men distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.--1. Jacob van, a
brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to
lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he
was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years
exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince,
son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection
in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).--2. Philip, son of the former, at
the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over the Count of
Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a sovereign prince.
His reign proved short-lived. The Count of Flanders returned with a large
French force, fully disciplined and skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash
enough to meet them in the open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai and
Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings.
ARTHRI'TIS (Gr. _arthron_, a joint), any inflammatory distemper that
affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or gout.
ARTHRO'DIA, a species of articulation, in which the head of one bone is
received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket joint.
ARTHROP'ODA, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda being the
other) into which modern naturalists have divided the sub-kingdom Annulosa,
having the body composed of a series of segments, some always being
provided with articulated appendages. The division comprises Crustaceans,
Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects.
ARTHROZO'A, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals, including
the arthropoda and worms.
ARTHUR, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, born
1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father being pastor
of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as a profession,
and practised in New York. As a politician he became a leader in the
Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as
quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped.
He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he
was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of
Garfield in 1881.
AR'THUR, KING, an ancient British hero of the sixth century, son of Uther
Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. He
married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order of the Round
Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve years in peace.
After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark, Norway, and France,
slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From thence he is said to have
hastened home on account of the faithlessness of his wife, and Modred, his
nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to rebellion. He subdued the
rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds, on the Island of Avalon. The
story of Arthur is supposed to have some foundation in fact, and has ever
been a favourite subject with our romanticists and our poets. It is
generally believed that Arthur was one of the last great Celtic chiefs who
led his countrymen from the west of England to resist the settlement of the
Saxons in the country. But many authorities regard him as a leader of the
Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east
coast and the Picts and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See
_Grail_, _Merlin_, _Round Table_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys, _Studies in the
Arthurian Legend_; W. Lewis Jones, _King Arthur in History and Legend_.
ARTHUR'S SEAT, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the immediate
vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends rollingly to
the N. and E. over a base each way of about five furlongs; presents an
abrupt shoulder to the S., and breaks down precipitously to the W. It is
composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and
up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the legendary
King Arthur.
AR'TIAD (Gr. _artios_, even-numbered), in chemistry, a name given to an
element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &c.: opposed to a perissad,
an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad, triad, &c.
ARTICHOKE (_Cyn[)a]ra Scol[)y]mus_), sometimes called 'the Globe
Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord. Compositae, somewhat
resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly leaves. The erect
flower-stem terminates in a large round head of numerous imbricated oval
spiny scales which surround the flowers. The fleshy bases of the scales
with the large receptacle are the parts that are eaten. Artichokes were
introduced into England early in the sixteenth century. The Jerusalem
artichoke (a corruption of the It. _girasole_, a sunflower), or _Helianthus
tuber[=o]sus_, is a species of sunflower, whose roots are used like
potatoes; it was introduced into England in the early part of the
seventeenth century.
ARTICLE, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to limit or define
their application. In English _a_ or _an_ is usually called the indefinite
article (the latter form being used before a vowel sound), and _the_, the
definite article, but they are also described as adjectives. _An_ was
originally the same as _one_, and _the_ as _that_. In Latin there were no
articles, and Greek has only the definite article.
ARTICLES, LORDS OF THE, in Scottish history, a committee chosen equally
from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various measures,
which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for adoption or
rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually became a
recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished 1690.
ARTICLES, THE SIX, in English ecclesiastical history, articles imposed by a
statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, the thirty-third
year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the acknowledgment of
transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one kind, the
obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private masses, celibacy
of the clergy, and auricular confession. Acceptance of these doctrines was
made obligatory on all persons under the severest penalties; the Act,
however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1549.
ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the Church of England, a statement of the
particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, maintained by the
English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held in London in
1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and superseding an
older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first five articles
contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus
Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection; the divinity of the Holy
Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture. The eighth
article declares a belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds.
The ninth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of
justification by faith alone, of predestination, &c. The nineteenth,
twentieth, and twenty-first declare the Church to be the assembly of the
faithful; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The
twenty-second rejects the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration
of images, and the invocation of saints. The twenty-third decides that only
those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacraments. The
twenty-fourth requires the liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and
twenty-sixth declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though
administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith.
They are two: baptism and the Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the
twenty-seventh article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our
adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's
supper, according to article twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of
the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through
faith (article twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in
both kinds (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the
doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the
host; the thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous;
the thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third
maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate to
the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &c. They were
ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination must
subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen, except
judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now accepted by
the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and America.
ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION are the rules framed by a company for the
administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate
articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered company
has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the statutory form,
found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act, 1908, and known
as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be printed, signed,
stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of association. Unlike the
memorandum, the articles may be altered at any time, by special resolution,
provided the alteration is within the powers given by the memorandum. Thus,
where preferred shares are created by the memorandum, their privileges are
more secure than if merely issued under the articles. The articles are
intended merely for internal administration, and, while binding in
questions between the company and its members as such, they do not affect
third parties, unless the company has acted _ultra vires_ and this was
discoverable from the articles, which the public can inspect at a nominal
fee.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir F. B. Palmer, _Company Law_; A. Coles, _Guide for
the Company Secretary_; A. F. Topham, _Principles of Company Law_.
ARTICLES OF WAR. See _Military Law_.
ARTICULA'TA, the third great section of the animal kingdom according to the
arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as insects and worms,
in which the body displays a jointed structure. The name is now obsolete.
See _Arthropoda_.
ARTICULA'TION, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of the bones.
This is of three kinds: (1) _Diarthr[=o]sis_, or a movable connection, such
as the ball-and-socket joint; (2) _Synarthr[=o]sis_, immovable connection,
as by suture, or junction by serrated margins; (3) _Symphysis_, or union by
means of another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament.
ARTIFICIAL LIMBS. Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have been in use
from very early times; but, as the material of which they were made was
perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons in London there is a good specimen of a Roman
artificial leg which is believed to date back to the third century B.C.
This leg is made of wood, covered with thin bronze; it has an iron
sole-plate, and was fastened on by means of a waist-belt.
In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns back
to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he received
the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediaeval times Goetz von
Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut (1505), had
a hand made of iron to supply its place.
Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial limbs
during the last fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war the French
Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the 'Beaufort' and
issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a movable thumb
controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a loop band over
the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg invented a hand
with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and controlled by a
rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs have been improved
upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now be made which is
capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting and holding light
articles.
Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious
contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow
wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the standard
best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb makers use
leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably, but are too
heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands.
ARTILLERY, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed to small arms
and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who serve these
arms.
Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege
artillery. For details of organization see _Army_. The earliest form of
artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position on the
ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to a hole
bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the
projectile--a stone--more or less in the required direction. Later on this
primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form one man fired it
while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the later Middle Ages
guns of various calibres were known by the names of birds of prey or
reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets, culverins and
demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development of artillery for
siege purposes--chiefly by the Germans--and in the next century it began to
be employed in open warfare; while in 1537 the present Honourable Artillery
Company was formed in London to encourage the use of all 'weapons of
volley'. These weapons of volley were not even confined to fire-arms, but
included bows and cross-bows. The earliest English troops raised as
artillery personel were called the Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years
artillery science has made almost inconceivable progress, thanks to which,
_inter alia_, it is no longer necessary for the target to be visible from
the gun-position. This fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder,
makes the locating of hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field
artillery, by which is meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile
troops are designed on the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable
recoil at the moment of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the
recoil-carriage, thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper,
and avoiding unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same
time allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with
which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and
projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with small
arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due to the
fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a deep zone
of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with an almost
vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by varying the
charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6 guns or
howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of the
limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind the team
of an English gun is approximately 2 tons.
As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of artillery
is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a battle, and
that its true _metier_ is to prepare the way for and assist the infantry.
During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served with the Royal
Regiment.
ARTILLERY COMPANY, THE HONOURABLE, the oldest existing body of volunteers
in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It comprises six
companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a guard of honour
to the sovereign when visiting the city of London. Previous to 1842 the
Company elected their own officers, but since that date they have been
appointed by the Crown.
ARTILLERY SCHOOLS, institutions established for the purpose of giving a
special training to the officers, and in some cases the men, belonging to
the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery schools are at
Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery studies at Woolwich
give artillery officers the means of continuing their studies after they
have completed the usual course at the Royal Military College, and of
qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional scientific attainments.
The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in gunnery to
officers and men, and conducts all experiments connected with artillery and
stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames afford ample opportunity for
artillery practice and firing at long ranges. The Royal Artillery
Institution at Woolwich contains a museum, lecture-room, and
printing-press, from which professional and scientific papers are
periodically issued.
ARTIODAC'TYLA (Gr. _artios_, even numbered, _dakt[)y]los_, a finger or
toe), a section of the Ungulata or hoofed mammals, comprising all those in
which the number of the toes is even (two or four), including the
ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, &c., and also a number of
non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus and the pig.
ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' DWELLINGS ACT, an English Act of Parliament passed
in 1868 to empower town councils and other local authorities to demolish or
improve dwellings unfit for human habitation, and to build and maintain
better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts for the same object were
passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See _Housing_.
ARTOCARPA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by some
botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceae or nettles. They are
trees or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens into
caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (_Bros[)i]mum Galactodendron_) is a milk as
good as that obtained from the cow. Many of the plants produce an edible
fruit, of which the best known is the bread-fruit (Artocarpus).
ARTOIS ([.a]r-twae), a former province of France, anciently one of the
seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost completely included in
the department of Pas-de-Calais.
ARTOIS, THE BATTLE OF. See _European War_.
ARTS, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle Ages,
originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the 'servile
arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given as grammar,
dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Hence
originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts', 'Master of Arts',
&c., still in common use in universities, the faculty of arts being
distinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine, or science. See
_University_.
ARTSYBASHEV, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a number of short
stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel entitled _Sanin_,
published in 1907, which placed him at once among the most famous
contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary critics may hold of
this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of style, and psychological
analysis cannot be disputed.
ART UNIONS, associations for encouraging art, an object which they mainly
pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &c., by lottery among
subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during the time of
Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where they have been
very successful. The first art union established in Britain was that at
Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the Art Unions Act, 1846
See _Lottery_.
ARTVIN, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus, about 35 miles
inland from Batum. Pop. 6720.
ARUBA ([.a]-roe'b[.a]), an island off the north coast of Venezuela,
belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curacoa), about 30 miles long and 7
broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and containing
considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported for manure
is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481 (1916).
ARU ISLANDS. See _Arru Islands_.
[Illustration: Cuckoo Pint or Wake Robin (_Arum macul[=a]tum_).
1, Spadix. 2, Stamen. 3, Female flower. 4, Fruit.]
A'RUM, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceae. _A. macul[=a]tum_ (the common
wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo pint) is abundant in woods and
hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare in Scotland. It has acrid
properties, but its corm yields a starch which is known by the name of
Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was prepared to a considerable
extent in Portland Island. All the species of this genus develop much heat
during flowering.
AR'UNDEL, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles from its
mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250 tons. The
castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk, stands on a
knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921), 2741.
AR'UNDEL, Thomas, third son of Richard FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, born
1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury.
He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the nation from the oppression of
Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers of
Wycliffe.
ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, a series of ancient sculptured marbles discovered by
William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the expense of and for
Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James I and
Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and art. After the
Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the collector to the
University of Oxford. Among them is the _Parian Chronicle_, a chronological
account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian,
history, during a period of 1186 years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450
B.C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B.C.).
ARUN'DO. See _Phragmites_.
ARUSPICES (a-rus'pi-s[=e]z), or HARUSPICES, a class of priests in ancient
Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to inspect the entrails of
victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to foretell future events.
ARUWIMI, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the Congo, on
the north bank.
ARVAL BROTHERS (_Fratres Arv[=a]les_), a college or company of twelve
members elected for life from the highest ranks in ancient Rome, so called
from offering annually public sacrifices for the fertility of the fields
(Lat. _arvum_, a field).
ARVE ([.a]rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps, passes through the
valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near Geneva, after a course of
about 50 miles.
ARVIC'OLA, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridae or Mice. There are
three British species. _A. amphibia_ is the water-vole (or water-rat), and
_A. agrestis_ is the field-vole or short-tailed field-mouse. They are
prolific animals, having three or four litters in the year, each consisting
of from four to ten young.
A'RYAN, or INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. See _Indo-European Family_.
AS, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or pound, and equal
to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French measure. In the
most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin which was called _as_
actually weighed an _as_, or a pound, but in 264 B.C. it was reduced to 2
ounces, in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to 1/2 ounce.
[Illustration: As (half real size)--Specimen in British Museum]
A'SA, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he ascended the
throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his zeal in rooting
out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died after a prosperous
reign of forty-one years.