revolted and defeated his master, and became the founder of the Median
Empire in 846 B.C.
AR'BALIST. See _Cross-bow_.
ARBE'LA (now ERBIL), a place in the vilayet of Bagdad, giving name to the
decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against Darius, at Gaugamela,
about 50 miles distant from it, 1st Oct., 331 B.C.
ARBITRAGE ([.a]r'bi-tr[.a]zh), or ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGES, an operation or
calculation by which the currency of one country is converted into that of
another through the medium of intervening currencies, for the purpose of
ascertaining whether direct or indirect drafts and remittances are
preferable.--_Arbitrageur_ ([.a]r'bi-tr[.a]-zheur) is one who makes
calculations of currency exchanges. See _Stock Exchange_.
ARBITRA'TION, the hearing and determination of a cause between parties in
controversy, by a person or persons chosen by the parties. This may be done
by one person, but it is common to choose more than one. Frequently two are
nominated, one by each party, with a third, the _umpire_ (or, in Scotland,
sometimes the _oversman_), who is called on to decide in case of the
primary arbitrators differing. In such a case the umpire may be agreed upon
either by the parties themselves, or by the arbitrators when they have
received authority from the parties to the dispute to settle this point.
The determination of arbitrators is called an _award_. By the law of
England the authority of an arbitrator cannot be revoked by any of the
parties without the leave of the court or of a judge.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Russell, _Arbitration_; Redman, _Arbitration_; Scots Law, see Bell, _On
Arbitration_; American Law, see Morse, _Law of Arbitration_; R. G. Morris,
_International Arbitration_.
AR'BLAST. See _Cross-bow_.
ARBO'GA, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an important
commercial town, now only of historical interest from having been at one
time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church assemblies and
national diets, and for the antiquities in its neighbourhood. Pop. 5050.
ARBOIS ([.a]r-bwae), a town of France, department of Jura; famous for its
wines. Pop. 5000.
ARBOR DAY, a day officially set apart in the United States for the annual
planting of trees by the people, and especially by school-children. The
custom was instituted in 1872.
ARBORE'TUM (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), a place in which a collection of
different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or educational
purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the finest in the whole
world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew, inaugurated in 1762, to which
180 acres are now devoted. Next in celebrity are the arboreta at Edinburgh
(Inverleith) and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford,
and the Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin
des Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The
term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the
_Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum_, the monumental work by J. C. Loudon.
AR'BORICULTURE includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as well as all
that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of the seeds, and
the treatment of the plants in their young state, the preparation of the
land previous to their final transplantation, their just adaptation to soil
and situation, their relative growth and progress to maturity, their
management during growth, and the proper season and period for felling
them.
ARBOR VITAE (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several coniferous
trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with flattened branchlets,
and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name is derived from
valuable medicinal properties having formerly been ascribed to the aromatic
resin they mostly yield. Those generally cultivated in Britain are: the
common Arbor Vitae (_Thuja occident[=a]lis_), a native of North America,
where it grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about
1566; the giant Arbor Vitae or Red Cedar (_Thuja gigantea_), introduced in
1854; and the Chinese Arbor Vitae (_Thuja orient[=a]lis_).
ARBROATH (ar-br[=o]th'), or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal municipal and police
burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland, at the mouth of the
small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by William the Lion in
1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas a Becket, is now a
picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp spinning-mills and
factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also tanning, shoemaking, and
fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499.
It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin, and Inverbervie (the Montrose
burghs) in sending a member to Parliament.
ARBUTH'NOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, born at
Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He received the
degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St. Andrews, and went to
London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his
skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society,
and soon after he was appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician
in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift,
Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day. His writings, other than professional
or scientific, include his contributions (in conjunction with Swift and
Pope) to the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, _History of John Bull_, _Art
of Political Lying_, &c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit,
but also for worth and humanity.
AR'BUTUS, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceae, or heath order, and
comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly of Europe
and N. America. _Arb[)u]tus Un[)e]do_ abounds near the lakes of Killarney,
where its fine foliage adds charms to the scenery. The bright red or yellow
berries, somewhat like the strawberry, have an unpleasant taste and
narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine from them. The trailing
arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with fragrant and beautiful
blossoms, is _Epigaea repens_, of the same nat. ord.
ARC, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is by means of
circular arcs that all angles are measured.--_Electric_ or _Voltaic arc_,
the luminous arc of intense brightness and excessively high temperature
which is formed by an electric current in crossing over the interval of
space between the carbon points of an electric lamp. See _Arc-light_.
ARC, Jeanne d'. See _Joan of Arc_.
AR'CA, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadae, whose shells are known
as _ark-shells_.
ARCACHON ([.a]r-k[.a]-sh[=o][n.]), a town of S.W. France, department
Gironde, on the almost landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented
bathing-place, with great oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected
by railway with Bordeaux. Pop. 10,266.
ARCADE, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used generally as
a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a building, and having
beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a cloister, or a footpath
with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in old Italian towns. Sometimes
a porch or other prominent part of an important building is treated with
arcades. At the present day Bologna, Padua, and Berne have fine examples of
mediaeval arcaded streets, and among more modern work various streets in
Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli, Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops
underneath. In mediaeval architecture the term arcade is also applied to a
series of arches supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or
enrichment of a wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in
the towers, apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name
arcade is often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops
arched over and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade,
London, the Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Galleria Vittorio Emmanuele
in Milan.
ARCA'DIA, the central and most mountainous portion of the Peloponnesus
(Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were celebrated for
simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was almost entirely
pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as typical of rural
simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia forms a nomarchy of
the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop. 162,324.
ARCA'DIUS, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor Theodosius, on whose
death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining the East, and his brother
Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and pusillanimous prince.
ARCANUM, THE GREAT (meaning secret), a term applied in the Middle Ages to
the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the supposed great
secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life.
See _Alchemy_.
ARCATURE, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or applied
against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in
Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
ARCESILAUS ([.a]r-ses-i-l[=a]'us), a Greek philosopher, the founder of the
second or middle academy, was born about 315 B.C., died 239 B.C. He left no
writings, and of his opinions so little is known that it has been doubted
whether he was a strict Platonist or a sceptic.
[Illustration: Parts of an Arch
_a._ Abutments. _i._ Impost. _p._ Piers. _v._ Voussoirs or arch-stones.
_k._ Keystone. s. Springers. _In._ Intrados. _Ex._ Extrados. ]
[Illustration: Lancet. Horse-shoe.]
[Illustration: Segmental. Semicircular.]
[Illustration: Ogee. Equilateral.]
ARCH, a structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks,
having the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to
retain their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose
the arch are called _voussoirs_ or _arch-stones_; the extreme or lowest
voussoirs are termed _springers_, and the uppermost or central one is
called the _keystone_. The under or concave side of the voussoirs is called
the _intrados_, and the upper or convex side the _extrados_ of the arch.
The supports which afford resting and resisting points to the arch are
called _piers_ and _abutments_. The upper part of the pier or abutment,
where the arch rests--technically where it _springs from_--is the _impost_.
The _span_ of an arch is in circular arches the length of its chord, and
generally the width between the points of its opposite imposts whence it
springs. The _rise_ of an arch is the height of the highest point of its
intrados above the line of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the
_under side of the crown_, the highest point of the extrados being the
_crown_. Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape
(circular, elliptic, &c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of
the curve to some familiar object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from
the method used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred,
four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to
which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic arches.--_Triumphal
arch_, originally a simple decorated arch under which a victorious Roman
general and army passed in triumph. At a later period the triumphal arch
was a richly-sculptured, massive, and permanent structure, having an
archway passing through it, with generally a smaller arch on either side.
The name is sometimes given to an arch, generally of wood decorated with
flowers or evergreens, erected on occasion of some public rejoicing, &c.
ARCHAEAN (aer-k[=e]'an) ROCKS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient), the oldest rocks
of the earth's crust, mostly crystalline in character, and embracing
granites, gneisses, mica-schists, &c., all devoid of fossil remains. These
rocks underlie a group of stratified and igneous masses that are usually
distinguished from them as Huronian; the first beds with a well-marked
fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the Huronian, and the Huronian and the
Archaean groups are often conveniently classed together as pre-Cambrian,
and are separated from the stratified and fossiliferous formations, which
indeed have chiefly taken origin from them. The core of the Malvern range,
and the rocks of N.W. Sutherland, are examples of Archaean masses in Great
Britain.
ARCHAEOL'OGY (Gr. _archaios_, ancient, and _logos_, a discourse), the study
of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance of the history of
nations and peoples as evinced by the remains, architectural, implemental,
or otherwise, which belong to the earlier epoch of their existence. In a
more extended sense the term embraces every branch of knowledge which bears
on the origin, religion, laws, languages, science, arts, and literature of
ancient peoples. It is to a great extent synonymous with _prehistoric
annals_, as a large if not the principal part of its field of study extends
over those periods in the history of the human race in regard to which we
possess almost no information derivable from written records. Archaeology
divides the primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited
by remains found in Europe, into the _stone_, the _bronze_, and the _iron_
ages, these names being given in accordance with the materials employed for
weapons, implements, &c., during the particular period. The _stone_ age has
been subdivided into the _palaeolithic_ and _neolithic_, the former being
that older period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they
are in the latter and more recent period. The _bronze_ age, which admits of
a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or
bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in urns
or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of stones.
Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The _iron_ age is that in
which implements, &c., of iron begin to appear, although stone and bronze
implements are found along with them. The word _age_ in this sense (as
explained under _Age_) simply denotes the stage at which a people has
arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore, merely marks the period before
the use of bronze, the bronze age that before the employment of iron, among
any specific people. See _Excavations_; _Crete_; _Egypt_; &c--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Sir J. Evans, _Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Boyd-Dawkins, _Early Man
in Britain_; J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_; R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of
Europe_; Sir W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; H. R. Hall, _Aegean
Archaeology_; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Methods and Aims in Archaeology_;
A. P. F. Michaelis, _A Century of Archaeological Discoveries_.
[Illustration: Archaeopteryx macrura, a fossil lizard-tailed bird]
ARCHAEOPTERYX (aer-k[=e]-op'te-riks), a fossil bird from the oolitic
limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing from all
known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and forefinger
projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebrae free and
prolonged as in mammals.
ARCHANGEL (aerk'[=a]n-jel; Gr. prefix, _arch-_, denoting chief), an angel
of superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel mentioned by name in
Scripture is Michael in the _Epistle of Jude_.
ARCHANGEL (aerk-[=a]n'jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian government of
same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about 20 miles above
its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river divides into several
branches and forms a number of islands, on one of which, called Sollenbole,
is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood; the place has some
manufactures and an important trade, exporting linseed, flax, tow, tallow,
train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar, &c. The port is closed for six
months by ice. Archangel, founded in 1584, was long the only port which
Russia possessed. Pop. 43,388.--The province, which before the Russian
revolution extended from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of
326,063 sq. miles. Pop. 483,500.--For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see
_Murmansk_, _Russia_.
ARCHANGEL'ICA. See _Angelica_.
* * * * *
ARCHAEOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES
[Illustration: OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk. 3,
Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of Deer
Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead. 9, Bowl.
BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin. 13, Spear-head.
14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17, Engraved Pin. 18, Short
Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch.
22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25,
Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27, Bronze Brooch.]
* * * * *
ARCHBISHOP (aerch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other bishops; a
metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up
to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy
met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of
the city where the meeting was held presided. In England there are two
archbishops--those of Canterbury and York; the former styled _Primate of
all England_, the latter _Primate of England_. The Archbishop of Canterbury
is the first peer of the realm, having precedence before all great officers
of the Crown and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and
when he is invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He
can grant special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer
degrees otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is
addressed by the titles of _your grace_ and _most reverend father in God_,
and writes himself _by divine providence_, while the Archbishop of York and
the bishops only write _by divine permission_. The first Archbishop of
Canterbury was Augustine, appointed A.D. 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity
is the Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury
the Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first
Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the sees
are L15,000 and L10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was first
appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops--St. Andrews and Glasgow.
Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but two--Armagh and Dublin,
the former being _Primate of all Ireland_, the latter _Primate of Ireland_.
There are four Roman Catholic archbishops in England and
Wales--Westminster, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in
Scotland--St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland--Armagh,
Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.
ARCHDEACON (aerch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank
below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of the diocese.
From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, under whom they
perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide cases subject to an
appeal to the bishop.
ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the royal family of Austria--the Habsburgs,
who ruled until 1918.
ARCHELAUS ([.a]r-k[=e]-l[=a]'us), the name of several personages in ancient
history, one of whom was the son of Herod the Great. He received from
Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The people, tired
of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused him before Augustus, who
banished him to Gaul.
ARCHER, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Perth,
Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to London
after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a visit to
Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for _The World_
from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic critic for _The
Tribune_ and _The Nation_. He has done much to introduce Ibsen to the
English public, by translating his dramas and otherwise, and has written
_English Dramatists of To-day_; _A Life of Macready_; _About the Theatre:
Essays and Studies_; _Masks or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of
Acting_; _The Theatrical World_ (a collection of his dramatic criticisms)
(5 vols.); _Study and Stage_; _America To-Day_ (the result of a visit in
1900); _Poets of the Younger Generation_; _Real Conversations_ (the result
of a series of interviews with persons of note); _Through Afro-America_
(1910); _The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer_ (1911);
_Play-Making_ (1912); _The Thirteen Days_ (1915); _India and the Future_
(1917); _War is War_.
ARCHER-FISH, a name given to the _Tox[)o]tes jacul[=a]tor_, a scaly-finned,
acanthopterygian fish, about 6 inches long, inhabiting the seas around
Java, which has the faculty of shooting drops of water to the distance of 3
or 4 feet at insects, thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it
seizes and devours them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their
dorsal fins are so covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable
from the rest of the body.
[Illustration: Assyrian Archer]
ARCH'ERY, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of these
weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we
learn from _Gen_. xxi, "became an archer". The Egyptians, Assyrians,
Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the bow; and while the Greeks
and Romans themselves made little use of it, they employed foreign archers
as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent times, we find the Swiss famous
as archers, but they generally used the arbalist or cross-bow, and were no
match for their English rivals, who preferred the long-bow. (See _Bow_.)
The English victories of Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against
apparently overwhelming odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery
disappeared gradually as firearms came into use, and as an instrument of
war or the chase the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes of both
hemispheres. But though the bow has been long abandoned among civilized
nations as a military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of
healthful recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have
been established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most
historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of Archers,
called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed originally, it is
said, by James I, but constituted in its present form by an Act of the
Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its head-quarters in
Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the nobility and gentry of
the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, where prizes are
competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have been formed in the
United States. Archery has the merit of forming a sport open to women as
well as men.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Garrard, _The Arte of Warre_; E. S.
Morse, _Archery, Ancient and Modern_; H. A. Ford, _The Theory and Practice
of Archery_.
[Illustration: Egyptian Archer with arrow-heads and stone-tipped reed
arrow]
ARCHES, COURT OF, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to
the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It
is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so
called from a fine _arched_ crypt), where it was formerly held. The
jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. The
office of president or dean is now merged in that of the judge appointed by
the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The court now sits in the library
of Lambeth Palace.