constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent
by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894.
During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that
the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of
nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a
series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas,
which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants,
in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral
springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is
associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and
may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically
a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of the _rare_
gases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity
from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen
and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in
use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot
magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen
and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium
carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness _in
vacuo_, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another
method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for
filling electric bulbs.
[Illustration: Argonaut--Female]
AR'GONAUT, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the
dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females
possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected
with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much
smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and
boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the
female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned
towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting
water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying
its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the
surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze,
and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, or
_paper-nautilus_, must be carefully distinguished from the
_pearly-nautilus_ or nautilus proper (_Nautilus Pompilius_).
ARGONAUTS, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a
hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity
of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship _Argo_, for the purpose
of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and
under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter
of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after
many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the
Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and
Theseus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, _Classic Myth and Legend_;
Kingsley, _The Heroes_; N. Hawthorne, _The Wonder-book_.
ARGO-NAVIS, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely
invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightest
fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta
Argus. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily
one of the brightest stars in the sky.
ARGONNE, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne,
celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and
for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to
the battle of Sedan, in 1870.
ARGONNE, BATTLE OF. When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated
towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest
Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of
Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before
the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince
endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much
heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort
to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and
Vienne-le-Chateau, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French
trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The
great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun.
AR'GOS, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between
the Gulfs of Aegina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding
territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history
onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenae, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern
Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient
remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis
and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia.
ARGOS'TOLI, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the
residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.
AR'GOSY, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived from
_Ragusa_, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose
vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but
erroneously connected with the ship _Argo_ in which Jason sailed. See
_Argonauts_.
ARGOT (Fr.; [.a]r-g[=o]), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a
class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and
vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of
Francois Villon's poems are written in argot.--Cf. W. von Knoblauch,
_Dictionary of Argot_.
ARGUIM, or ARGUIN ([.a]r-gwim', [.a]r-gwin'), a small island on the west
coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its
possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English,
and French.
AR'GUMENT, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the _subject_ of a
discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed
for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians
have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as the
_argumentum ad judicium_, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the
judgment; the _argumentum ad verecundiam_, which appeals to the modesty or
bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or
authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; the _argumentum
ad ignorantiam_, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons
likely to be deceived by it; and the _argumentum ad hominem_, an argument
which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and
concessions, or his own conduct. See _Fallacy_, _Logic_.
ARGUMENT OF THE PEOPLE, the document set forth by the Council of the Army
on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I.
See _Levellers_.
AR'GUS, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred
eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is
exceedingly watchful.
[Illustration: Argus-pheasant (_Argus gigant[=e]us_)]
ARGUS-PHEASANT (_Argus gigant[=e]us_), a large, beautiful, and very
singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more
especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from
5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which
has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly
beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the
primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like
spots (whence the name--see _Argus_) of brilliant metallic hues. The
general body plumage is brown.
ARGYLL, or ARGYLE ([.a]r-g[=i]l'), an extensive county in the south-west of
the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of
islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay,
Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and
Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east
by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its
connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of
which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by
arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these
being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and
Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch
Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of
Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first
being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart,
Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the
chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet),
Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura
(2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several
lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in
numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of
whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate,
marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others,
Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.
ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS OF, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in
the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent
members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden,
1513.--Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise,
and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the
French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication,
but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died
1575.--Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan
of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his
persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in
1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent
to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in
1661.--Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with
great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general
pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he
refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he
was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from
whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan,
however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was
beheaded in 1685.--Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding,
died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed
William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important
appointments and the title of duke.--John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich,
son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the
battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges
of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for
his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in
Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's
army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the
kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was
full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's _Heart of
Midlothian_.--George Douglas Campbell, K.G., K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United
Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics,
especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In
1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord
Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from
1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to
agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote
_The Reign of Law_, _Scotland as it Was and as it Is_, &c.--John Douglas
Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the
2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900.
He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament
as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from
1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester
from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of
Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. He died in 1914.
His works include: _The United States after the War_, _Imperial
Federation_, _Canadian Pictures_, _Memories of Canada and Scotland_, _Life
of Lord Palmerston_, _Tales and Poems_, _The Psalms in English Verse_,
_Life and Times of Queen Victoria_, _Yesterday and To-day in Canada_, &c.
ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS (Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th
Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment
served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself
immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further
distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second
battle of Ypres.
ARGYRO-CASTRO ([.a]r'gi-r[=o]-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of
Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are
several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.
ARGYROPU'LOS, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in
the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486.
ARIA, in music. See _Air_.
ARIADNE (a-ri-ad'ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of
Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the
labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the
Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.
ARIA'NA, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of
the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana,
Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and
the Persian Gulf; west by Media.
ARIANO (ae-r[=e]-ae'n[=o]), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44
miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome
cathedral. Pop. 17,650.
AR'IANS, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, about A.D.
318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to
God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all
created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by
the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine
the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and
subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical
impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political
rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of
Nicaea in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained
considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a
strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the
Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions
have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian
controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William
Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of
Arianism_; J. H. Newman, _Arians of the Fourth Century_; J. H. Colligan,
_Arian Movement in England_.
ARICA ([.a]-r[=e]'k[.a]), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna;
previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from
earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also
submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless
station.
ARICA. See _Tacna-Arica Dispute_.
ARICHAT (-shat'), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a
small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500.
ARIEGE ([.a]-r[=e]-[=a]zh), a mountainous department of France, on the
northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix
and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariege,
Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared;
the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq.
miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851.
A'RIEL, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the
demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's
_Tempest_, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service.
ARIES ([=a]'ri-[=e]z; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the
first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal
equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the
equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right
ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their
longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the
sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did
2000 years ago.
[Illustration: Aril, Fruit of Nutmeg]
AR'IL, or ARIL'LUS, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of
the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding from the placenta,
partially investing the seed, and falling off spontaneously. It is either
succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, elastic, rough, or knotted. In the
nutmeg it is known as _mace_.
ARIMAS'PIANS, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived in the
extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be one-eyed and
to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, whose gold
they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, _Paradise Lost_, II, 943.
ARIMATHAE'A, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern _Ramleh_, 22
miles W.N.W. of Jerusalem.
ARI'ON, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Lesbos,
flourished about 625 B.C. He lived at the Court of Periander of Corinth,
and afterwards visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth
with rich treasures, the avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo,
however, having informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in
vain endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He
then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which had
been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to land.
The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion and
convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which rescued
him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn to
Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.
ARIOS'TO, LUDOVI'CO, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, was born at
Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died 6th June,
1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, distinguished for
ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the notice of the Cardinal
Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. In 1503 Ippolito employed
him in his service and used his counsel in the most important affairs. In
this service he began and finished, in ten or eleven years, his immortal
poem, the _Orlando Furioso_, which was published in 1515, and immediately
became highly popular. He afterwards entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke
of Ferrara, the cardinal's brother, a lover of the arts, who put much
confidence in him. After quelling disturbances that had broken out in the
wild and mountainous Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed
himself in the composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches
to his _Orlando_. The _Orlando Furioso_ is a continuation of the _Orlando
Innamorato_ of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures of the paladins
of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six cantos. The best
English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. Gardner, _Ariosto: the
Prince of Court Poets_; J. S. Nicholson, _Life and Genius of Ariosto_.
ARISH. See _El Arish_.
ARISTAEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the introducer of
bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, _Georgics_, IV, 315-558.
ARISTARCHUS (a-ris-taer'kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born at
Samothrace 220 B.C., died at Cyprus 143 B.C. He edited Homer's poems with
the greatest acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its
genuine state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence
the phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the
basis of all subsequent ones.
ARISTARCHUS, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, flourished
about 155 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of the earth about the
sun; also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial.
ARIS'TEAS, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to have lived
over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by turns.
ARISTIDES (a-ris-t[=i]'d[=e]z), a statesman of ancient Greece, for his
strict integrity surnamed the _Just_. He was one of the ten generals of the
Athenians when they fought with the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. Next
year he was eponymous archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity
that he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring
his banishment by ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes
invaded Greece with a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and
Themistocles now admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle
of Plataea (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in
gaining the victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded
the Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an
officer appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The
confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting him
with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an advanced
age about 468 B.C., so poor that he was buried at the public expense.
ARISTIP'PUS (c. 425-366 B.C.), a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a
philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the _Cyrenaic_,
from his native city Cyr[=e]n[=e], in Africa; flourished 380 B.C. His moral
philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of
refined voluptuousness. His fundamental principles were--that all human
sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle,
and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the
latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate
gratifications; and as it is the object of all human exertions, we should
abstain from no kind of pleasure. Still we should always be governed by
taste and reason in our enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his
daughter Ar[)e]t[=e], and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom
they were systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded them into a particular
doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called _Hedonici_. His writings are
lost.
ARISTOC'RACY (Gr. _aristos_, best, _kratos_, rule), a form of government by
which the wealthy and noble, or any small privileged class, rules over the
rest of the citizens. The term has now become almost entirely social in
meaning, and is mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State.
ARISTOGEITON (-g[=i]'ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name is rendered
famous by a conspiracy (514 B.C.) formed in conjunction with his friend
Harmodius against the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of
Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and Harmodius lost their lives through their
attempts to free the country, and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.