The A. B. C. of English Salt-Glaze Stoneware_
(London: 1922), pp. 46, 48, 51, 56, 57, 63, and 65.
[249] Kiln waste found in recent excavations in Philadelphia indicate
that Anthony Duché was manufacturing stoneware there in the style of
Westerwald in the 1730s.
[250] No trace of a kiln was found on the Bankside site in Southwark;
it is probable that the waste came from another location nearby,
possibly from the factory established in Gravel Lane around 1690,
which continued under various managements until about 1750. It may
be noted that, in the same way that much Southwark delftware has
been erroneously attributed to Lambeth, it is likely that brown
stonewares in the so-called style of Fulham was made in Southwark
before Lambeth rose to prominence in that field. See F. H. GARNER,
"Lambeth Earthenware," _Transactions of the English Ceramic Circle_
(London: 1937), vol. 1, no. 4, p. 46; also JOHN DRINKWATER, "Some Notes
on English Salt-Glaze Brown Stoneware," _Transactions of the English
Ceramic Circle_ (London, 1939), vol. 2, no. 6, p. 33.
[251] W. R. excise or capacity stamps continued to be impressed on
tavern mugs long after William III was dead. The latest published
example is dated 1792. DRINKWATER, op. cit. (footnote 69), p. 34 and
pl. XIIIb.
[252] The Williamsburg Pottery, on Route 60 near Lightfoot, specializes
in the reproduction of 18th-century stoneware and slipware.
[253] I. NOËL HUME, _Here Lies Virginia_ (New York: Knopf, 1963), fig.
55.
[254] Colonial Williamsburg, E. R. (Excavation Register) 140.27A.
[255] E. R. 140.27A.
[256] Colonial Williamsburg, cat. no. 1913.
[257] E. R. 157G.27A (also 159A, 165A, 173, and 173A).
[258] The majority of archeologically documented pieces have been
recovered from English domestic sites and not from kiln dumps.
[259] I. NOËL HUME, "Excavations at Rosewell, Gloucester County,
Virginia, 1957-1959," (paper 18 in _Contributions from the Museum of
History and Technology: Papers 12-18_, U. S. National Museum Bulletin
225, by various authors; Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1963), p.
208, no. 3 and p. 209, fig. 28, no. 3.
[260] U.S. National Park Service collection at Jamestown: Yorktown the
first from the Swan Tavern Site and the others from Project 203, F. S.
8, unstratified material recovered during sewer digging on Main Street,
1956-1957.
[261] OSWALD, op. cit. (footnote 66), fig. IX.
[262] U.S. National Park Service collection at Jamestown: Yorktown, S.
T. 1933.
[263] Mr. Maloney is of the opinion that saggers could just as usefully
have served a "groundhog" kiln where they would have enabled the pots
to be stacked up to four in height.
[264] See WATKINS, Part I, footnote 32.
[265] Op. cit. (footnote 72), pp. 208-220.
[266] It must be stressed that no evidence of any such kiln exists. See
also footnote 30.
[267] This material is divided between the colonial archeological
collections of the Smithsonian Institution and of Colonial Williamsburg.
[268] I. NOËL HUME, "Excavations at Tutter's Neck, James City County
in Virginia, 1960-1961," paper 53 in _Contributions from the Museum
of History and Technology_ (U.S. National Museum Bulletin 249);
Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1966, fig. 19, nos. 1, 3, and 4.
[269] N.P.S. Collection at Jamestown: Yorktown, no provenance.
[270] Bowl IC.1.18C, Funnels E.R. 140.27A, and National Park Service
collection at Jamestown: Yorktown, no provenance.
[271] National Park Service collection at Jamestown: Yorktown, no
provenance.
[272] E.R. 157A, C, and G, 27A.
[273] National Park Service collection, J. 13049 (G.S.), with
label reading "Pyle House Green Spring. Built into brickwork of
chimney--removed in securing brick for Lightfoot House by C.? T.
(10.29.35)."
[274] Colonial Williamsburg archeological collections, E. R. 987D.19B,
cat. 3275.
[275] "Inventory and Appraisement of estate of John Burdett," York
County Records, Book 20, _Wills and Inventories_, pp. 46-49.
[276] Since this paper was written and the bird bottles identified,
a number of additional fragments have been recognized among
mid-eighteenth-century finds from Williamsburg excavations, including a
small, pierced lug handle fitting the scar on the Geddy example (fig.
19, right). The hole through the handle lined up with that through the
shoulder clearly indicating that their combined purpose was to provide
an alternative method of suspension for use when the bottles were hung
in trees.
[277] There is a long-established belief that Fulham was the principal
source of 18th-century brown-stoneware vessels. While the art of making
the ware was first developed there by John Dwight, the factory fell
into decline after his death in 1703 and remained in virtual oblivion
until the 19th century.
[278] Archeological area 2B2, context unknown.
[279] Mr. Maloney has pointed out that a margin of 150°F. is sufficient
to make the difference between earthenware and stoneware.
[280] Export records for the York River should be treated with some
caution as goods often were imported from one place and later exported
to another. But if we accept the 1739 and 1745 _Virginia Gazette_
references (Watkins, footnotes 38 and 41) as being to wares of Yorktown
manufacture, by the same token we must draw comparable conclusions
from the Naval Office Lists for Accomac (Eastern Shore of Virginia),
which show "1 shipment" of "stoneware" exported to Maryland in 1749.
Similarly we would have to assume that there was an earthenware
factory operating near the James River in 1755 when the records list
the exporting of "2 crates Earthenware" to the Rappahannock. Such
conclusions may, indeed, be correct, though there is as yet no evidence
to support them. Naval Office Lists, Public Records Office, London;
cf. _Commodity Analysis of Imports and Exports, Accomac, Virginia,
1726-1769_, and for the _Rappahannock, Virginia, 1726-1769_ microfilm
books compiled under the direction of John H. Cox, University of
California, 1939 (unpublished).
[281] _Virginia Gazette_, June 20, 1745.
[282] WATKINS, Part I, footnote 37.
[283] Large numbers of wine-bottle fragments also were recovered
from the builder's trench, and provided archeological support for a
construction date after about 1760.
Index
Act for Ports and Towns (1691), 80
Act for Ports and Towns (1704), repeal of, 76, 77
act prohibiting importation of "stript tobacco," 77
petition for the repeal of, 77
ale, 80
Allen, William, 41
Ambler, Richard (merchant), 79
architectural drawings, Tutter's Neck, 30
Atkins, Robert, 42
Bacon, Nathaniel, 7
ball, cannon, 12, 22, 23 (illustr.)
basin, English delftware, 15, 16 (illustr.), 22, 24 (illustr.)
bead, glass, 47, 70, 71 (illustr.)
Belcher, Governor (Massachusetts), 77
Board of Trade (London), reports to, 75, 76, 77, 78-79, 82-83, 84,
85, 111
boat
"shallop," 82
sloop, 82
bone, 18, 47
bones, animal, 51-52
bottles, 36, 43, 51, 82
bird, 82, 107, 108 (illustr.), 109 (illustr.)
case, 13
oil or essence, 13
pharmaceutical, 13, 24 (illustr.), 25, 55
stoneware, 91, 92, 98 (illustr.), 100 (illustr.), 101, 105
water, 107
wine, 4, 10, 13, 14, 24 (illustr.), 25, 39 (illustr.), 43, 44, 45,
46, 49, 51, 55, 68-70 (illustr.)
wine, miniature, 17 (illustr.), 24 (illustr.), 25
wine, seals for, 32, 35, 36, 37 (illustr.), 43, 46, 55, 69,
(illustr.), 70
Yorktown earthenware, 106 (illustr.)
bottle glass, 11
bowls: delftware, 49, 64-66 (illustr.)
earthenware, 48 (illustr.)
Indian pottery, 67
Staffordshire, 55
stoneware, 96, 97 (illustr.)
Yorktown earthenware, 49, 104 (illustr.), 107
_Braxton_ (ship), 83
Bray, David, Sr., 40
Bray, David, Jr., 35, 37, 40
Bray, Elizabeth, 41
Bray, Elizabeth Meriwether, 41
Bray, James, Sr., 40
Bray, James, Jr., 40
Bray, Judith, 35, 36, 37, 40
Bray, Thomas, 35, 40, 45, 56
brewing, 80, 82, 85
Brewster, Richard, 36
Bristol (store), 82, 87
Brown, Matthew, 36, 40
bricklaying, English bond, 4, 8, 44, 45
brickmaking, 43
bricks (_See under_ building materials)
broad arrow, 58 (illustr.), 59
Bruton Parish, 35
church, 37
buckle, shoe, 63 (illustr.), 64 (_See also_ harness)
building materials:
bricks, 43, 87;
shipment of, 83;
sizes of, 8, 44, 45
lathes, oak, 7
lumber, 7, 9, 10, 14;
oak strips, 44;
weatherboards, 44
(_See also_ floor)
mortar, 4, 8, 10, 43, 44, 45, 51
oystershells, 4, 10, 11, 12, 14, 44, 45, 49, 52
plaster, 51
shingles, cypress, 7
Burbydge, Richard (seal of), 36, 39, 46, 69 (illustr.), 70
Burdett, John (tavern keeper), 107, 108
Burwell, Lewis, 41
Burwell's Ferry (Virginia), 43
(_See also_ Kingsmill)
button, brass, 70, 71 (illustr.)
can, iron, 4
Carter, Robert "King", 45
Cary, Colonel Thomas, rebellion led by, 39
Challis site (James City County), 92, 94, 95, 96, 110
Chalmers, George, 78
chamber pots, 82;
handle of English delftware, 15, 16 (illustr.)
charger, delftware, 49, 51, 55, 65 (illustr.), 66
Charles II, 39, 82
Charleston, R. J., 13
Chesapeake Corporation, 31, 32, 41, 42
Cheshire, ----, 87
chimney, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14;
bird bottles in, 107-108;
Tutter's Neck, 36, 43, 45, 49
chinoiserie, 13
Chowan Precinct (North Carolina), 37-39
churches:
Bruton Parish, 37
Chowan Precinct (North Carolina), 37-38
Clark, Victor S., 76
Clay Bank,
excavations at, 3-27;
excavation plans, 6
Clayton, John, 87
clock, 82
closets, 7
clothing, 77, 78
Coke, John (tavern keeper), 95, 96, 97, 110
collar, iron, 24 (illustr.), 25
College Landing (Virginia), 32
Colonial Williamsburg, Inc., 3, 5, 31, 32, 42, 44, 96
ceramics, 10, 11, 31, 32, 46
Indian, 11, 15, 16 (illustr.)
shipment of, 82, 84
Staffordshire, 11
(_See also_ specific forms and types)
Colono-Indian pottery, 24 (illustr.), 25, 45, 49, 55, 65 (illustr.), 67;
bowl, 65 (illustr.), 67;
cup, 52 (illustr.)
cooper, 12
Cotton, Ezra, 7
Council of Virginia, 40, 77, 78
petition complaining about piracy, 41
Culpeper, Lord, 41
cup, Colono-Indian pottery, 52 (illustr.);
delftware, 49;
earthenware, 12, 68, 69 (illustr.);
porcelain, 70, 71 (illustr.)
curtains, 82;
rings for, 70, 71 (illustr.)
cutlery, 46, 58 (illustr.);
bone handled, 18, 19 (illustr.)
(_See also_ knife; fork)
Daniel, Daniel Mack, 42
delftware, 50 (illustr.):
bowls, 49
charger, 49, 51, 55
cup, 49
drug jar, 49
English, 13, 15, 16 (illustr.), 22, 23, (illustr.), 44, 46, 47,
51, 64-67, 65 (illustr.)
plate, 47
porringers, 49
salts, 51 (illustr.)
Desandrouin (cartographer), 32, 34, 35
doors, 8
drug jar, 49, 65 (illustr.), 66
Duché, Anthony (potter), 91
Duché family (potters), 84
Dunbar, Jeremiah, 77
Dwight, John (Fulham potter), 55, 109
earthenware, 14
bowl, 48 (illustr.)
Cistercian, 15, 16 (illustr.)
English, 10, 68, 69 (illustr.)
lead-glazed, 11, 22, 24 (illustr.)
North Devon, 47
Staffordshire, 48 (illustr.)
tin-enameled (Portuguese), 10, 15, 16 (illustr.)
Yorktown, 47, 49, 51, 55, 68, 69 (illustr.)
(_See also_ specific forms; William Rogers)
Eaton, Alden, 31
Eden, Governor, 42
elevations, hypothetical (Tutter's Neck), 30
_Eltham_ (ship), 83
excavation plans, Clay Bank, 6; Tutter's Neck, 37, 47
excise stamps, 92, 95 (illustr.)
Ferry, William (tobacco pipe maker), 14
firebacks, 78
fireplace, 8, 9
flax, 78
Fletcher, John (tobacco pipe maker), 27
floor, wooden, 9, 10 (illustr.), 11 (illustr.), 44
fork, table, 51, 58 (illustr.), 59
flower pots, 107
Fox, Jacob (tobacco pipe maker), 27
Fox, Josiah (tobacco pipe maker), 14
framing, 8
Frank, E. M., 44
funnel, Yorktown earthenware, 100 (illustr.), 101, 105 (illustr.)
furnace, air, 78
furniture, 82
Gale, Christopher, 42
Geddes, Captain John, 36
glass, 10, 31, 43;
bead, 47, 70, 71 (illustr.);
decanter, 13;
stem of drinking glass or candlestick, 13, 14, 17 (illustr.);
reconstructed drawing of, 18;
window, 44, 49
(_See also_ bottle)
glasses, drinking, 10;
Romer, 55, 71 (illustr.), 72;
tumbler, 44, 51, 55;
wine, 13, 14, 47, 49, 55, 64;
with covers, 13
glebe-house, 7, 38
Gooch, Governor William, 75, 76-77, 78-79, 82-83, 84, 85
reports to Board of Trade, 75, 76, 78-79, 84, 85, 111
Goodridg, Jeremiah, 37
Gray, Edward, 36
Green, Dr., 7
Grice, John, 36
gunpowder, 82
Ham, Henry, 81
hardware:
band, brass, 70, 71 (illustr.)
bolt, 60, 61 (illustr.), 62
boss, brass, 19 (illustr.), 21
handle, 60, 61 (illustr.)
hasp, 61 (illustr.)
key, 58 (illustr.), 60
latch, 61 (illustr.), 62
loop, 62, 63 (illustr.)
nails, 8, 10, 44
padlock, 44, 51, 54 (illustr.), 60, 61 (illustr.)
rivet, 61 (illustr.), 62
spike, 60, 61 (illustr.)
staple, 20 (illustr.), 21, 24 (illustr.), 27
strap, 61 (illustr.), 62, 63 (illustr.), 64
tack, 19 (illustr.), 21
ward plate, 61 (illustr.), 62
harness:
boss from bridle, 19 (illustr.), 21
buckle, 47, 61 (illustr.), 62
cheekpiece from snaffle bit, 20 (illustr.), 21
fitting for, 47, 70, 71 (illustr.)
ornament, 47, 63 (illustr.), 64, 70, 71 (illustr.)
snaffle bit, 62, 63 (illustr.)
spoon bit, 58 (illustr.), 60
stirrup, 22, 23 (illustr.)
Harrison, Mrs. P. G., 97
Harwood, Elizabeth, 28
hearth, 9, 10, 12
Herman, Augustine, 2, 5
Higgenson, Humphry, 36
Hodgson, Reverend Robert, 7
Horns Quarter (King William County), 40
horseshoe, 49, 62, 63 (illustr.)
houses:
"Ardudwy" (Clay Bank), 4, 5, 7, 8, 14
brick, 45, 87
Corotoman, 45
Green Spring, Pyle House, 107, 108
Jamestown, 44
Tutter's Neck, drawings of, 30 (illustr.)
Williamsburg:
John Blair, 44
Brush-Everard, 44
Coke Garrett, 107, 108
James Geddy, 107
Anthony Hay, 110
New Post Office, 110
Yorktown:
Archer Cottage, 102
Digges house, 92, 98, 106, 107, 108, 110
(_See also_ Tutter's Neck, buildings)
indentured servants, 81
Indians:
appeal to governor for help against, 38, 40
Iroquois Confederation, 40
pottery, 11, 15, 16 (illustr.) (_See also_ Colono-Indian pottery)
projectile point, 15, 16 (illustr.), 71 (illustr.) 72
tobacco pipes, 14
uprising, 39-40
war with Tuscarora Indians, 39-40
inventory, William Rogers' estate, 82, 88-90, 105, 109
iron, unidentified objects, 20 (illustr.), 21, 24 (illustr.), 25-27
(_See also_ specific items)
ironworks, 78
_Jamaica Merchant_ (ship), 36
Jamestown, 44, 107
jar:
earthenware, 24 (illustr.), 25, 47, 68, 69 (illustr.)
pickle, glass, 69 (illustr.), 70
stoneware, 92
storage, 24 (illustr.), 25, 68, 69 (illustr.), 105, 107
Jenings, Col., 82, 87
Jenkins, William F., 3, 4, 11
Jennings, Governor Edmund, 4
Johnson, Elizabeth Bray, 41
Johnson, Col. Philip, 41
Jones, Dorothy Walker, 41
Jones, Frederick, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44-45, 56;
property attacked by Indians, 40;
will of, 40;
wine bottle seal of, 35-36, 38 (illustr.), 39 (illustr.), 69
(illustr.), 70
Jones, Henry (tobacco pipe maker), 14
Jones, Hugh, 42
Jones, Jane, 41
Jones, Captain Roger, 36, 41;
complaints about the conduct of, 41
Jones, Thomas, 13, 35, 37, 41
_Judith_ (ship), 83
jug, brown stoneware, 65 (illustr.), 67;
white stoneware, 55
kilns, 104; "furniture", 76, 91, 92, 93-94, 99 (illustr.), 103-104;
location of, 84, 105-106;
types of, 104;
use of refuse of, 92
(_See also_ pottery making)
Kingsmill (Virginia), 40, 41 (See also Burwell's Ferry)
kitchen:
Clay Bank, 7, 8
Tutter's Neck, 30, 36, 43, 44;
conjectural reconstruction of, 30 (illustr.);
excavation of, 45-46
knife, iron, 20 (illustr.), 21;
table, 49, 58 (illustr.), 59
Knight, Tobias, 41
lamps, 82
latten (_See under_ spoon)
leather, 79
Lee, Robert (widow of), 4
Little Town (Virginia), 40, 45
majolica, Spanish, 49
makers' marks:
latten spoon--R S, 58 (illustr.), 59
W W, 4, 18
pewter spoon--M, 27
tools--I H, 21
WARD, 18
(_See also_ tobacco pipe)
Maloney, James E., 92-96, 102-105
mantels, 8
manufacturing in colonial Virginia, 76-79
reports on trade and manufactures, 75, 76, 78-79
manufacturing in New England, 77
map, Tutter's Neck, 33 (illustr.);
Virginia (1673), 2 (illustr.), 5; (1781), 32, 34, 35 (illustr.);
Yorktown, 74; (1691), 80
marks: broad arrow, 58 (illustr.), 59
excise stamp on stoneware, 92, 95 (illustr.)
shipping, 36
(_See also_ makers' marks; tobacco pipes)
Marlborough (plantation), 32, 79, 105
_Maynard_ (ship), 83
Maynard, Lieutenant, 42
Mercer, John, 79, 84, 105
Meriwether, Elizabeth, 41
Middle Plantation (Williamsburg), 40
mill, horse, 82
Minge, Robert, 81
Morse (Moss), Francis, 87
Mountford's Mill Dam, 82
mug, 82;
English delftware, 15, 16 (illustr.), 22, 24 (illustr.), 46;
redware, 22, 24 (illustr.);
reproductions, 96 (illustr.);
stoneware, 91, 92, 93 (illustr.), 94 (illustr.), 99 (illustr.), 104-105
_Nancy_ (sloop), 83
National Park Service, 91, 92, 93, 96, 102, 107, 110
Negroes, 40, 78, 79, 82 (_See also_ slaves)
Nelson, John, 84
Nelson, William, 88
"New Bottle" (plantation), 4; location of, 4-5
New Bottle (Scotland), 4
Nicholson, Francis, 41
Norton, Courtenay, 83
Norton, John (merchant), 83
oil, 83
ointment pot, 65 (illustr.), 66
Page, Elizabeth, 40
Page family, 3
pan: cream (Yorktown earthenware), 55, 68, 69 (illustr.), 100
(illustr.), 101, 102 (illustr.), 103 (illustr.), 106, 109-110
milk, 82
pudding, 82
sauce, 82
Tidewater earthenware, 22, 24 (illustr.), 25, 92
Parker, Isaac, 84
Parks, William (printer), 87
Petsworth Parish (_See under Vestry Book of_)
Pettus family, 40
Pettus, Mourning, marriage of, 40
Pettus, Thomas, Jr. (widow of), 40
pewter (_See_ spoon)
pictures, 82
pipe (_See_ tobacco pipe)
pipkin, 24 (illustr.), 25, 99, 100 (illustr.), 101
piracy, 41-42
plate, English delftware, 15, 16 (illustr.), 22, 24 (illustr.), 65
(illustr.), 67; tin-glazed earthenware, 15, 16 (illustr.)
Pollock, ----, 40
porcelain, Chinese, 49
cup, 70, 71 (illustr.)
porringers, 82;
delftware, 49, 65 (illustr.), 66;
Yorktown earthenware, 100 (illustr.), 101, 107
Porteus, Beilby, 4, 8
Porteus, Edward, 4, 7, 14
Porteus, Robert, 4, 5, 7, 8
pot, cream, 82;
iron, 62, 63 (illustr.), 78
potteries, Charlestown, Mass., 84
Fulham (England), 109
Gloucester, Mass., 85
North Devon, England, 84
North Walk, England, 84-85
Philadelphia, 84
Williamsburg, 92-96, 102-105
pottery: inventory of, 82, 85
pottery making, 78-79, 83-84, 102-105, 110;
experiments in, 92-96, 102-105
prison, 82
gaol, 95
projectile point, 15, 16 (illustr.), 71 (illustr.), 72
Purton (plantation), 4
Randolph, John, 35, 77
Reade, George, 87
Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 7
Reynolds, Susanna Rogers, 82, 83, 87
Reynolds, Thomas, 83, 84, 110
ring: curtain (brass), 70, 71 (illustr.);
iron, 24 (illustr.), 25, 62, 63 (illustr.)
"Rippon Hall" (plantation, York County), 4
Rogers, George, 83, 84
Rogers, Theodosia, 82, 87
Rogers, William (Yorktown potter), 75-111
brewer, 80, 82, 85
Captain of the troop, 82
death of, 82, 83
inventory of, 82, 88-90, 105, 109
surveyor, 82, 92
Rogers, William, Jr., 82, 83, 87
Rogers, William (others of same name), 86-87
Rosewell (plantation), 3, 32, 98, 110
salt, 39, 82
salt dishes, delftware, 51 (illustr.), 65 (illustr.), 66, 67
saucer, 55, 65 (illustr.), 66
Saunderson, Richard, 84
Sayer, Richard (tobacco pipe maker), 54
scales, 82
Seabrook, Captain Charles, 83
seal, wine bottle, 32, 35, 36, 37 (illustr.), 43, 46, 55, 69
(illustr.), 70
shells, 52
shoes, manufacture of, 79
Skipworth, Elizabeth, 87
slaves, 45;
brought to North Carolina from Virginia, 40, 41;
ceramics made for use by, 45;
listed in inventory, 88;
quarters for, 46
Smith, Edward, 87
Smith, John (daughter of), 4
Smith, Major Lawrence, 80
South, William, 36
spoon: latten, 4, 10, 12, 18, 19 (illustr.), 46, 58 (illustr.), 59
pewter, 11, 24 (illustr.), 27, 47, 49, 58 (illustr.), 59
Spotswood, Governor Alexander, 36, 37
Stark, William (wife of), 81
still, 82 (See also brewing)
stoneware:
Bellarmine, 49
brown, 49, 51, 65 (illustr.), 67-68
excise stamps on, 92, 95 (illustr.)
manufacture of, 83-84, 102-105, 110
Westerwald tankard, 49, 65 (illustr.), 68
white, jug, 55
white salt-glazed, 43, 49
strainer, brass or bronze, 19 (illustr.), 21
stratigraphy, Clay Bank, 11-12
Tutter's Neck, 49
Stubbs, William Carter, 4
Swan Tavern (Yorktown), 76, 83, 102, 110;
mugs from, 91, 92, 93 (illustr.), 99 (illustr.)
sword, 49, 58 (illustr.), 60, 82
tankard, brown stoneware, 65 (illustr.), 67, 91;
Westerwald stoneware, 49, 65 (illustr.), 68
tanning, 79
Tarripin Point (Virginia), 82, 84, 87
taverns, 80
Taylor, Ebanezar, 42
Teach, Edward "Blackbeard" (pirate), 41-42
textiles: cotton, 78;
linen, 77, 79;
manufacture of, 79;
wool, 76, 77
_Thomas and Tryal_ (ship), 84
Thorpe, Otho, 36
Tippet, Robert (tobacco pipe maker), 54
Tippett, Jacob (tobacco pipe maker), 14
tobacco, 76, 77;
act of 1730, 77;
laws regarding, 78
tobacco pipes, 10, 13, 14, 26 (illustr.), 27-28, 46, 47, 49, 52-54;
dating of, 10, 13, 14, 47, 52-54;
Indian, 14, 15, 16 (illustr.);
profiles, 57 (illustr.)
tobacco pipes, makers' marks on:
H I, 14, 26 (illustr.), 27
H S, 49, 53, 57 (illustr.)
I F, 14, 26 (illustr.), 27
I S, 53-54, 57 (illustr.)
M B, 26 (illustr.), 28
R M, 53, 57 (illustr.)
S A, 14, 26 (illustr.), 28
V R, 14, 26 (illustr.), 27
VS, 26 (illustr.), 28
W, 54
W F, 14
W P (or R), 14, 26 (illustr.), 27
X·I·F·X, 26 (illustr.), 28
tobacco pipes, makers of:
William Ferry, 14
John Fletcher, 27
Jacob Fox, 27
Josiah Fox, 14, 27
Henry Jones, 14
Richard Sayer, 54, 56, 57 (illustr.)
I. Tippet, 14, 49
Robert Tippet, 54
Richard Tyler, 54
tools, 14
chisel, carpenter's, 12;
cooper's, 13, 22, 23 (illustr.);
forming, 9, 12, 22, 23 (illustr.)
cramp, 20 (illustr.), 21
dividers, 49, 54 (illustr.), 58 (illustr.), 60
fleam, 58 (illustr.), 60
gimlet, 19 (illustr.), 21
hoe, 12, 21, 22, 23 (illustr.);
broad, 21, 23 (illustr.);
grub, 21, 23 (illustr.)
race knife, 12, 18, 19 (illustr.), 24 (illustr.), 25
saw, 47, 54 (illustr.)
saw wrest, 20 (illustr.), 21
scissors, 54 (illustr.), 59, 60
scythe, 62, 63 (illustr.)
sickle, 47, 49, 54 (illustr.), 60, 61 (illustr.)
tools: spade, 22, 23 (illustr.)
unidentified, 58 (illustr.), 60
wedge, 12, 22, 23 (illustr.)
tube, bone, 63 (illustr.), 64;
iron, 61 (illustr.), 62
Tutter's Neck, 30-72;
aerial photograph of, 32
buildings:
drawings of, 30
excavation of, 43-46
kitchen, 30, 36, 43, 44, 45-46
residence, 30, 43-45
excavation plan of, 37, 47
map of, 33 (illustr.), 34, 35 (illustr.)
tyg, earthenware, 12, 15, 16 (illustr.); 22, 24 (illustr.)
Tyler, Richard (tobacco pipe maker), 54
unidentified objects, iron, 20 (illustr.), 21, 24 (illustr.), 25-27
(_See also_ specific items)
_Vestry Book of Petsworth Parish_, 5, 7
Vincent, William (potter), 85
Virginia: colonial economy, 76-79
Ward, ---- (toolmaker), 18
warehouse, 87
weaving, 79
Webb, Frances, 83
Williamsburg, 13, 35, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 82, 83, 84, 87, 91,
92, 95, 110
(_See also_ Colonial Williamsburg, Inc.)
Williamsburg Pottery, 92-96;
experiments at, 102-105
Williamsburg Restoration, Inc., 31, 41
windows, 7, 44;
frames for, 87;
lead cames for, 44
(_See also_ glass, window)
woodenware, 83
_York_ (ship), 83
Yorktown, 74-111;
list of plat owners, 81
map of, 74;
(1691), 80
Transcriber's Notes:
Simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors were corrected.
Italics markup is enclosed in _underscores_.
Bold markup is enclosed in =equals=.
Fancy or unusual font markup is enclosed in #number signs#.
P. 54 Sidenote text may appear to be oddly split between lines but
this is what is portrayed on the image.