Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the _Invincible Armada_, intended
to act against England A.D. 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of
Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and stronger
than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships of war, and
carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 cannon. It had
scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was scattered by a
storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to co-operate with a land
force collected in Flanders under the Prince of Parma, and to unite with
this it proceeded through the English Channel towards Calais. In its
progress it was attacked by the English fleet under Lord Howard, who, with
his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous
seamanship and the discharge of well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or
capture the vessels of the enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels
suffered severely from their smaller opponents, which most of their shot
missed. Arrived at length off Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into
confusion by fire-ships, and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or
taken. The Duke of Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last
resolved to abandon the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying
his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm
after storm assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and
sinking many. Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open
sea, others on the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all,
seventy-two large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
J. A. Froude, _Spanish Story of the Armada_; Sir J. K. Laughton, _State
Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada_; J. R. Hale, _Story of
the Great Armada_.
ARMADALE, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron district.
Pop. 4739.
[Illustration: Armadillos--Left, Hairy Armadillo. Right, Kappler's
Armadillo]
ARMADI'LLO (genus Das[)y]pus), an edentate mammal peculiar to South
America, consisting of various species, belonging to a family intermediate
between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a hard bony shell,
divided into belts, composed of small separate plates like a coat of mail,
flexible everywhere except on the forehead, shoulders, and haunches, where
it is not movable. The belts are connected by a membrane which enables the
animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog. These animals burrow in the
earth, where they lie during the daytime, seldom going abroad except at
night. They are of different sizes: the largest, _Dasypus gigas_, being 3
feet in length without the tail, and the smallest only 10 inches. They
subsist chiefly on fruits and roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They
are inoffensive, and their flesh is esteemed good food.--There is a genus
of isopodous Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to
the wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball.
ARMAGEDDON (-ged'don), the great battlefield of the Old Testament, where
the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites and their
enemies--the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre
of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun: used
figuratively in the _Apocalypse_ to signify the place of 'the battle of the
great day of God'. It may, however, be _har migdo_, his fruitful mountain,
'the mountain land of Israel'. The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any
great slaughter or final conflict, and has been frequently applied to the
Great War of 1914-8. During this war severe fighting took place in Sept.,
1918, on the field of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo.
The battle ended in an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies.
See _Megiddo_.
ARMAGH ([.a]r-mae'), a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster;
surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down, and Louth; area, 328,086
acres, of which about a half is under tillage. The north-west of the county
is undulating and fertile. The northern part, bordering on Lough Neagh,
consists principally of extensive bogs. On the southern border is a range
of barren hills. The chief rivers are the Blackwater, which separates it
from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and
the Callan, which falls into the Blackwater. There are several small lakes.
The manufacture of linen is carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan,
and Portadown are the chief towns. The county sends three members to
Parliament. Pop. 120,291.--The county town, _Armagh_, is situated partly on
a hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral
crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century,
repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the
pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an
archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all
Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356.
ARMAGNAC ([.a]r-m[.a]-ny[.a]k), an ancient territory of France, in the
province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent places in
the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed the Hunchback,
succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called to Court by
Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in opposition to
the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the ascendancy than he
compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of France. He showed himself a
merciless tyrant, and became so generally execrated that the Duke of
Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for help, found little difficulty in
gaining admission into Paris, and even seizing the person of Armagnac, who
was cast into prison in 1418, when the exasperated populace burst in and
killed him and his followers. John V, grandson of the above, who succeeded
in 1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. He was assassinated in his
castle of Lectoure in 1473 by an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was
holding out.
AR'MATURE, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is placed across
the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose of receiving and
concentrating the attractive force. In the case of permanent magnets it is
also important for preserving their magnetism when not in use, and hence it
is sometimes termed the _keeper_. It produces this effect in virtue of the
well-known law of induction, by which the armature, when placed near or
across the poles of the magnet, is itself converted into a temporary magnet
with reversed poles, and these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep
its particles in a state of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words,
in that constrained position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A
horse-shoe magnet should therefore never be laid aside without its
armature; and in the case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed
parallel to each other, with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature
across them at both ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of
the electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet
in the magneto-electric machine.
ARME BLANCHE, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil, and
frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is
particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but also
to the bayonet.
ARME'NIA, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great historical
interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized peoples in the
world. The name Armenia occurs in the _Vulgate_, but the Hebrew name is
Ararat. It has an area of about 120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by
the Euphrates, which divides it into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major
and Armenia Minor. The country is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several
sides by the ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other
mountains, the loftiest of which is Ararat. Several important rivers take
their rise in Armenia, namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras
or Araxes, flowing east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak,
flowing north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow
into the Persian Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is
rather severe. The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places
it would be quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate
it. Wheat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in
some of the valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown.
The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the
Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the
repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a
footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom
one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over
various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They
everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality.
Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate
State as early as the eighth century B.C., when it became subject to
Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes and the Persians. It was
conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 B.C., but regained its independence
about 190 B.C. Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated
Mithrid[=a]tes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey
between 69-66 B.C., but was left on the throne. Since then its fortunes
have been various under the Romans, Parthians, Byzantine emperors,
Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently Armenia had no
political existence, having been partitioned between Turkey, Persia, and
Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in 1829 and 1878. The hope
of the Armenians to see their country formed into an autonomous province
administered by Christians was frustrated by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
The advanced party amongst the Armenians, therefore, determined to obtain
their object by the production of disturbances and the spread of a
revolutionary movement. The Porte retaliated by wholesale massacres of the
Armenians in 1896, 1904, and 1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national
parties in the meantime continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia
proclaimed its independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme
Council of the Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of
Erivan. A mandate for Armenia was also offered to the United States of
America, but it was refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th
March, 1922, Soviet Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the
latter most of Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See _Erivan_,
_Russia_, _Turkey_.
The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at the
beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain that
several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of Armenia
was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the Monophysitic
disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold nature of Christ,
and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451)
they separated from the Greek Church in 536. The Popes had at different
times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith, but have not
been able to unite them permanently and generally with the Roman Church.
There are, however, small numbers here and there of United Armenians, who
acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, agree in their doctrines
with the Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline.
But the far greater part are yet Monophysites, and have remained faithful
to their old religion and worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox
chiefly in their admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the
Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in
number. They adore saints and their images, but do not believe in
purgatory. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The
_Catholicus_, or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a
monastery near Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount
Ararat.
The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, and
is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old Armenian or Haikan
language, which is still the literary and ecclesiastical language, is
distinguished from the New Armenian, the ordinary spoken language, which
contains a large intermixture of Persian and Turkish elements. The most
flourishing period of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the
fourteenth century. It then declined, but a revival began in the
seventeenth century, and at the present day wherever any extensive
community of Armenians has settled they have set up a printing-press. The
Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac version, and revised by means of
the Septuagint, by Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth
century, is a model of the classic style.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. N. and H.
Buxton, _Travel and Politics in Armenia_; N. T. Gregor, _History of
Armenia_; W. L. Williams, _Armenia, Past and Present_.
ARMENTIERES ([.a]r-m[.a][n.]-ty[=a]r), a town in France, department Nord,
10 miles W.N.W. of Lille, on the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures
of linen and cotton goods and an extensive trade. The Germans captured
Armentieres by massed assault early in April, 1918, after methodically
shelling the town for about two years and destroying almost every building
in it. The enemy's offensive was intended to achieve greater results.
Indeed, its object was to break through to the Channel ports. It began on
9th April, after artillery preparation, from La Bassee to Armentieres.
When, however, the battle of Armentieres died down, the enemy plan to break
through to the coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German
losses were extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed
troops. (See _Ypres_.) Pop. 28,086.
ARM'FELT, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757, died 1814.
Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by Gustavus III,
he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian of the young
king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and possessions. He
was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when Gustavus IV attained
his majority, and held several high military posts. Ultimately, however, he
entered the Russian service, was made count, chancellor of the University
of Abo, president of the department for the affairs of Finland, member of
the Russian Senate, and served in the campaign against Napoleon in 1812.
ARMIDA ([.a]r-m[=e]'d[.a]), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's _Jerusalem
Delivered_, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo, with whom she had
fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens. Here he completely
forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself, until messengers
from the Christian host having arrived at the island, Rinaldo escapes with
them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel Armida becomes a
Christian.
AR'MILLARY SPHERE (Lat. _armilla_, a hoop), an astronomical instrument
consisting of an arrangement of rings, all circles of one sphere, intended
to represent the principal circles of the celestial globe, the rings
standing for the meridian of the station, the ecliptic, the tropics, the
arctic and antarctic circles, &c., in their relative positions. Its main
use is to give a representation of the apparent motions of the celestial
bodies.
ARMIN'IANS, a sect or party of Christians, so called from Jacobus
_Arminius_ or Harmensen. (See _Arminius_.) They were called also
_Remonstrants_, from their having presented a _remonstrance_ to the
States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines are: (1) Conditional
election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute predestination. (2)
Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made by Christ for all
mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of the benefit. (3)
That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be regenerated and renewed
by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God; but that
this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so that men may relapse
from a state of grace and die in their sins. Arminianism being a revolt
against certain aspects of Calvinism, especially the absolutism of the
eternal decrees, its doctrines were vehemently attacked by the Calvinists
of Holland, and were condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians,
in consequence, were treated with great severity; many of them fled to, and
spread in, other countries, and though there is no longer any particular
sect to which the name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as
Arminians, as being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of
predestination.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regenboog, _Historie der Remonstranten_;
Caspar Brandt, _Life of Arminius_ (English translation by J. Guthrie);
W. B. Pope, _Compendium of Christian Theology_ (3 vols.).
ARMIN'IUS, an ancient German hero celebrated by his fellow-countrymen as
their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about 18-16 B.C., assassinated
A.D. 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he served in the Roman
army, and was raised to the rank of _eques_. Returning home, he found the
Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making efforts to Romanize the German
tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at the head of the discontented
tribes he completely annihilated the army of Varus, consisting of three
legions, in a three days' battle fought in the Teutoburg Forest. For some
time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus, and after many years'
resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew upon himself the hatred
of his countrymen by aiming at the regal authority, and was assassinated. A
national monument to his memory was inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near
Detmold, in 1875.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: see Tacitus, _Annals_ (translated by
Murphy); O. Kemmer, _Arminius_; F. W. Fischer, _Armin und die Roemer_.
ARMINIUS, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the sect of
Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died 1609. He
studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva, where his
chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his return to
Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in Amsterdam, and
chosen to undertake the refutation of a work which strongly controverted
Beza's doctrine of predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the
work which he had undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of
divinity at Leyden, he openly declared his opinions, and was involved in
harassing controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus.
These contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length
impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he died.
See _Arminians_.
AR'MITAGE, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died 1896. He
studied under Delaroche at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the
ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the Salon (in the
Louvre) a picture of _Prometheus Bound_. At the exhibition of cartoons for
historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843) he obtained a premium of
L300 for his design of _Caesar's First Invasion of Britain_. Other similar
premiums were gained by his _Spirit of Religion_ (1845), and _Battle of
Meeanee_ (1847--L500). He now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the
Academy in 1848 his _Henry VIII and Katherine Parr_, and his _Trafalgar_
(_Death of Nelson_). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy
exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an
associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the restoration
of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures were biblical
in subject, such as _Ahab and Jezebel_, _Esther's Banquet_, _The Remorse of
Judas_, _Joseph and Mary_, _Herod's Birthday Feast_, &c. As professor of
painting to the Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were
published in 1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his _Pictures and
Drawings_.
ARMOR'ICA (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a name
anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to what is
now Brittany. Hence _Armoric_ is one name for Breton or the language of the
inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied to Welsh.
ARMOUR. See _Arms_.
ARMOURED CAR, a self-propelled car completely protected by bullet-proof
armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of mechanical
warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and manned
machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected vehicle
having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times. The
modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and is
provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew. This
armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a car
consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the
armour-plating of the body of the car.
ARMOUR-PLATES, iron or steel plates with which the sides of vessels of war
are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof. See _Iron-clad
Vessels_.
ARMS, COAT OF, or ARMORIAL BEARINGS, a collective name for the devices
borne on shields, on banners, &c., as marks of dignity and distinction,
and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son.
They were first employed by the Crusaders, and became hereditary in
families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the
knights painting their banners or shields each with a figure or figures
proper to himself, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in
armour. See _Heraldry_.
ARMS, COLLEGE OF. See _Herald_.
[Illustration: Armour, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, in Tong
Church, Shropshire]