A grim Funeral and grimmer Medicine.
It was just previous to the grand monthly catechising contest that I
returned to the Sera monastery. While I was busy with preparation, and
in eager expectation of taking part in this important function, one of
my acquaintances died and I had to attend his funeral. Incidentally
therefore I took part in a ceremony which is perhaps unique in the
world. I may observe here that in Tibetan funerals neither a coffin
nor urn is used in which to deposit the corpse. It is simply laid on
a frame made of two wooden poles, with a proper space between and two
cross pieces tied to them. The rectangular space thus described is
filled in with a rough sort of network of ropes, and over the netting
is spread a sheet of cloth for the reception of the corpse. Another
piece of cloth, pure white in color, is thrown over the corpse, and
that completes the arrangement. The whole burden is then carried on the
shoulders of two men, who insert their heads between the projecting
ends of the two longer poles.
Generally a funeral is performed on the third or fourth day after
death, the interval being spent in observances peculiar to Tibet. First
of all a properly qualified Lama is consulted as to the auspicious day
for performing the ceremony; then as to the special mode of funeral
and the final disposal of the corpse. The Lama consulted gives his
instructions on all these points after referring to his books, and bids
the relatives of the deceased read such and such passages in the Sacred
Texts, conduct the funeral ceremony on such and such day, and take the
bier from the house at such and such an hour of the day. The priest
also advises on the mode of burial, of which there are four in vogue;
the four modes being distinguishable from each other by the agencies to
be brought into service, namely: water, flame, earth, and birds of the
air. This last corresponds to the “air-burial” of Buḍḍhism.
Of the four kinds of burial, or more properly modes of disposing of
corpses, the one generally regarded as the best is to leave the corpse
to the vultures, known under the name of Cha-goppo in Tibet; then
comes cremation; then water-burial, and last land-burial. This last
method of interment is never adopted except when a person dies from
small-pox. In this particular case alone the Tibetans observe some
sanitary principles, though probably by mere accident and not from any
conviction, for they think that this dreadful epidemic is likely to
spread if the corpse of a person stricken down by small-pox is left
for birds or consigned to a river. Though cremation is considered
as a superior way of disposing of dead bodies, the process is by no
means easy in a country where faggots are scarce, for the dried dung
of the yak is hardly thought proper for the purpose. Hence cremation
is confined to the wealthier class only. Water-burial generally takes
place near a large stream; but, in consigning a dead body to the water,
it is first thoroughly dismembered, and thrown into the water piece by
piece. This troublesome course is adopted from the idea that a dead
body thrown in whole will not speedily disappear from sight.
These four processes of disposing of corpses originate from Hinḍū
philosophy, according to which human bodies are believed to consist
of four elements, earth, water, fire and air, and it is thought that
on death they should return to these original elements. Land-burial
corresponds to the returning to earth, cremation to fire, water-burial
to water, and the bird-devouring to the air, of which birds are the
denizens. The bodies of Lamas are mostly disposed of by this last
process, while those of a few privileged persons only, such as the
Dalai Lama, sub-Dalai Lama and other venerable Lamas, believed to be
incarnations of Boḍhisaṭṭvas, are given a special mode of burial.
‘Air-burial’ was chosen for the friend whose funeral I attended, and
I shall briefly describe how this ‘burial’ was performed. Leaving the
college at Sera, the _cortège_ proceeded eastward till it reached
the bank of a river near which, in a small valley formed between two
contiguous hills, stood a big boulder about twelve yards high. The top
of this stone was level and measured about fifteen feet square. This
was the ‘burial-ground’ for this particular kind of interment. On the
summits of the surrounding hills, and even on the inaccessible parts
of the rock itself, were perched a large number of vultures, with
their eyes glistening with greed. They are always waiting there for
‘burials’. When the bier was placed upon this rock, the white sheet was
taken off, and the priest who had come, with the rest of the mourners
and sympathisers, began to chant their texts to the accompaniment of
drums and cymbals. At the same time one man approached the corpse with
a broadsword, with which to ‘dress’ it. In ‘dressing’ the abdomen was
first cut open and the entrails removed. Next all the various members
of the body were severed, after which some other men, including a
few priests, undertook the finishing work of final ‘dressing’, which
consisted in separating the flesh and bones, just as butchers do with
slaughtered cattle. By this time the vultures had gathered in a flock
round the place, and big pieces, such as the flesh of the thighs, were
thrown to them and most voraciously did they devour them. Then the
bones had to be disposed of, and this was done by first throwing them
into one of the ten cavities on the rock, and pounding the heap with
big stones. When the bones had been fairly well pulverised a quantity
of baked flour was added to the mass, and this dainty mixture was also
given to the birds. The only thing that remained of the dead body was
the hair.
[Illustration: FUNERAL CEREMONIES: CUTTING UP THE DEAD BODY.]
The Tibetans may practically be considered as a kind of cannibals.
I was struck with this notion while witnessing the burial ceremony.
All the cloths used in the burial go as a matter of course to the
grave-diggers, though they hardly deserve this name, as their duty
consists not in digging the grave but in chopping the flesh of the
corpse and pounding the bones. Even priests give them help, for the
pounding business is necessarily tedious and tiresome. Meanwhile the
pounders have to take refreshment, and tea is drunk almost incessantly,
for Tibetans are great tea-drinkers. The grave-diggers, or priests,
prepare tea, or help themselves to baked flour, with their hands
splashed over with a mash of human flesh and bones, for they never wash
their hands before they prepare tea or take food, the most they do
being to clap their hands, so as to get rid of the coarser fragments.
And thus they take a good deal of minced human flesh, bones or brain,
mixed with their tea or flour. They do so with perfect nonchalance; in
fact, they have no idea whatever how really abominable and horrible
their practice is, for they are accustomed to it. When I suggested that
they might wash their hands before taking refreshment, they looked at
me with an air of surprise. They scoffed at my suggestion, and even
observed that eating with unwashed hands really added relish to food;
besides, the spirit of the dead man would be satisfied when he saw them
take fragments of his mortal remains with their food without aversion.
It has been stated that the Tibetans are descendants of the Rākshasa
tribe--a tribe of fiendish cannibals who used to feed on human flesh;
and what I witnessed at the burial convinced me that, even at the
present day, they retained the horrible habit of their ancestors.
While the burial ceremony is going on, a religious service is also
conducted at the house of the deceased, and when the ceremony is
over, those who have attended it call at the house of the bereaved
family, where they are feasted by its members. I noticed that at
this entertainment intoxicants are served only to the laity. This
discrimination is not observed, however, in the country districts.
I shall next describe the mode of burying a Dalai Lama or a high-priest.
When a person of high distinction dies, his body is put in a big box
and marsh salt is copiously sprinkled over it till it is thoroughly
imbedded in this alkaline padding. All this while, religious chanting
goes on, accompanied by the music of flutes, pipes and other
instruments. The box is then kept in a temple for about three months,
during which time offerings are made regularly, as when the deceased
was yet alive, and his disciples keep vigil over it by turns. Before
the coffin lights are kept burning in several golden burners containing
melted butter, while holy water is offered in seven silver vessels.
Flowers of the season are also offered with other things. Every one
allowed to worship near the remains is expected to make some offering
in kind, accompanied by a small sum of money. By the time the three
months have elapsed, all the watery portion of the corpse has been
absorbed by the salt, and it has become hard and dry. It seems to me
(though I am not quite sure) that the Tibetan salt contains a large
percentage of soda or other alkalies; at any rate it is somewhat
different from the salt found in Japan. Perhaps some special
ingredients are mixed in the salt, when it is used for packing a corpse.
Be that as it may, when it is taken out of the coffin the corpse is
thoroughly hardened, and has all its parts shrunk up, owing to the loss
of all fluid elements, and the eyes are sunk in their sockets. Then
follows the process of ‘dressing’ the hardened corpse. The ‘dressing’
in this case is made with a compound of a certain kind of clay and
pulverised particles of white sandalwood, and also probably certain
drugs of foreign production. This compound is carefully spread over
all parts of the body. It is finally gilded, and a ‘natural’ image
is the result. This image is put in a tabernacle enclosed in a small
outer structure, which is highly decorated, and the whole thing, image
and all, is kept in a shrine. Such shrines are found in many parts
of Tibet; in the premises of the Tashi Lhunpo monastery at Shigatze
five such edifices are found, their roofs resplendent with gold. In
construction these roofs very much resemble the double roof of a palace
or similar building in China, and of course the decoration and size of
the edifice and tabernacle are different according to the rank of the
canonised Lamas, some of these structures being inlaid with gold and
others with silver.
At any rate, these images are objects of veneration to the Tibetans;
both priests and ordinary people visit and worship them. This peculiar
mode of embalming high Lamas has been wittily commented upon by a
certain Chinaman, who remarks that the practice is inconsistent with
the strong prejudice which Tibetans possess against earth-burial, as
this mode of burial, according to their superstition, sends the dead
person to hell. For the treatment accorded to the dead body of a Grand
Lama, or other distinguished priest, is in fact a sort of earth-burial,
in that the corpse is not given to birds or consigned to rivers or
flames, but is preserved in clay after it has been salted and hardened.
Now I come to the most wonderful medicines in the world. The first
is the salt used in packing corpses. This salt is considered as an
article of great virtue, and accessible only to a limited number of the
privileged class. It is distributed only among aristocratic people, and
among priests of distinction.
Only the wealthy merchants and great patrons of temples may hope,
through some powerful influence, to obtain a small quantity of this
precious dirt. The salt is a panacea for the Tibetan, who swallows a
small dose either by itself or dissolved in water for all kinds of ills
that flesh is heir to--from a slight attack of cold to a serious case
of fatal disease. Whatever medical quality this loathsome compound
possesses, one thing is certain--that it exercises a powerful influence
upon the untutored minds of the ignorant Tibetans, and so excellently
serves the purpose of “mental cure”. The salt medicine reminds me of
the existence in Tibet (and happily nowhere else) of another sort of
panacea equally abominable. The mere mention of the real nature of this
second series of so-called medicines, would, instead of curing the
people of other countries, infallibly make them sick, as the essential
ingredients are nothing less than the excreta, both liquid and solid,
of the Grand Lama or other high priests. These are mixed with other
substances and are made into pills, which are gilded over and sometimes
colored red. These pills, known under the name of _Tsa Chen-norpu_
(precious balls) are not on sale, they being accessible to ordinary
people only through some powerful influence, and even then only by
paying for them a large sum of money. The Tibetan is glad, however,
to procure these pills at any cost, for he is under a fond delusion
that they possess a most effective curative power. They are kept as
something like a family treasure, and are used as the last resort,
when all other means of treatment have failed. When, by some accident,
a patient despaired of by doctors recovers after he has been dosed with
a few of the ‘precious pills,’ the people of course extol their merit
to the skies; while if he dies, his case is regarded as having been
beyond cure, and the pills remain therefore the object of undiminished
faith. To do justice to this superstition, I ought to add that the
common Tibetans are kept entirely in the dark as to the ingredients
of the pills; they are taken as medicines prepared by the Grand Lama
himself according to a certain secret formula, and the shocking secret
is known only to a select few, who are entitled to attend the Dalai
Lama’s court.