WOMEN AND EDUCATION
Before describing our own life in a haunted castle, with its joys and
its fears, we must pause and reflect on two of the most important
factors in Finnish life--the position of women, and the excellence of
education. For it is the present advancement of both that will make a
future for _Suomi_, and even to-day can teach us much.
In 1890 the population of Finland numbered two and a half millions,
which included--
Females 1,208,599
Males 1,171,541
_________
Total 2,380,140
In 1908 the figures were--
Females 1,515,916
Males 1,496,933
_________
Total 3,012,849
These figures show that there has been a large preponderance of the
female sex, and though in the last twenty years this surplus has
diminished by one half, it may perhaps in some measure account for the
wonderful way in which women have pushed themselves to the front and
ceased to look upon matrimony as the only profession open to the sex.
The system of public instruction is making rapid progress. The expenses
of primary education are divided between the State and the Communes,
while those of the higher education generally fall on the State.
The Finnish University, founded in 1640, is maintained by the latter,
and includes four faculties.
In 1870 the first woman matriculated at the University, three years
later another followed suit, but until 1885 they were alone, when two
others joined them. It was very difficult in those days to obtain
permission to enter for the matriculation; as will be seen, there are at
present a large number of female students, several of whom have taken
degrees in medicine, dentistry, arts, law, and science.
The woman question is now one of great moment in Finland, but the first
book published on the subject only appeared in May 1894. This _Calendar
of Women's Work_ was really a great undertaking, and the statistics and
materials to complete it were collected by more than a thousand agents
of both sexes, the Senate giving a grant of three thousand marks to pay
for the printing expenses. Its object was, by giving careful tables of
employment, and names and addresses of employers, to enable young women
readily to find a vocation.
Beginning by a historic sketch, it showed how Finnish linen was famous
as early as 1552, and how taxes were paid by such means at that time.
It pointed out the present great desire to increase home industries, and
stated that out of five hundred and thirty parishes applied to, four
hundred had sent to the Women's Association asking for help in the
formation of schools, or loan of patterns and models, implements and
tools.
It noticed how, in 1890, a vast number of women were employed upon the
land: 8580 peasants, 2516 farmers, 5631 cottagers, and 76,857
agricultural servants; we must remember Finnish women are physically
strong and well-fitted for agricultural work.
It showed how dairy work was being much taken up by women, who tended
the cows, milked them, made the butter, for which they obtained prizes,
and went on to notice how gardening was being developed in the country,
and how it might further be undertaken with advantage.
There are in 1912 fourteen dairying schools, thirty-seven schools for
the care of cattle, and twelve housekeeping and gardening schools--all
for women.
In fact, one cannot travel through Finland without being struck by the
position of women on every side. It may, of course, arise from the fact
that the Finns are poor, and, large families not being uncommon, it is
impossible for the parents to keep their daughters in idleness; and as
no country is more democratic than Finland, where there is no court and
little aristocracy, the daughters of senators and generals take up all
kinds of work. Whatever the cause, it is amazing to find the vast number
of employments open to women, and the excellent way in which they fill
these posts. There is no law to prevent women working at anything they
choose.
Amongst the unmarried women it is more the exception than the rule to
find them idle, and instead of work being looked upon as degrading, it
is admired on all sides, especially teaching, which is considered one of
the finest positions for a man or woman in Finland. And it is scientific
teaching, for they learn how to impart knowledge to others, instead of
doing it in a dilatory and dilettante manner, as so often happens
elsewhere.
We were impressed by the force and the marvellous energy and splendid
independence of the women of _Suomi_, who became independent workers
long before their sisters in Britain.
All this is particularly interesting with the struggle going on now
around us, for to our mind it is remarkable that so remote a country,
one so little known and so unappreciated, should have thus suddenly
burst forth and hold the most advanced ideas for both men and women.
That endless sex question is never discussed. There is no sex question
in Finland, _men and women are practically equals_, and on that basis
society is formed. Sex equality has always been a characteristic of the
race, as we find from the ancient _Kalevala_ poem.
In spite of advanced education, in spite of the emancipation of women
(which is erroneously supposed to work otherwise), Finland is noted for
its morality, and, indeed, stands among the nations of Europe as one of
the most virtuous.
There is no married woman's property act, all property being owned
jointly by husband and wife. This is called the marriage right.
In the excellent pamphlet printed for the Chicago Exhibition, we find
the following:--
MARRIAGE
_Marriageable Age._--According to the law which is now in force, a
girl need be no more than fifteen years of age in order to be
marriageable. Very few girls, however, marry at such an early age.
Among the peasantry, women, as a rule, marry earlier than they do
among the cultivated classes.
_The Solemnisation of Marriages._--According to the law of 1734,
which remained valid until 1864, a spinster could not marry without
the consent of her father, or, if he were dead, of her mother. Both
parents being dead, this duty devolved upon the eldest male member
of the family.
In the year 1864 (31st October) a law was enacted according to
which girls, after their twenty-first year, are free to marry
without the consent of either father or mother. For a marriage to
be lawful the banns must be read from the pulpit on three several
Sundays, and the marriage ceremony must be performed by a
clergyman.
_Statutes of 1889._--In the statutes of 1889 the law on antenuptial
marriage agreements was altered to the advantage of the wife. By
means of antenuptial agreements a woman may now not only retain as
her special property whatever she possessed before marriage, and
whatever she may have, after marriage, inherited, received as a
gift, or as a legacy, but she may also _reserve for herself the
right of taking charge of and managing her own property and the
income thereof_.
In 1908, a law was passed enacting that no girl under the age of
seventeen years should marry. How much wiser than in England.
As soon as the marriage ceremony has been performed, "the husband
becomes the natural guardian of his wife," is responsible for her and
manages _their_ property.
In spite, however, of a woman being under the legal guardianship of her
husband, there is probably no country where women are held in more
reverence and respect than in Finland. While in Germany the middle
class _Hausfrau_ takes a back seat, hardly speaking before her lord and
master, and being in many cases scarcely better than a general servant
(of the Jack-of-all-trades and master of none class), doing a little
cooking, seeing to the dusting and cleaning, helping make the beds, wash
the children, and everlastingly producing her big basket of
_Handarbeit_, the Finnish woman, although just as domesticated, is less
ostentatious in her performance of such duties, and, like her sisters in
England, attends to her household matters in the morning, according to a
regulated plan worked out for herself; trains her servants properly,
and, having set the clock going for the day, expects the machinery to
work. Every decent household should be managed on some such plan, and we
all know that the busier the woman the more comfortable, as a rule, she
makes her home; the mere fact of her having an occupation, inspires
those about her to work. Added to which, the busy woman knows order and
method are the only means by which satisfactory results can possibly be
obtained, and that order and method which she has acquired herself she
is able to teach her less-educated domestics, or anyway inspire them
with it.
Idle people are always apparently busy; but it is the business of
muddle, while really busy people always have time for everything, and
keep everything in its place.
Finnish ladies are thoroughly well educated. They are musical and
artistic, beautiful needle-women, manage their homes well, and they
have read enough to join in any discussion in which they take an
interest. They are, consequently, treated by their husbands as equals,
and although until 1907 they had no political rights, women were much
employed in government services. They were not debarred from becoming
members of the great societies. For instance, as far back as 1897, among
the two hundred and twelve Fellows that composed the Geographical
Society of Finland there were seventy-three women, yet in 1913 our Royal
Geographical Society shrieked at the idea of woman entering their
portals. The Swedish Literary Society, with thirteen hundred members,
has eighty-two women on its books. The same with the philanthropic
societies, music, art, etc. In fact, all doors are open to women.
Ladies have done much for the cause of temperance, and in all
philanthropic movements they are busy; they have organised schools for
the deaf, dumb, blind, and crippled, and look after night shelters,
mothers' unions, ragged unions, rescue homes, working homes for
children, benevolent societies, etc.
The pamphlet, speaking of unmarried women, also says--
_Rights of Unmarried Women enlarged._--In 1864 (on the 31st of
October) _the position of unmarried women_ was improved. According
to the law that was then enacted, an unmarried woman--
1. When she has reached her fifteenth year, may take charge of
whatever she may earn.
2. When she has reached her twenty-first year she may manage her
own property, if she chooses to do so, provided that she informs
the court of her intention.
3. When she has reached her twenty-fifth year she is of age, and
may manage her own property without informing the court thereof.
_Rights of Inheritance._--In the beginning of the Swedish rule our
country probably conformed to the old Swedish laws and regulations,
according to which women had a right to _inherit property_ only in
cases where there were no male heirs.
_Legislation of Birger Jarl: Women inherited one-third._--In the
middle of the thirteenth century, Finnish (as well as Swedish)
women were awarded the right of inheriting _a third part_ of the
property left by their parents, whereas two-thirds accrued to the
male heirs. For this improvement our women were indebted to Birger
Jarl, the great Swedish legislator and statesman, who bears an
honoured name in our history.
Many exceptions, however, were made to this rule. Where the father
was a landowner, for instance, the principal estate always
descended to the son, whereas the daughter had to be content with
some smaller estate of less value, or with part of the personal
property.
_Legislation of 1734: Daughters and Sons of Town People, etc.,
inherit Equal Shares._--Such was the state of things for several
centuries, till it was at last changed somewhat for the better when
the law of 1734 came into force. This law decreed that the sons and
daughters of commoners living in towns, and those of the clergy,
were to inherit _equal shares_. The daughters of the nobility and
of all landowners in the country, however, remained in the same
position as before.
_Law now in force: Daughters and Sons inherit Equal Shares._--This
lasted nearly one and a half centuries, until _in all classes of
society_ the daughters received the right of inheriting _equal
shares_ with the sons, which they did, according to a law enacted
on 27th June 1878. _Hence Finnish women now possess the same rights
of inheritance as men._ The latter, however, still in some cases
have the advantage over women; _e.g._ where there is landed
property to be inherited and the principal estate cannot be
conveniently divided, then the brother or male heir is entitled to
purchase the sister's part. The benefit thus accruing to the son
injures the position of the daughter, in case the brother is a
spendthrift or unable to pay the sum which represents her share of
the paternal estate. Among the peasantry it is still customary to
buy off the daughter with a small sum of money, regardless of what
the true value of the estate may be, or with part of the
personality, so that the male heir may have the whole of the
estate.
Divorce is somewhat uncommon in Finland. Indeed, next to Belgium, that
country shows the smallest number of divorced marriages; still divorce
may be granted on the following grounds:--
On the plea of adultery. It is not, however, enough for the guilty
party to acknowledge his or her guilt, which must be fully proved,
as well as the time when, the place where, and the person with
whom, it was committed.
If either husband or wife have, after the betrothal but before the
marriage, committed adultery with some one else, and this is made
known after marriage, the innocent party may claim a divorce, if he
or she demand it.
The law is in this respect severer with women than with men; for if
a husband be informed of his wife having been seduced by some one
else before her betrothal with him, he has the right to claim
divorce from her, but the wife has not the same right _vice versâ_.
On the plea of deliberate desertion or prolonged absence. If either
husband or wife absent himself or herself from home and do not
return within a year after, the other party having inserted in the
official newspapers of the country an advertisement calling on him
or her to return, the one who remained at home has the right to sue
for a divorce.
Far more marriages are marred by incompatibility of temper than by
actual immorality, and, surely, if two people find they have made a
mistake, and are irritants instead of sedatives to one another, they
should not be left to champ and fret like horses at too severe a bit,
for all their long sad lives--to mar one another's happiness, to worry
their children, and annoy their friends. Our hideously cruel separation
orders merely encourage immorality. Finland shows us an excellent
example. The very fact of being able to get free makes folk less
inclined to struggle at their chains. If life is intolerable to Mrs.
Jones in Finland, away she goes by herself; at the end of a year Mr.
Jones advertises three times in the paper for his wife or for
information that will lead to his knowing her whereabouts; no one
responds, and Mr. Jones can sue for and obtain a divorce without any of
those scandalous details appearing in the press which are a disgrace to
English journalism.
If either husband or wife be sentenced to imprisonment for life.
Besides these cases, which are set forth in the law as sufficient
causes for divorce, there are other circumstances in consequence of
which a marriage may be dissolved,--but only by means of direct
application to the Emperor and Grand Duke of Finland, who may grant
it as a favour. A divorced wife is considered as a widow; she has
no more duties toward her husband, and can dispose of her person as
well as of her property. A divorced couple may peaceably settle all
about the children; but if they cannot do this, the innocent parent
is entitled to take charge of them. Both parents must contribute
means for their maintenance and education.
Since 1906, women in Finland have had exactly the same political rights
as men. Practically every man and woman over twenty-four years of age
may not only vote for Parliament, but is also eligible as a member. At
the election of 1907, nineteen women members were returned; this number
has fluctuated, however, and in 1912 there are but fourteen women
members.
They also have municipal rights. Unmarried women, widows, and divorced
women, provided they submitted to the necessary conditions, were given
the municipal vote in 1873. Women are members of School Boards, Poor Law
Guardians, and are eligible as members of several other municipal and
parochial Boards; but they may not be chosen for Town Councils or the
corresponding councils in rural parishes. In 1908 the Diet passed a new
law concerning the municipal vote, giving equal rights to men and women,
but that law being very Radical had--four years later--not received the
sanction of the sovereign.
In the matter of education Finland is most advanced; and the fees all up
the scale from folk-schools to the University itself are extremely low.
The folk-schools in 1910 were attended by 188,479 children, which was
6.11 per cent. of the population. The same year there were 2677 female
teachers and 2222 male teachers in the folk-schools. Every country
Commune has at least one permanent folk-school, but most have several.
There are besides these, ambulatory schools, where teachers visit remote
villages and hold classes, in order that children may not suffer by
being a long distance from a folk-school.
Besides the folk-schools there are secondary schools, most of them
leading up to the University. These numbered, in 1912, one hundred and
twenty-seven. Seventy-four of them are mixed schools, and twenty-seven
for boys only, the other twenty-six being for girls.
Many preparatory schools exist under private auspices, over which there
is no State inspection.
The better-class children go to the secondary schools, though they are
open to all classes, the fees being only thirty-two shillings per annum,
with a reduction for brothers or sisters, and 20 per cent. of the whole
number of pupils are received free of charge. In the private schools the
annual fee varies, but rarely rises above ten pounds.
In Helsingfors the salaries for teachers in folk-schools are different
for men and women, the latter receiving from 2000 to 3000 marks a year,
and the men from 2400 to nearly 4000 marks per annum.
In the country Communes, however, salaries are now the same for men and
women; but a teacher with a family dependent on him receives a bonus in
addition to the salary, and this applies to men and women equally.
Could anything be better? Truly, a eugenic doctrine in the best sense.
Could we in England not learn one of our many needed lessons in
education from Finland on this point? All are entitled to a pension
after thirty years' service.
Beyond the folk-schools are practical continuation classes for
needlework, cooking, weaving, household work, and book-keeping.
And then, again, there are People's Colleges for both sexes aged about
eighteen, for the advancement of culture and knowledge, and to kindle
noble impulses.
One of these People's Colleges was established by a woman for women, and
has now obtained a grant from the public funds.
Besides all the foregoing there are normal institutes or seminaries for
folk-school teachers of both sexes; six of these seminaries are for
Finnish folk-school teaching, and two for Swedish ones.
The instruction is free, candidates must be eighteen years of age, and
the subjects are:--Biblical history and the Bible, Christianity and
moral philosophy, popular psychology, pedagogics and the science of
teaching, school-keeping, the mother tongue and the reading of suitable
works in it, mathematics, geography, history, the statistics of Finland,
natural history, calligraphy, writing of short essays, drawing and
modelling, singing and instrumental music, elementary anatomy,
physiology, and the care of small children according to the laws of
hygiene. To all this long list there are added for female students,
instruction in needlework and weaving, housekeeping, and gardening; and
for the male, _slöjd_, gardening, and fieldwork.
There are also State high schools for girls doing excellent work.
THE AMOUNT OF SALARIES AT THE STATE HIGH
SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS.
+-------------------------------+---------+------------+-----------+
| | No. of | Salary-- | Salary |
| | Lessons | Marks | increased |
| | a Week | (Finnish | after |
| | | currency). | fifteen |
| | | | years. |
+-------------------------------+---------+------------+-----------+
| Lady Principal (lodgings free | | | |
| of charge) | 14 | 2000 | 3200 |
| Teachers (female) | 20 | 1800 | 3000 |
| Assistant Teachers (female)-- | | | |
| Drawing and Calligraphy | 10 | 1000 | 1600 |
| Singing | 7 | 700 | 980 |
| Gymnastics | 15 | 1500 | 2400 |
| "Kollega" (male or female) | | | |
| Senior | 22 | 3800 | 6200 |
| "Kollega" (male or female) | | | |
| Junior | 22 | 3600 | 6000 |
+-------------------------------+---------+------------+-----------+
In _Helsingfors_ and _Wiborg_, where the living is more expensive than
in other Finnish towns, the principals and the lady teachers (but not
the "kollegas") are in receipt of an addition to their salaries. Thus
in _Helsingfors_ a lady principal receives from the beginning 2800
marks, and after fifteen years' service, 4000.
Although this does not sound high remuneration, it must be remembered
that salaries and expenses are proportionately low in _Suomi_.
Every woman entering the University must obtain permission from the
Chancellor. He always grants it now, though formerly he often refused.
There are, in 1912, 730 women out of a total of 3030 students--that is,
24 per cent.
There is no general annual fee at the University; at matriculation every
student pays thirty-six shillings, and there is a small extra charge for
the use of the laboratories; and, of course, students needing special
instruction in any particular subject pay their professor a separate
fee, about a pound per annum. In addition there are small fees for the
examinations.
Men and women pay exactly the same, and enter for the same examinations,
working side by side. The first woman to take a degree at the University
(_bacca laureate_) was _Fröken Emma Irene Aström_ in 1873, when she was
appointed professor (_lector_) at one of the seminaries for the
education of folk-school teachers.
In 1884 the Finnish Women's Association was formed, having obtained
permission from the State for their name. Their object is to work for
the elevation of their sex, intellectually and morally, and to better
women's social and economical position.
Thirty years have seen the formation of many such societies; perhaps the
greatest of them is an association called "Martha," similar to our
English Mothers' Union. Its purpose is to approach the different classes
and to heighten the standard of life among the poor by developing the
women's ability in housekeeping and educating their children. It is
spread all over the country, and has more than a hundred and fifty
affiliated associations.
As we have already noticed, women follow many occupations which in the
British islands are regarded as entirely men's employments--bricklaying,
carpentry, paper-hanging, slaughtering, ship-loading, were all to be
found in the returns, when I was in the country, under _women's work_.
In public offices they were constantly employed long before women in
Britain were recognised as capable of doing clerical work on a large
scale; and even now, while our banks are staffed entirely by men, women
in Finland are largely employed as clerks in banks as well as in
insurance offices. They monopolise the telephone, and are in great
request as compositors.
But turning to the more domestic duties of women; the Finns are as
thorough in these as in other branches of education. It was at one time
rather a fashion for the young ladies of Finland to go over to Sweden
and enter what is called a _Hushållskola_, the literal translation of
which is a "household school." They are taught cooking, laundry-work,
weaving, dressmaking, house-maid's work, everything, in fact, that a
woman could possibly want to know if she were left without any
servants, or even on a desert island. They are practically instructed
how to garden, they are sent marketing, they are taught to fish, and,
having landed their prey, how to clean and cook it. In fact, they are
fitted to be maids-of-all-work, skilled labourers and sportsmen, at one
and the same time.
The full course occupies about eighteen months, and met with such
success in Sweden that Finlanders have now organised several
_Hushållskola_ in Finland itself.
In 1799 one _Wibeleins_ started a sort of technical education scheme. He
printed books to further the weaving trade, gave prizes for spun thread,
etc., to encourage the old trade then dying away--for women in the time
of _Kalevala_ wove, embroidered, spun, and worked in silver and bronze,
at least so say the bards. Indeed, in 1529, _Åbo_ linen was so famous
that it was always used by the King of Sweden, therefore it is not
surprising that weaving is still quite a pastime among Finnish ladies,
and every cottager knows how to ply her shuttle. Where it has fallen
into disuse women go about the country to teach and revive the decaying
industry.
It is very sad when old trades disappear in rural districts, for nothing
can take their place. No modern factories are started near at hand to
employ the folk, and the result is they give up their old occupations
and too often do not take to new instead. For instance, the once famous
lace of _Raumo_, formerly sent in large quantities to Sweden and Russia
(the thread came from England), was almost a forgotten art; but as with
us, care has been taken to restore these old local industries, and
_Raumo_ lace-making is now in a most flourishing state.
The many employments open to women do not make the more fortunate forget
those in trouble. Nursing the sick is a favourite profession in Finland,
the emolument varying from two to six hundred marks per annum, in
addition to board, etc.
Massage is a very old institution, so ancient that every village since
the olden times has had at least one rubbing woman, as they call her. In
the country they are generally given food in payment, but in towns from
twenty-five penni to a mark for the time occupied. So many women do
massage that really every one seems to know something about it, and one
almost feels that massage must have originated in _Suomi_. It is
certainly a great feature of Finnish life; and in addition to these
massage women, who work for next to nothing, and who are merely peasant
women, there are now everywhere in Finland highly trained masseuses, or,
as they prefer to be called, "sick-gymnasts."
The University maintains courses, lasting for three years, for the
training of such "sick-gymnasts," and the pupils are very often ladies
from the best families. A qualified "sick-gymnast" often gets a
remunerative practice, and may make an annual income of 10,000 marks or
more.
The physical development of women is given a high place in the school
curriculum in Finland, as was instanced in the Olympic games at
Stockholm in 1912, when a group of Finnish girls proved by their
suppleness of body and gymnastic proficiency that the traditions of
Southern Greece are ably maintained to-day in Finland in the North.
One must not leave the subject of women in _Suomi_ without touching upon
their achievements in literature and the sister arts.
The earliest woman writer was _Sarah Wacklin_ (1790-1846), who has left
a valuable record of Finnish life in the first years of the nineteenth
century. Her successors took up the question of the rights of women, and
their emancipation; and the works of _Mrs. Fredrika Runeberg_
(1807-1879) and _Miss Adelaide Ehrnroth_ both set forth the arguments of
the cause most strongly, not only in articles and pamphlets, but in
novels of a high standard.
Since then many women have entered their names on the roll of the
country's literature, and, strangely enough, the two girls I chaperoned
through Finland--for, of course, being married I could act as a
chaperone--were so inspired by the work of writing and its manifold
interests, that both of them took to the pen later, and one is known
to-day as _Paul Waineman_, and the other as _Baroness Léonie Aminoff_.
When we went to _Kuopio_ we hoped to meet _Minna Canth_, one
of the first Finnish writers in the country, whose powers as a dramatist
we had learnt at _Sordavala_. We inquired where she lived, and found
that she had a drapery store.
Every one in Finland works in some way, and, all work being considered
honourable, the shopkeeper is equal to the noble.
_Minna Canth's_ husband died some years ago, and being left with a
family, she started this store, and certainly, when one realised that
she was a woman with children to look after, that she wrote much--which
we know takes time--it is perfectly wonderful how she could find energy
and leisure to look after her shop. Yet it was so, and the business was
in a most flourishing condition.
Finnish lady artists for the first time received international prizes
and medals at the great World's Exhibition in Paris in the year 1889.
Of the achievements of Finland's women artists during the last twenty
years I must not write in detail, for Finland has forged ahead in art as
in other matters. At the time of my first visit, few Finnish women had
devoted themselves to sculpture, and only one--_Miss Sigrid af
Forselles_--had accomplished really good work. But to-day she no longer
stands alone.
Already we see the first generation that benefited by the recognition of
the power of women enjoying the prime of early manhood and womanhood;
and it is certain that in the enormous upheaval in the old order of
things that is going on all over the world, _Suomi_ will hold her own in
the forefront of education, for the learning of the mother must prove a
valuable asset in moulding the characters of the citizens of the
future.