administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The
head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the general
staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general of
ordnance and military works, and a director of medical
services.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British
Army_; C. W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War: Middle Ages_; C. H.
Firth, _Cromwell's Army_; C. Walton, _History of the British Standing Army,
1660-1700_; War Office, _Army Book for the British Empire_; F. N. Maude,
_Evolution of Modern Strategy_; G. F. R. Henderson, _The Science of War_;
C. Romagny, _Histoire generale de l'armee nationale_; Heimann, _L'Armee
allemande_.
ARMY ACT. See _Military Law_.
[Illustration: Army Worm]
ARMY WORM, the very destructive larva of the moth _Helioph[)i]la_ or
_Leucania unipuncta_, so called from its habit of marching in compact
bodies of enormous number, devouring almost every green thing it meets. It
is about 1-1/2 inches long, greenish in colour, with black stripes, and is
found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in
North America. The larva of _Sci[)a]ra militaris_, a European two-winged
fly, is also called army worm.
ARNAT'TO, or ANNOTTA. See _Annatto_.
ARNAULD ([.a]r-n[=o]), the name of a French family, several members of
which greatly distinguished themselves.--Antoine, an eminent French
advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a zealous defender of
the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and successful defence of the
University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His family formed the
nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see _Jansenius_) in France.--His son
Antoine, called the _Great Arnauld_, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris,
died 9th Aug., 1694, at Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was
received in 1641 among the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the
quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the
Government, was the chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head.
Excluded from the Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in
conjunction with his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence
called the _Port Royal Logic_). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679,
to the Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the
Jesuits or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.--His brother Robert, born
1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of
Josephus, and other works.--Robert's daughter Angelique, born 1624, died
1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to persecution
on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.
AR'NAUTS. See _Albania_.
ARNDT ([.a]rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and poet, was born 1769, died
1860. He was appointed professor of history at Greifswald in 1806, and
stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon in his work _Geist der
Zeit_ (_Spirit of the Time)_. In 1812-3 he zealously promoted the war of
independence by a number of pamphlets, poems, and spirited songs, among
which it is sufficient to refer to his _Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?_,
_Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess_, and _Was blasen die Trompeten?
Husaren, heraus!_, which were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to
the other. In 1817 he married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher,
and settled at Bonn in order to undertake the duties of professor of
history. He was, however, suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal
opinions, when he was restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick
William IV.
ARNDT, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, died 1621.
His principal work, _Wahres Christenthum_ (True Christianity), is still
popular in Germany, and has been translated into almost all European
languages. Another of his publications is _Paradiesgaertlein_, translated
into English (The Garden of Paradise).
ARNE ([.a]rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, born at London 1710,
died 1778. His first opera, _Fair Rosamond_, was performed in 1733 at
Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed a
version of Fielding's _Tom Thumb_, altered into _The Opera of Operas_, a
musical burlesque. His style in the _Comus_ (1738) is still more original
and cultivated. To him we owe the national air _Rule, Britannia_,
originally given in a popular piece called the _Masque of Alfred_. After
having composed two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of
Doctor of Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the
songs in Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.
ARNEE', one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo _(Bub[)a]lus
arni)_, remarkable as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It
measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10 1/2 feet long
from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests
at the base of the Himalayas.
ARN'HEM, or ARNHEIM, a town in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles
south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the Rhine. Pleasantly situated,
it is a favourite residential resort, and it contains many interesting
public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages,
mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, and its trade is important.
In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who were driven from it by the
Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).
ARNHEM LAND, a portion of the northern territory of S. Australia, lying
west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of peninsula.
AR'NI, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south of Arcot;
formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, and scene of
defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. 5050.
AR'NICA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositae, containing eighteen
species, one of which is found in Central Europe, _A. mont[=a]na_
(leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a native of Britain. It
has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing on the summit
flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of the plant there is an
acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers an acrid bitter
principle called _arnicin_. The root contains also a considerable quantity
of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an external application to
wounds and bruises. It was introduced into English gardens about the middle
of the eighteenth century.
AR'NIM, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, wife of
Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; born at
Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she
manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical peculiarities
of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she
entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his sixtieth year.
In 1835 she published Goethe's _Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_ (Goethe's
Correspondence with a Child), containing, among others, the letters that
she alleged to have passed between her and Goethe. Her later writings dealt
with subjects like the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of
capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in
1781, died 1831, distinguished himself as a writer of novels. In concert
with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he published a collection of popular
German songs and ballads entitled _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_.--Her daughter,
Gisela von Arnim, is known in literature by her _Dramatische Werke_ (3
vols., 1857-63).
AR'NO (ancient ARNUS), a river of Italy which rises in the Etruscan
Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows westwards, divides
Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the
Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.
ARNO'BIUS, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca
Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died about 326. He
wrote seven books of _Disputationes adversus Gentes_ (or _Adversus
Nationes_), in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against
Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but
is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology.
ARNOLD, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, 3 miles
north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, &c. It has a
church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating from the fifteenth
century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. 11,800.
AR'NOLD, Benedict, a general in the American army during the War of
Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his attempt to
betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms and immense
stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the British. The
project failed through the capture of Major Andre, when Arnold made his
escape to the British lines. He received a commission as brigadier-general
in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions. He
subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately came to London,
where he died in 1801.
AR'NOLD, Sir Edwin, K.C.I.E., poet, Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born
1832. Educated at Oxford, where he took the Newdigate prize for a poem
entitled the _Feast of Belshazzar_ in 1852, he was successively second
master in King Edward VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the
Sanskrit College at Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff
of the _Daily Telegraph_, with which he was henceforth connected. He died
in 1904. He was author of _Poems, Narrative and Lyrical_; translations from
the Greek and Sanskrit; _The Light of Asia_, a poem on the life and
teaching of Buddha; _The Light of the World_; _Pearls of the Faith_; _Lotus
and Jewel_, &c.
AR'NOLD, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham,
near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was educated at
Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College. He was
private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; appointed inspector of
schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, 1858; published _A Strayed
Reveller and other poems_, 1848; _Empedocles on Etna_, 1853; _Merope_,
1858; _Essays in Criticism_, 1865; _On the Study of Celtic Literature_,
1867; _Schools and Universities on the Continent_, 1868; _St. Paul and
Protestantism_, 1870; _Literature and Dogma_, 1873; _Last Essays on Church
and Religion_, 1877; _God and the Bible_, 1878; _Discourses on America_,
1885, &c. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh, and that of
D.C.L. from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in America. He died in
1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. appeared in
1905.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. W. Paul, _Matthew Arnold_ (English Men of Letters
Series); G. Saintsbury, _Matthew Arnold_ (Modern English Writers Series);
G. W. E. Russell, _Matthew Arnold_ (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley,
_Matthew Arnold and his Poetry_.
AR'NOLD, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of modern
history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight,
in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and in 1815 he
was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 he
obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. After taking
deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he employed
himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 he was
appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his new duties
with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the classics, he
deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various other branches
into his course, and he was particularly careful that the education which
he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and Christian. His
success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become crowded beyond any
former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's system became so
generally recognized that it may be justly said to have done much for the
general improvement of the public schools of England. In 1841 he was
appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and delivered his
introductory course of lectures with great success. His chief works are his
edition of Thucydides, his _History of Rome_ (unhappily left unfinished),
and his _Sermons_. There is an admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley,
Dean of Westminster (London, 2 vols., 1845).--Cf Lytton Strachey, _Eminent
Victorians_.
AR'NOLD OF BRESCIA, an Italian religious and political reformer and martyr
of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of Abelard, and
attracted a considerable following by preaching against the corruption of
the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to Zuerich, but soon
reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned (1155).
ARNOLD-FORSTER, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, and adopted
son of the late W. E. Forster, M.P., whose wife was his aunt, was born in
1855, died in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College,
Oxford. He sat as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for
Croydon from 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to
the Admiralty from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a
position which he held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping
proposals for the improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects,
especially books for popular instruction, including _How to Solve the Irish
Land Question_, _The Citizen Reader_, _This World of Ours_, _Things New and
Old_, _In a Conning Tower_, _A History of England_, _English Socialism of
To-day_, _Military Needs and Military Policy_, &c.
AR'NON, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country of the
Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a
tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.
AR'NOT, or AR'NUT, a name of the agreeably flavoured farinaceous tubers of
the earth-nut or pig-nut (_Bunium flexu[=o]sum_ and _B. Bulbocast[)a]num_).
See _Earth-nut_.
AR'NOTT, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born at
Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as M.A. at Aberdeen, he then
studied medicine, and was appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's
naval service. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was
appointed extraordinary physician to the queen. In 1827 he published
_Elements of Physics_, and in 1838 a treatise on _Warming and Ventilation_,
&c. He is widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one
of the most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating
chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against
bed-sores. In 1869 he gave L1000 to each of the four Scottish universities
and L2000 to London University for the promotion of the study of physics.
He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to a purely classical
education.
ARNPRIOR, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of Ottawa, on
the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the Madawaska,
and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.
ARNSBERG ([.a]rnz'ber_h_), a town in Prussia, province Westphalia, capital
of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. Pop. 10,256.--The district of
Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. miles, and a population of 2,400,000.
ARNSTADT ([.a]rn'st[.a]t), a town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the Gera, which divides it into two
parts. It has manufactures in leather, &c., and a good trade in grain and
timber. Pop. 17,907.
ARNSWALDE ([.a]rnz'v[.a]l-de), a town of Prussia, province Brandenburg, 39
miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.
AR'NULF, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany in A.D.
887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and was crowned emperor by the Pope
(896); died A.D. 898.
AROI'DEAE. See _Araceae_.
AR'OLSEN, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.
AROMAT'ICS, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant smell, and
often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (_Ac[=o]rus Cal[)a]mus_), ginger,
cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper,
pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of them are used medicinally as
tonics, stimulants, &c.
AROMATIC VINEGAR, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by adding the
essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often camphor, to
crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in fainting, languor,
and headache.
ARO'NA, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of Lago Maggiore.
Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70
feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet high.
AROOS'TOOK, a river of the north-eastern United States and New Brunswick, a
tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.
AROU'RA, or ARU'RA, an ancient Egyptian measure of surface, according to
Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, 21,904 sq. feet.
ARPAD, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died 907. See
_Hungary_.
ARPEGGIO ([.a]r-pej'[=o]), the distinct sound of the notes of an
instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in rapid succession,
as in the manner of touching the harp instead of playing them
simultaneously.
ARPENT ([.a]r-pae[n.]), formerly a French measure of land, equal to
five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts of France;
the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common arpent 40,000 sq.
feet.
ARPINO ([.a]r-p[=e]'n[=o]; ancient ARPINUM), a town of Southern Italy,
province of Caserta, celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and
Cicero. It manufactures woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309.
ARQUA ([.a]r'kw[.a]), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 miles
south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. A
monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.
AR'QUEBUS, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth century,
resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked
by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind
used in fortresses carried a heavier shot.
ARRACA'CHA. See _Aracacha_.
ARRACAN'. See _Aracan_.
AR'RACK. See _Arack_.
AR'RAGON. See _Aragon_.
AR'RAH, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered
famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body of
twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a
force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and overthrown by the
arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 46,170.
ARRAIGNMENT (ar-r[=a]n'-), the act of calling or setting a prisoner at the
bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the matter charged in an
indictment or information. In Scots law the term is _calling the
diet_.--The _Clerk of Arraigns_ is an officer attached to assize courts and
to the Old Bailey, who assists in the arraignment of prisoners, and puts
formal questions to the jury.
AR'RAN, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of Bute county;
length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; area, 165 sq.
miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under cultivation. It is
of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the northern half, where
the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, 2866 feet high. The
coast presents several indentations, of which that of Lamlash, forming a
capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is one of the best
natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small island of Pladda,
about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has been erected. The
geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as furnishing within a
comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological
formations; while the botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the
variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of interest are
relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, &c. Lamlash and Brodick
are villages. The island is a favourite resort of summer visitors, and is
reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. 8294.
ARRAN, EARLS OF. See _Hamilton, Family of_.
ARRANGEMENT, in music, the adaptation of a composition to voices or
instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a piece so
adapted.
AR'RAN ISLANDS. See _Aran_.
ARRARO'BA. See _Araroba_.
ARRAS ([.a]-rae), a town of France, capital of the department
Pas-de-Calais, well built, with several handsome squares and a citadel,
cathedral, public library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous flourishing
industries. In the Middle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of
tapestry, to which the English applied the name of the town itself
(arrazo). The battle of Arras was fought and Vimy Ridge taken by the Allies
on 9th April, 1917. Pop. 24,200.
ARREST' is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, which, in civil
cases, can take place legally only by process in execution of the command
of some court or officers of justice; but in criminal cases any man may
arrest without warrant or precept, and every person is liable to arrest
without distinction, but no man is to be arrested unless charged with such
a crime as will at least justify holding him to bail when taken. _Magna
Charta_ and the _Habeas Corpus Act_ are the two great statutes for securing
the liberty of the subject against unlawful arrests and suits.
ARREST'MENT, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may attach money
or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of his debtor. In
1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that only that part of
the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople generally, which is in
excess of 20_s_. is liable to arrestment for debt.
ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in law, the staying or stopping of a judgment after
verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest judgment for
intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as when the
declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict differs
materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the declaration is
not sufficient in point of law to found an action upon.
ARRE'TIUM. See _Arezzo_.
ARRHENATH'ERUM, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which _A. elatius_,
sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder plant.
ARRHENIUS, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, born 19th
Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the Universities of
Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years in travelling, and
after doing much original research was appointed professor of physics at
the University of Stockholm. To him is due the establishment of the theory
of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a reasonable explanation of many
chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He subsequently extended the
application of the electrolytic theory to the phenomena of atmospheric
electricity. His dissertation _Sur la conductibilite galvanique des
electrolytes_ appeared in 1884. Among his other works is _Worlds in the
Making_ (English translation, 1908).
AR'RIA, the heroic wife of a Roman named Caec[=i]na Paetus. Paetus was
condemned to death in A.D. 42 for his share in a conspiracy against the
emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to suicide by his wife, who stabbed
herself and then handed the dagger to her husband with the words, 'It does
not hurt, Paetus!'
AR'RIAN, or FLAVIUS ARRIANUS, a Greek historian, native of Nicomedia,
flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian and the
Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became a disciple
of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and was advanced
to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant works are: _The
Expedition of Alexander_, in seven books; a book _On the Affairs of India_;
an _Epistle to Hadrian_; a _Treatise on Tactics_; a _Periplus of the Euxine
Sea_; a _Periplus of the Red Sea_; and his _Enchiridion_, a moral treatise,
containing the discourses of Epictetus.
AR'RIS, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or curved
surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each other.