The comparison of artificial and natural selection has furnished
material support for the theory of descent, and in turn been the object
of constant criticism since the time of Darwin. The criticisms, in
greater part, have arisen chiefly from an imperfect knowledge of both
processes. By the aid of distinctions recently made possible, the
contrast between elementary species and improved races has become much
more vivid, and promises to yield better results on which to base
comparisons of artificial and natural selection.
Elementary species, as we have seen in earlier lectures, occur in wild
and in cultivated plants. In older genera and systematic species they
are often present in small numbers only, but many of the more recent
wild types and also many of the cultivated forms are very rich in this
respect. In agriculture the choice of the most adequate elementary forms
for any special purpose is acknowledged [799] as the first step in the
way of selection, and is designated by the name of variety-testing,
applying the term variety to all the subdivisions of systematic species
indiscriminately. In natural processes it bears the title of survival of
species. The fact that recent types show large numbers, and in some
instances even hundreds of minor constant forms, while the older genera
are considerably reduced in this respect, is commonly explained by the
assumption of extinction of species on a correspondingly large scale.
This extinction is considered to affect the unfit in a higher measure
than the fit. Consequently the former vanish, often without leaving any
trace of their existence, and only those that prove to be sufficiently
adapted to the surrounding external conditions, resist and survive.
This selection exhibits far-reaching analogies between the artificial
and the natural processes, and is in both cases of the very highest
importance. In nature the dying out of unfit mutations is the result of
the great struggle for life. In a previous lecture we have compared its
agency with that of a sieve. All elements which are too small or too
weak fall through, and only those are preserved which resist the sifting
process. Reduced in number they thrive and multiply and are thus enabled
to [800] strike out new mutative changes. These are again submitted to
the sifting tests, and the frequent repetition of this process is
considered to give a good explanation of the manifold, highly
complicated, and admirable structures which strike the beginner as the
only real adaptations in nature.
Exactly in the same way artificial selection isolates and preserves some
elementary species, while it destroys others. Of course the time is not
sufficient to secure new mutations, or at least these are only rare at
present, and their occurrence is doubtful in historic periods. Apart
from this unavoidable difference the analogy between natural and
artificial selection appears to me to be very striking.
This form of selection may be termed selection between species. Opposed
to it stands the selection within the elementary species or variety. It
has of late, alone come to be known as selection, though in reality it
does not deserve this distinction. I have already detailed the
historical evidence which gives preference to selection between species.
The process can best be designated by the name of intraspecific
selection, if it is understood that the term intraspecific is meant to
apply to the conception of small or elementary species.
I do not wish to propose new terms, but [801] I think that the principal
differences might better become understood by the introduction of the
word election into the discussion of questions of heredity. Election
meant formerly the preferential choice of single individuals, while the
derivation of the word selection points to a segregation of assemblies
into their larger parts. Or to state it in a shorter way, individual
selection is exactly what is usually termed election. Choosing one man
from among thousands is to elect him, but a select party is a group of
chosen persons. There would be no great difficulty in the introduction
of the word election, as breeders are already in the habit of calling
their choice individuals "elite," at least in the case of beets and of
cereals.
This intraspecific selection affords a second point for the comparison
between natural and artificial processes. This case is readily granted
to be more difficult than the first, but there can be no doubt that the
similarity is due to strictly comparable causes. In practice this
process is scarcely second in importance to the selection between
species, and in numerous cases it rests upon it, and crowns it, bringing
the isolated forms up to their highest possible degree of usefulness. In
nature it does quite the same, adapting strains of individuals to the
local conditions of their environment. Improved [802] races do not
generally last very long in practice; sooner or later they are surpassed
by new selections. Exactly so we may imagine the agency of natural
intraspecific selection. It produces the local races, the marks of which
disappear as soon as the special external conditions cease to act. It is
responsible only for the smallest lateral branches of the pedigree, but
has nothing in common with the evolution on the main stems. It is of
very subordinate importance.
These assertions of course, are directly opposed to the current run of
scientific belief, but they are supported by facts. A considerable part
of the evidence has already been dealt with and for our closing
discussion only an exact comparison remains to be made between the two
detailed types of intraspecific selection. In coming to this I will
first dwell upon some intermediate types and conclude with a critical
discussion of the features of artificial selection, which to my mind
prove the invalidity of the conclusions drawn from it in behalf of an
explanation of the processes of nature.
Natural selection occurs not only in the wild state, but is also active
in cultivated fields. Here it regulates the struggle of the selected
varieties and improved races with the older types, and even with the
wild species. In a previous [803] lecture I have detailed the rapid
increase of the wild oats in certain years, and described the
experiments of Risler and Rimpau in the running out of select varieties.
The agency is always the same. The preferred forms, which give a larger
harvest, are generally more sensitive to injurious influences, more
dependent on rich manure and on adequate treatment. The native varieties
have therefore the advantage, when climatic or cultural conditions are
unfavorable for the fields at large. They suffer in a minor degree, and
are thereby enabled to propagate themselves afterwards more rapidly and
to defeat the finer types. This struggle for life is a constant one, and
can easily be followed, whenever the composition of a strain is noted in
successive years. It is well appreciated by breeders and farmers,
because it is always liable to counteract their endeavors and to claim
their utmost efforts to keep their races pure. There can be no doubt
that exactly the same struggle exempt from man's intrusion is fought out
in the wild state.
Local races of wild plants have not been the object for field
observations recently. Some facts however, are known concerning them. On
the East Friesian Islands in the North Sea the flowers are strikingly
larger and brighter colored than those of the same species on the [804]
neighboring continent. This local difference is ascribed by Behrens to a
more severe selection by the pollinating insects in consequence of their
lesser frequency on these very windy isles. Seeds of the pines from the
Himalayas yield cold-resisting young plants if gathered from trees in a
high altitude, while the seeds of the same species from lower regions
yield more sensitive seedlings. Similar instances are afforded by
_Rhododendron_ and other mountain species. According to Cieslar
corresponding differences are shown by seeds of firs and larches from
alpine and lowland provinces.
Such changes are directly dependent on external influences. This is
especially manifest in experiments extending the cultures in higher or
in more northern regions. The shorter summer is a natural agent of
selection; it excludes all individuals which cannot ripen their seeds
during so short a period. Only the short lived ones survive. Schubeler
made very striking experiments with corn and other different cereals,
and has succeeded in making their culture possible in regions of Norway
where it formerly failed. In the district of Christiania, corn had
within some few years reduced its lifetime from 123 to 90 days, yielding
smaller stems and fewer kernels, but still sufficient to make its
culture profitable under the existing conditions. [805] This change was
not permanent, but was observed to diminish rapidly and to disappear
entirely, whenever the Norwegian strain was cultivated in the southern
part of Germany. It was a typical improved race, dependent on continual
selection by the short summers which had produced it. Similar results
have been reached by Von Wettstein in the comparison of kinds of flax
from different countries. The analogy between such cultivated local
races and the local races of nature is quite striking. The practice of
seed exchange rests for a large part on the experience that the
characters, acquired under the definite climatic and cultural conditions
of some select regions, hold good for one or two, and sometimes even
more generations, before they decrease to practical uselessness. The
Probstei, the Hanna and other districts owe their wealth to this
temporary superiority of their wheat and other cereals.
Leaving these intermediate forms of selection, we now come to our
principal point. It has already been discussed at some length in the
previous lecture, but needs further consideration. It is the question
whether intraspecific selection may be regarded as a cause of lasting
and ever-increasing improvement. This is assumed by biologists who
consider fluctuating variability as the main source of progression [806]
in the organic world. But the experience of the breeders does not
support this view, since the results of practice prove that selection
according to a constant standard soon reaches a limit which it is not
capable of transgressing. In order to attain further improvements the
method of selection itself must be improved. A better and sharper method
assures the choice of more valuable representatives of the race, even if
these must be sought for in far larger numbers of individuals, as is
indicated by the law of Quetelet.
Continuous or even prolonged improvement of a cultivated race is not the
result of frequently repeated selection, but of the improvement of the
standard of appreciation. Nature, as far as we know, changes her
standard from time to time only in consequence of the migrations of the
species, or of local changes of climate. Afterwards the new standard
remains unchanged for centuries.
Selection, according to a constant standard, reaches its results in few
generations. The experience of Van Mons and other breeders of apples
shows that the limit of size and lusciousness may be soon attained.
Vilmorin's experiments with wild carrots and those of Carriere with
radishes lead to the same conclusion as regards roots. Improvements of
flowers in [807] size and color are usually easy and rapid in the
beginning, but an impassable limit is soon reached. Numerous other
instances could be given.
Contrasted with these simple cases is the method of selecting sugar
beets. More than once I have alluded to this splendid example of the
influence of man upon domestic races, and tried to point out how little
support it affords to the current scientific opinion concerning the
power of natural selection. For this reason it is interesting to see how
a gradual development of the methods of selection has been, from the
very outset, one of the chief aims of the breeders. None of them doubts
that an improvement of the method alone is adequate to obtain results.
This result, in the main, is the securing of a few percent more of
sugar, a change hardly comparable with that progress in evolution, which
our theories are destined to explain.
Vilmorin's original method was a very simple one. Polarization was still
undiscovered in his time. He determined the specific weight of his
beets, either by weighing them as a whole, or by using a piece cut from
the base of the roots and deprived of its bark, in order to test only
the sugar tissues. The pieces were floated in solutions of salt, which
were diluted until the pieces [808] began to sink. Their specific weight
at that moment was determined and considered to be a measure of the
corresponding value of the beet. This principle was afterwards improved
in two ways. The first was a selection after the salt solution method,
but performed on a large scale. After some few determinations, a
solution was made of such strength as to allow the greater number of the
beets to float, and only the best to sink down. In large vessels
thousands of beets could be tested in this way, to select a few of the
very heaviest. The other improvement was the determination of the
specific weight of the sap, pressed out from the tissue. It was more
tedious and more expensive, but more direct, as the influence of the air
cavities of the tissue was excluded. It prepared the way for
polarization.
This was introduced about the year 1874 in Germany, and soon became
generally accepted. It allowed the amount of sugar to be measured
directly, and with but slight trouble. Thousands of beets could be
tested yearly by this method, and the best selected for the production
of seed. In some factories a standard percentage is determined by
previous inquiries, and the mass of the beets is tested only by it. In
others the methods of taking samples and clearing the sap have been
improved so far as to allow the [809] exact determination of three
hundred thousand polarization values of beets within a few weeks. Such
figures give the richest material for statistical studies, and at once
indicate the best roots, while they enable the breeder to change his
standard in accordance with the results at any time. Furthermore they
allow the mass of the beets to be divided into groups of different
quality, and to produce, besides the seeds for the continuation of the
race, a first class and second-class product and so on. In the factory
of Messrs. Kuhn & Co., at Naarden, Holland, the grinding machine has
been markedly improved, so as to tear all cell walls asunder, open all
cells, and secure the whole of the sap within less than a minute, and
without heating.
It would take too long to go into further details, or to describe the
simultaneous changes that have been applied to the culture of the elite
strains. The detailed features suffice to show that the chief care of
the breeder in this case is a continuous amelioration of the method of
selecting. It is manifest that the progression of the race is in the
main due to great technical improvements, and not solely to the
repetition of the selection.
Similar facts may be seen on all the great lines of industrial
selection. An increasing appreciation [810] of all the qualities of the
selected plants is the common feature. Morphological characters, and the
capacity of yielding the desired products, are the first points that
strike the breeder. The relation to climate and the dependence on manure
soon follow; but the physiological and chemical sides of the problem are
usually slow of recognition in the methods of selection. When visiting
Mr. de Vilmorin at Paris some years ago, I inspected his laboratory for
the selection of potatoes. In the method in use, the tubers were rubbed
to pulp and the starch was extracted and measured. A starch percentage
figure was determined for each plant, and the selection of the tubers
for planting was founded upon this result. In the same way wheat has
been selected by Dippe at Quedlinburg, first by a determination of its
nitrogenous contents in general, and secondly by the amount of the
substances which determine its value for baking purposes.
The celebrated rye of Schlanstedt was produced by the late Mr. Rimpau in
a similar manner and was put on the market between 1880 and 1890 and was
received with great favor throughout central Europe, especially in
Germany and in France. It is a tall variety, with vigorous stems and
very long heads, the kernels of which are nearly double the size of
those of the [811] ordinary rye, and are seen protruding, when ripe,
from between the scales of the spikelets. It is unfit for poor soils,
but is one of the very best varieties for soils of medium fertility in a
temperate climate. It is equal in the production of grain to the best
French sorts, but far surpassing them in its amount of straw. It was
perfected at the farm of Schlanstedt very slowly, according to the
current conceptions of the period. The experiment was started in the
year 1866, at which time Rimpau collected the most beautiful heads from
among his fields, and sowed their kernels in his experiment garden. From
this first culture the whole race was derived. Every year the best ears
of the strain were chosen for repeated culture, under experimental care,
while the remainder was multiplied in a field to furnish the seeds for
large and continually increasing areas of his farms.
Two or three years were required to produce the quantity of seed of each
kind required for all the fields of Schlanstedt. The experiment garden,
which through the kindness of Mr. Rimpau I had the good fortune of
visiting more than once between 1875 and 1878, was situated in the
middle of his farm, at some distance from the dwellings. Of course it
was treated with more care, and especially kept [812] in better
conditions of fertility than was possible for the fields at large. A
continued study of the qualities and exigencies of the elite plants
accompanied this selection, and gave the means of gradually increasing
the standard. Resistance against disease was observed and other
qualities were ameliorated in the same manner. Mr. Rimpau repeatedly
told me that he was most anxious not to overlook any single character,
because he feared that if any of them might become selected in the wrong
way, perchance unconsciously, the whole strain might suffer to such a
degree as to make all the other ameliorations quite useless. With this
purpose the number of plants per acre was kept nearly the same as those
in the fields, and the size of the culture was large enough every year
to include the best kernels of quite a number of heads. These were never
separated, and exact individual pedigrees were not included in the plan.
This mixture seemed to have the advantage of keeping up an average value
of the larger number of the characters, which either from their nature
or from their apparent unimportance had necessarily to be neglected.
After ten years of continuous labor, the rye of Rimpau caught the
attention of his neighbors, being manifestly better than that of
ordinary [813] sowings. Originally he had made his cultures for the
improvement of his own fields only. Gradually however, he began to sell
his product as seed to others, though he found the difference still very
slight. After ten years more, about 1886, he was able to sell all his
rye as seed, thereby making of course large profits. It is now
acknowledged as one of the best sorts, though in his last letter Mr.
Rimpau announced to me that the profits began to decline as other
selected varieties of rye became known. The limit of productiveness was
reached, and to surmount this, selection had to be begun again from some
new and better starting point.
This new starting point invokes quite another principle of selection, a
principle which threatens to make the contrast between artificial and
natural selection still greater. In fact it is nothing new, being in use
formerly in the selection of domestic animals, and having been applied
by Vilmorin to his sugar beets more than half a century ago. Why it
should ever have been overlooked and neglected in the selection of sugar
beets now is not clear.
The principle in itself is very simple. It agrees that the visible
characters of an animal or a plant are only an imperfect measure for
its hereditary qualities, instead of being the real criterion to be
relied upon, as is the current belief. [814] It further reasons that a
direct appreciation of the capacity of inheritance can only be derived
from the observation of the inheritance itself. Hence it concludes that
the average value of the offspring is the only real standard by which
to judge the representatives of a race and to found selection upon.
These statements are so directly opposed to views prevalent among plant
breeders, that it seems necessary to deal with them from the theoretical
and experimental, as well as from the practical side.
The theoretical arguments rest on the division of the fluctuating
variability into the two large classes of individual or embryonic, and
of partial deviations. We have dealt with this division at some length
in the previous lecture. It will be apparent at once, if we choose a
definite example. Let us ask what is the real significance of the
percentage figure of a single plant in sugar beets. This value depends
in the first place, on the strain or family from which the beet has been
derived, but this primary point may be neglected here, because it is the
same for all the beets of any lot, and determines the average, around
which all are fluctuating.
The deviation of the percentage figure of a single beet depends on two
main groups of external [815] causes. First come those that have
influenced the young germs of the plant during its most sensitive
period, when still an embryo within the ripening seed. They give a new
limitation to the average condition, which once and forever becomes
fixed for this special individual. In the second place the young
seedling is affected during the development of its crown of leaves, and
of its roots, by numerous factors, which cannot change this average, but
may induce deviations from it, increasing or decreasing the amount of
sugar, which will eventually be laid down in the root. The best young
beet may be injured in many ways during periods of its lifetime, and
produce less sugar than could reasonably be expected from it. It may be
surpassed by beets of inferior constitution, but growing under more
favorable circumstances.
Considered from this point of view the result of the polarization test
is not a single value, but consists of at least two different factors.
It may be equal to the algebraic sum of these, or to their difference,
according to whether the external conditions on the field were locally
and individually favorable or unfavorable. A large amount of sugar may
be due to high individual value, with slight subsequent deviation from
it, [816] or to a less prominent character combined with an extreme
subordinate deviation.
Hence it is manifest that even the results of such a highly improved
technical method do not deserve the confidence usually put in them. They
are open to doubt, and the highest figures do not really indicate the
best representatives of the race. In order to convey this conception to
you in a still stronger manner, let us consider the partial variability
as it usually shows itself. The various leaves of a plant may noticeably
vary in size, the flowers in color, the fruits in flavor. They fluctuate
around an average, which is assumed to represent the approximate value
of the whole plant. But if we were allowed to measure only one leaf, or
to estimate only one flower or fruit, and be compelled to conclude from
it the worth of the whole plant, what mistakes we could make! We might
indeed hit upon an average case, but we might as easily get an extreme,
either in the way of increase or of decrease. In both cases our judgment
would be badly founded. Now who can assure us that the single root of a
given beet is an average representative of the partial variability? The
fact that there is only one main root does not prove anything. An annual
plant has only one stem, but a perennial species has many. The average
height of the last is a [817] reliable character, but the casual height
of the former is very uncertain.
So it is with the beets. A beet may be divided by its buds and give
quite a number of roots, belonging to the same individual. These
secondary roots have been tested for the amount of sugar, and found to
exhibit a manifest degree of variability. If the first root corresponded
to their average, it might be considered as reliable, but if not anyone
will grant that an average is more reliable than a single determination.
Deviations have as a fact been observed, proving the validity of our
assertion. These considerations at once explain the disappointment so
often experienced by breeders. Some facts may be quoted from the Belgian
professor of agriculture at Gembloux, the late Mr. Laurent. He selected
two beets, from a strain, with the exceptional amount of 23% sugar, but
kept their offspring separate and analyzed some 60 of each. In both
groups the average was only 11-12%, the extremes not surpassing 14-15%.
Evidently the choice was a bad one, notwithstanding the high
polarization value of the parent. Analogous cases are often observed,
and my countrymen, Messrs. Kuhn & Co., go so far as to doubt all
excessive variants, and to prefer beets with high, but less
extraordinary percentages. Such are to be had in larger numbers [818]
and their average has a good chance of exemption from a considerable
portion of the doubts adhering to single excessive cases.
It is curious to note here what Louis de Vilmorin taught concerning this
point in the year 1850. I quote his own words: "I have observed that in
experiments on heredity it is necessary to individualize as much as
possible. So I have taken to the habit of saving and sowing separately
the seeds of every individual beet, and I have always found that among
the chosen parent plants some had an offspring with a better average
yield than others. At the end I have come to consider this character
only, as a standard for amelioration."
The words are clear and their author is the originator of the whole
method of plant breeding selection. Yet the principle has been
abandoned, and nearly forgotten under the impression that polarization
alone was the supreme guide to be relied upon. However, if I understand
the signs rightly, the time is soon coming when Vilmorin's experience
will become once more the foundation for progress in breeding.
Leaving the theoretical and historical aspects of the problem, we will
now recall the experimental evidence, given in a former lecture, dealing
with the inheritance of monstrosities. I have shown that in many
instances monstrosities [819] constitute double races, consisting of
monstrous and of normal individuals. At first sight one might be induced
to surmise that the monstrous ones are the true representatives of the
race, and that their seeds should be exclusively sown, in order to keep
the strain up to its normal standard. One might even suppose that the
normal individuals, or the so-called atavists, had really reverted to
the original type of the species and that their progeny would remain
true to this.
My experiments, however, have shown that quite the contrary is the case.
No doubt, the seeds of the monstrous specimens are trustworthy, but the
seeds of the atavists are not less so. Fasciated hawkweeds and twisted
teasels gave the same average constitution of the offspring from highly
monstrous, and from apparently wholly normal individuals. In other words
the fullest development of the visible characteristic was not in the
slightest degree an indication of better hereditary tendencies. In
unfavorable years a whole generation of a fasciated race may exhibit
exclusively normal plants, without transmitting a trace of this
deficiency to the following generation. As soon as the suitable
conditions return, the monstrosity reassumes its full development. The
accordance of these facts with the experience [820] of breeders of
domestic animals, and of Louis de Vilmorin, and with the result of the
theoretical considerations concerning the factors of fluctuation has led
me to suggest the method of selecting, which I have made use of in my
experiments with tricotyls and syncotyls.
Seedling variations afford a means of counting many hundreds of
individuals in a single germinating pan. If seed from one parent plant
is sown only in each pan, a percentage figure for the amount of
deviating seedlings may be obtained. These figures we have called the
hereditary percentages. I have been able to select the parent plants
after their death on the sole ground of these values. And the result has
been that from varieties which, on an average, exhibited 50-55%
deviating seedlings, after one or two years of selection this proportion
in the offspring was brought up to about 90% in most of the cases.
_Phacelia_ and mercury with tricotylous seedlings, and the Russian
sunflower with connate seed leaves, may be cited as instances.
Besides these tests, others were performed, based only on the visible
characters of the seedlings. The result was that this characteristic was
almost useless as a criterion. The atavists gave, in the main, nearly
the same hereditary percentages as the tricotyls and syncotyls, and
[821] their extremes were in each case far better constituted than the
average of the chosen type. Hence, for selection purposes, the atavists
must be considered to be in no way inferior to the typical specimens.
If it had been possible to apply this principle to twisted and fasciated
plants, and perhaps even to other monstrosities, I think that it will
readily be granted that the chance of bringing even these races up to a
percentage of 90% would have been large enough. But the large size of
the cultures required for the counting of numerous groups of offspring
in the adult state has deterred me from making such trials. Recently
however, I have discovered a species, _Viscaria oculata_ which allows of
counting twisted specimens in the pans, and I may soon be able to obtain
proofs of this assertion. The validity of the hereditary percentage as a
standard of selection has, within the last few years, been recognized
and defended by two eminent breeders, W.A. Hays in this country and Von
Lochow in Germany. Both of them have started from the experience of
breeders of domestic animals. Von Lochow applied the principle to rye.
He first showed how fallacious the visible characters often are. For
instance the size of the kernels is often dependent on their number in
the head, and if this number is [822] reduced by the injurious varietal
mark of lacunae (Luckigkeit), the whole harvest will rapidly deteriorate
by the selection of the largest kernels from varieties which are not
quite free from this hereditary deficiency.
In order to estimate the value of his rye plants, he gathers the seed of
each one separately and sows them in rows. Each row corresponds to a
parent plant and receives 200 or 150 seeds, according to the available
quantity. In this way from 700 to 800 parent plants are tested yearly.
Each row is harvested separately. The number of plants gives the average
measure of resistance to frost, this being the only important cause of
loss. Then the yield in grain and straw is determined and calculated,
and other qualities are taken into consideration. Finally one or more
groups stand prominent above all others and are chosen for the
continuation of the race. All other groups are wholly excluded from the
"elite," but among them the best groups and the very best individuals
from lesser groups are considered adequate for further cultivation, in
order to produce the commercial product of the race.
As a matter of fact the rye of Von Lochow is now one of the best
varieties, and even surpasses the celebrated variety of Schlanstedt. It
was only after obtaining proof of the validity [823] of his method that
Von Lochow decided to give it to the public.
W.M. Hays has made experiments with wheat at the Minnesota Agricultural
Experiment Station. He chose a hundred grains as a proper number for the
appreciation of each parent plant, and hence has adopted the name of
"centgener power" for the hereditary percentage.
The average of the hundred offspring is the standard to judge the parent
by. Experience shows at once that this average is not at all
proportional to the visible qualities of the parent. Hence the
conclusion that the yield of the parent plant is a very uncertain
indication of its value as a parent for the succeeding generation. Only
the parents with the largest power in the centgener of offspring are
chosen, while all others are wholly discarded. Afterwards the seeds of
the chosen groups are propagated in the field until the required
quantities of seed are obtained.
This centgener power, or breeding ability, is tested and compared for
the various parent plants as to yield, grade, and percentage of
nitrogenous content in the grain, and as to the ability of the plant to
stand erect, resist rust, and other important qualities. It is evident
that by this test of a hundred specimens a far better [824] and much
more reliable determination can be made than on the ground of the
minutest examination of one single plant. From this point of view the
method of Hays commands attention. But the chief advantage lies in the
fact that it is a direct proof of that which it is desired to prove,
while the visible marks give only very indirect information.
Thus the results of the men of practice are in full accordance with
those of theory and scientific experiment, and there can be little doubt
that they open the way for a rapid and important improvement. Once
attained, progress however, will be dependent on the selection
principle, and the hereditary percentage, or centgener power or breeding
ability, must be determined in each generation anew. Without this the
race would soon regress to its former condition.
To return to our starting point, the comparison of artificial and
natural selection. Here we are at once struck by the fact that it is
hardly imaginable, how nature can make use of this principle. In some
measure the members of the best centgener will manifestly be at an
advantage, because they contain more fit specimens than the other
groups. But the struggle for existence goes on between individuals, and
not between groups of brethren against groups of [825] cousins. In every
group the best adapted individuals will survive, and soon the breeding
differences between the parents must vanish altogether. Manifestly they
can, as a rule, have no lasting result on the issue of the struggle far
existence.
If now we remember that in Darwin's time this principle, breeding
ability, enjoyed a far more general appreciation than at present, and
that Darwin must have given it full consideration, it becomes at once
clear that this old, but recently revived principle, is not adequate to
support the current comparison between artificial and natural selection.
In conclusion, summing up all our arguments, we may state that there is
a broad analogy between breeding selection in the widest sense of the
word, including variety testing, race improvement and the trial of the
breeding ability on one side, and natural selection on the other. This
analogy however, points to the importance of the selection between
elementary species, and the very subordinate role of intraspecific
selection in nature. It strongly supports our view of the origin of
species by mutation instead of continuous selection. Or, to put it in
the terms chosen lately by Mr. Arthur Harris in a friendly criticism of
my views: "Natural selection may explain the survival [826] of the
fittest, but it cannot explain the arrival of the fittest."
A
_Abies concolor fastigiata_, 618
_Acacia_, 176, 196, 217, 458, 697
bastard, 343, 617, 618, 664, 665, 666
_Acer compestre nanum_, 612
_Achillea millefolium_, 131, 132, 441
Adaptation, 702
double, 430, 451, 452, 454, 455, 457, 458, 642
_Aegilops ovata_, 265
_speltaeformis_, 265
_Agave vivipara_, 684
_Ageratum coeruleum_, 612
_Agrostemma Coronaries bicolor_, 125
_Githago_, 282
_nicaeensis_, 162
_Agrotis_, 204
Alder, cut-leaved, 147, 596
Alfalfa, 264
Algae, 699
Allen, Grant, 237
_Alliaria_, 638
_Alnus glutinosa laciniata_, 615
Alpine plants, 437, 695, 794
_Althaea_, 490
Amaranth, 282, 452
_Amaranthus caudatus_, 282
_Amaryllis_, 272, 275, 762
brasiliensis_, 275
leopoldi_, 275
pardina_, 275
psittacina_, 275
vittata_, 275
Amen-Hotep, 697
_Ampelopsis_, 239
_Amygdalus persica laevis_, 126
_Anagallis arvensis_, 162
_Androsace_, 634
_Anemone_, 266, 331
_coronaria_, 241, 491
var. "Bride," 510
_magellanica_, 266
_sylvestris_, 266
_Anemone_, garden, 241
Annee, 760
Anomalies, taxonomic, 658, 685
_Anthemis_, 236
_nobilis_, 130
_Anthurium scherzerianum_, 639
_Antirrhinum majus_, 315
_luteum rubro-striatum_, 315
Apetalous flowers, 622
Apples, 134, 240, 328, 454, 806
elementary species, 75
method of cultivating, 76
origin of cultivated varieties, 73
use by the Romans, 74
"Wealthy," 78, 79
wild, 73, 74, 75, 76
_Aquilegia chrysantha_, 161
_Arabis ciliata glabrata_
_hirsuta glaberrima_, 126
_Aralia crassifolia_, 662
Arbres fruitiers ou Pomonomie belge, 76
_Aralia papyrifera_, 662
Arctic flora, 695
_Arnica_, 494
_montana_, 236
Aroids, 222, 631, 639
Artemisias, 131
Artificial selection, 18, 71, 77, 93, 95, 743, 744, 798, 826
first employed, 72, 92
nature of, 19
_Arum maculatum immaculatum_, 125
Ascidia, 310, 366, 367, 427, 428, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673,
674, 675
Ash, 135, 341
one-bladed, 666, 667
weeping, 196, 596
Ashe, 343
Aster, 132, 152, 242
seashore, 200, 282
_Aster Tripolium_, 132, 200, 236, 282, 410
_Astragalus alpinus_, 696
Atavism, 154, 170, 172, 175, 176, 178, 182, 185, 187, 188,
198, 220, 222, 226, 235, 344, 354, 399, 405, 411,
660, 661
bud, 183, 226
definition of, 170, 631
false, 185, 187
negative, 344
positive, 344
seed, 176
systematic, 174, 222, 630-657
Atavists, 156, 201
heredity of, 412
_Atropa Belladonna lutea_, 592
_Aubretia_, 241
_Avena fatua_, 100, 207
_Azalea_, 178, 322
_Azolla caroliniana_, 239
B
Babington, _Manual of British Botany_, 36,
Bailey, 78, 306, 684
Balsams, 334
Bananas, 90, 134
Banyan, 244
Barberry, 133, 180
European, 270
purple, 596
_Barbarea vulgaris_, 427
Barley, 98, 105, 133, 203, 678, 679
"Nepaul," 203, 676, 677, 679, 681, 682
Bastard-acacia, 133, 136, 140
Bateson, 250
Bauhin, Caspar, 72, 610
Baumann, 618
Beans, 90, 152, 327, 727, 735
Bedstraw, 648
Beech, 133, 135, 242
cut-leaved, 179, 196, 616
laciniated, 196
oak-leaved, 595
purple, 196, 593, 595
Beeches, 427
fern-leaved, 147
Beets, 68, 72, 92, 93, 792, 796, 801, 815, 817, 818
Californian, 796
European, 796
forage, 71, 72, 791
salad, 71
Beet-sugar, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 109, 165, 717, 791, 807,
813, 814
_Begonia_, 218, 366, 509, 765
ever-flowering, 148
tuberous, 272
_clarkii_, 272
_davisii_, 272
_rosiflora_, 272
_sedeni_, 273
_semperflorens_, 133, 148, 620
_Begonia_
bulbous, 372
_veitchi_, 272
Behrens, 804
Belladonna, 145
_Bellis perennis_, 236
_perennis plena_, 195
Bentham, 237
Bentham & Hooker, _Handbook of British Flora_, 36
_Berberis_, 133, 180, 455
_ilicifolia_, 270
_vulgaris_, 270
Bertin, 596
_Berula angustifolia_, 457
Bessey, 660
_Beta maritima_, 69
_patula_, 69, 70
_vulgaris_, 69, 70
_Betula_, 132
Between-race, 358
Bewirkung, Theorie der directen (Nageli), 448
_Biastrepsis_, 402
_Bidens_, 131
_atropurpurea_, 131
_cernua_, 131, 158
_leucantha_, 131
_tripartite_, 131
Bilberries, 577
Bindweed, 41924
Binomium, of Newton, 767
Birch, 133, 243
cut-leaved, 596, 616
fastigiate, 618
fern-leaved, 179
_Bisoutella_, 282
_laevigata glabra_, 125
Bitter-sweet, 125
Blackberry, 268, 768
"Paradox," 769
Blue-bells, variation in, 54, 491, 577
Blueberries, 769
Blue-bottle, 499, 507, 509, 510
Blueflag, atavism of, 172
_Boehmeria_, 675
_bilboa_, 685
Bonnier, 439, 441, 442, 444, 451, 795
Boreau, 663
Brambles, 126, 127, 147, 239, 244, 245, 268, 740,
769, 663
_Brassica_, 244
Braun, 738
Braun and Schimper, 494
Bread-fruits, 90
Briot, 618
Britton and Brown's Flora, 162
Brooks, 711
Broom, 140
prickly, 217
Broom-rape, 220
_Broussonetia papyifera dissecta_, 616
_Brunella_, 146, 268
_vulgaris_, 577
_vulgaris alba_, 201
_Bryophyllum calycinum_, 218
Buckwheat, 452
Bud-variation, 750
Buds, adventitious, 218
Burbank, Luther, 57, 79, 116, 134, 268, 758, 768,
769, 784
Buttercup, 331, 357, 410, 725, 740
Asiatic, 241
C
Cabbages, 428, 684
atavism in, 638
origin of varieties, 621
Cactuses, 444
Cactus-dahlia, 625
_Calamintha Acinos_, 437, 452
Calamus root, 222
_Calendula officinalis_, 502
_Calliopsis tinctoria_, 195
_Calluna_, 146
_vulgaris_, 437, 577
_Caltha_, 490
_palustris_, 331
_Camelina_, 684
_Camellia_, 178, 323
_japonica_, 368
Camellias, 331
Camomile, 130, 132, 156, 366, 494, 503, 509, 512
_Campanula persicifolia_, 151, 234
_rotundifolia_, 437
Campion, 283, 302, 304
evening, 281
red, 238
_Canna_, 751, 759, 761
_indica_, 760
"Madame Crozy," 760, 761
_nepalensis_, 760
_warczewiczii_, 760
_Capsella Bursa-pastoris apetala_, 585
_heegeri_, 22, 582, 583, 684
_Carex_, 53
Carnation, 178, 241, 491
wheat-ear, 227
_Carpinus Betulus heterophylla_, 180
Carriere, 491, 596, 612, 806
Carrots, 806
Catch-fly, 419
Carboniferous period, 699
_Casuarina quadrivalvis_, 649
Cauliflowers, origin of, 621
Caumzet, 614
Causation, theory of direct, (Nageli), 448
Cedar, pyramidal, 618
Celandine, 147, 245, 280, 365
oak-leaved, 603, 610, 611
_Celosia_, 621
_Celosia cristata_, 327, 411
_Centaurea_, 242
Centgener power, 20, 822
_Centranthus macrosiphon_, 424
_Cephalotaxus_, 170, 226
_pedunculata fastigiata_, 169
Cereals, 105, 106, 107, 119, 801, 804
origin of cultivation, 104
Character-units, 632
Charlock, 424
_Cheiranthus_, 490
_Cheiri_, 370
_Cheiri gynantherus_, 371
_Chelidonium laciniatum_, 22, 609
_majus_, 147, 365, 600, 610, 611
_majus foliis quernis_, 610
Cherries, 79
Cherry, bird's, 617
Chestnuts, 427
Chromosomes, 306
_Chrysanthemum_, 178, 274
corn, 739
_Chrysanthemum carinatum_, 494
_coronarium_, 161, 202, 510
_grandiflorum_, 739
_imbricatum_, 494
_indicum_, 490
_inodorum_, 503
_inodorum plenissimum_, 336
new double, 501
_segetum_, 202, 493, 504, 729
_segetum_, var. _grandiflorum_, 43, 495, 498, 504,
504
_Chrysopogon montanus_, 450
Cieslar, 804
_Cineraria cruenta_, 514
Cinquefoil, 52
_Clarkia_, 420
_elegans_, 198
_pulchella_, 282
_pulchella carnea_, 162
_Clematis Vitalba_, 662
_Viticella nana_, 612
Clover, 80, 102, 674
crimson (Italian), 353, 358, 359, 360
five-leaved, 340, 362, 374, 431, 509, 789
four-leaved, 340, 346, 352
red, 235, 281
white, 133, 366
Clusius, 610
_Cochlearia anglica_, 52
_danica_, 52
_officinalis_, 52
Coconut, 67, 82, 83, 87, 88, 89
dispersal of, 85, 89
geographic origin of, 88,89
Coconut-palm, 84, 88
Cockerell, T.D.A., 139, 140, 591
Cocklebur, 139
Cockscomb, 165, 327, 356, 411, 621
_Cocos nucifera stupposa_, 83, 84
_cupuliformis_, 82
_rutila_, 82
_Codiaeum appendicularum_, 673
_Colchicum_, 490
_Coleus_, 132
Columbine, 725
yellow, 161
Columbus, 89, 118
Columella, 106
Composites, 130, 131, 336, 723, 778
Conifers, 168, 226, 239, 455
weeping, 617
Connation, of petals, 660, 661
"Conquests," 242
Contra-selection, 425
Cook, 84, 86, 88, 89
Corn, 81, 90, 118, 119, 135, 283, 287, 288, 775,
786, 788, 804
American, 205
Corn-cockle, 162
Corn-chrysanthemum, 739
Corn-flowers, 491, 92
Corn, "Forty-day," 118
"Harlequin," 327
sterile variety of, 622
sugar, 135, 158
"Tuscarora," 205
Corn-marigold, 493, 494
Cornel berry, yellow, 196
Cornaceae, 675
_Cornu_, 338
_Cornus Mas_, 196
Correlation, 142
_Corylus_, 133
_Avellana_, 181
_tubulosa_, 181
Cotton, 725
Cotyledon, 674
variation in, 416
_Crambe maritima_, 621
Cranesbill, 599
European, 628
meadow, 322
_Crataegus_, 196
_oxyacantha_, 132
Crowfoot, 331
corn, 283
_Crepis biennis_, 410, 411
Cress, Indian, 192
Crosses
bisexual, 255, 276, 294, 298
reciprocal, 279
unisexual, 255, 261
varietal (see Hybrids)
_Croton_, 673, 674
Crozy, 760, 762
Crucifers, 222, 635
_Cryptomeria_, 169, 226
_japonica_, 239
Cucumbers, 118
_Cucumis_, 52
_Cucurbita_, 52
Cultivated plants, 65, 66
elementary species of, 62
improvement of, 92
mixed nature of, 96, 118
origin of, 91
Currants, 79
Californian, 270
flowering, 166
"Gordon's," 270
Missouri, 270
white, 158
white-flowered, 167
Cuttings, 721
_Cyclamen_, 323, 355, 627, 684
Butterfly, 627
_vernum_, 619
_Cypripedium caudatum_, 487
_Cytisus adami_, 271
_candicans Attleyanus_, 367
_Laburnum_, 271
_prostratus_, 139
_prostratus ciliata_, 125
_purpureus_, 271
_spinescens_, 139
D
_Dahlia_, 131, 241, 272, 625
cactus, 625
"Jules Chretien," 628
purple-leaved, 626
"surprise," 230
tubular, 627
[sic] 274, 490, 764
first double ones, 490
green, 227, 229, 230
Daisies, 131, 132, 494
double, 195
hen-and-chicken, 514
ox-eye, 202
Shasta, 769
yellow, 202
Dandelion, 411
parthenogenesis, 61
variations in, 60
Daphne Mezereum, 146
Darwin, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 18, 76, 85, 93, 109,
110, 180, 196, 205, 206, 242, 306, 324, 338,
448, 571, 604, 612, 689, 702, 710, 715, 743,
798, 825
Darwin, George, 711
Darwinian theory, 461
basis of, 5
Date, 134
_Datura Stramonium_, 139, 142
_Stramonium inermis_, 300
_Tatula_, 139, 142, 300
Dead-nettle, 237
De Bary, 38, 47, 49
De Candolle, 76, 84, 85, 89, 228, 370, 403, 621
Alphonse, 74, 129, 226
A.P., 129
Casimir, 659, 676
De Graaff, 275
_Delphinium Ajacis_, 192
Deniau, 617
Descent, theory of, 690, 694, 702, 707, 716, 798
De Serres, Olivier, 72
_Desmodium gyrans_, 655, 656, 663, 664, 65
Dewberry, California, 269
_Dianthus barbatus_, 322, 648
twisted variety, 408
Diatoms, 699
Dictoyledons
ancestors of monocotyledons, 15
_Digitalis parviflora_, 161, 640
_purpurea_, 483
pelorism of, 482
Dimorphism, 445, 447, 454, 457, 458
Dippe, 810
_Dipsacus fullonum_, 402
sylvestris_, 402, 402
Dominant character, 280
Double flowers
poppies 490
production of, 489
types of, 330
Double races (see also ever-sporting varieties),
419, 427, 428
Dubois, Eugene, 712
Duchesne, 185, 188, 596
Duckweed, 222
_Draba_, 692, 693
verna, 47, 50, 51, 53, 125, 126, 518, 533,
546, 547, 561
_Dracocephalum moldavicum_, 419
Dragon-head, 419
_Drosera anglica_, 268
_filiformis_, 268
_intermedia_, 268
_obovata_, 267
_rotundifolia_, 268
E
Earth, age of, 710
Edelweiss, 438
Eichler, 660
Election, 801
Electric light, growth in, 442
Elementary species, 11, 13, 32, 67, 74, 76, 77,
78, 79, 91, 95, 116, 119, 124, 126, 128, 129,
207, 238, 252, 256, 307, 430, 435, 695, 696,
698, 702, 715, 787, 798, 800, 825
apples, 75
coconut, 82
corn, 81
cultivated plants, 62
definition of, 12, 35, 127
flax, 80
how produced, 16, 248
hybrids of, 253, 255
mutation of, 141
origin of, 459, 603
origin of, how studied, 463
selection of, 92
varieties vs., 14, 15, 141, 152, 224, 243,
247, 251, 495
Elm, 136, 219, 239, 427
_Epilobium_, 268
_hirsutum_, 683
_hirsutum cruciatum_, 588
_montanum_, 269
_tetragonum_, 269
_Equisetum Telmateja_, 642, 649
_Erica Tetralix_, 577, 661
Ericaceae, 146, 660
_Erigeron _Asteroides_, 450
_canadensis_, 132, 236, 453, 600, 695
_Erodium_, 146
_cicutarium album_, 161
_Erucastrum_, 630, 638, 639
_pollichii_, 222, 637
_Eryngium campestre_, 674
_maritimum_, 674
_Erysimum cheiranthoides_, 638
_Erythraea pulchella_, 452
_Erythrina_, 621
_Crista-galli_, 620
Eschcholtzias, 59
Esimpler, 337
_Eucalyptus citriodora_, 669
_Globulus_, 217
_Euphorbia Ipecacuanha_, 55
Evening-primrose, 62, 204, 256, 424, 686, 687,
688, 690, 691, 694, 695, 699, 702, 703,
705, 707, 708, 713, 747, 793
Evolution, 93, 685, 686, 689, 704, 707, 709,
710, 713, 718
degressive, 222, 223, 249
progression in, 630
progressive, 221, 222, 223, 248
regression in, 630
regressive, 221, 222; 223, 24
retrograde, 221, 631
Extremes, asexual multiplication of, 742, 769
F
Fabre, 265
_Fagus_, 133
_Fagus sylvatica pectinata_, 179
Fan, genealogical, 700
Fasciated stems, 409, 412
Ferns, 63
cristate, 427
plumose, 427
_Ficaria_, 53
_Ficus radicans_, 436
_religiosus_, 244
_repens_, 436
_stipulata_, 436
_ulmifolia_, 436
Figs, 436
_Filago_, 52
Fir, 134, 804
Fittest, survival of, 826
Flax, 80, 805
springing, 80
threshing, 80
white-flowered, 158, 160
Fleabane, Canada, 132, 236
Flowers, gamopetalous, 660
Fluctuability
embryonic, see Fluctuation, individual
Fluctuation, 708, 715, 716, 718, 719, 724, 737, 741
curves of, 729, 794
defined, 191
individual, 718, 723, 732, 741, 745, 749, 788
mutation vs. 7, 16, 719
partial, 718, 723, 732, 741, 745, 748, 749,
771
inadequate for evolution, in elementary species,
19
nature of, 18
specific and varietal characters vs. 17
Forget-me-not, 368
Fothergill, John, 521
Foxglove, 163
peloric, 164, 356, 367
yellow, 161, 640
_Fraxinus excelsior monophylla_, 667
_exheterophylla_, 667
_simplici folio_, 667
French flora (Grenier and Godron), 433
Fries
on _Hieracium_, 60
Frostweed, 440
species of, 52
_Fuchsia_, 272, 355
Fuchsias, 491
G
Gaertner, 279
_Galeopsis Ladanum canescens_, 139
_Galium_, 648
_Aparine_, 409, 648
_elatum_, 52
_erectum_, 52
_Mollugo_, 62
_verum_, 648
Gallesio, 138
Galton, 736, 776
Gamopetaly, 662
Garden-pansy, origin of, 38
Garlic, 638
Gauchery, 452
Geikie, 711
Genera
artificial character of, 36
polymorphous, 692
_Gentiana punctata concolor_, 125
Gentians, 577
Georgics (Vergil), 106
_Geranium pratense_, 323, 628
_album_, 628
_pyreniacum_, 599
German flora (Koth), 432
Geum, 282
Gherkins, 118
Gideon, Peter M., 78
Glacial period, 696
_Gladiolus_, 241, 272, 274, 368, 765
_cardinalis_, 275
_gandavensis_, 275
_psittacinus_, 275
_purpureo-auratus_, 275
_Glaucium_, 241
_Gleditschia sinensis_, 614
_triacanthos pendula_, 617
_Gloxinia_, 282, 485
erect, 626
_Gloxinia erecta_, 485
peloric variety, 485
_Gnaphalium Leontopodium_, 438
_Godetia amoena_, 161
Godetias, 59, 232
Godron, 265, 432
Goeppert, 370
Gooseberry, 79, 140, 626
red, 133, 165, 241
Grapes, 90, 158, 328
Grape-hyacinth, _plumosa_, 134
Grasses, 102, 631, 681
Grenier, 433
Groundsel, 132
Growth, nutrition and, 714, 720, 722
Guelder-rose, 134, 239
Gum-tree, Australian, 217
_Gypsophila paniculata_
twisted variety, 409
H
Haeckel, 707
Half-races, 358, 372, 409, 419, 424, 427, 428
Hall, 444
Hallet, F.F., 109
Harebell, 232
peach-leaved, 234
Harris, Arthur, 825
Harshberger, John W., 591
on _Euphorbia_ in New Jersey, 55
Hawksbeard, 410, 411, 412
Hawkweed, 411, 439, 443, 819
Hawkweeds
seeding without fertilization, 61
Hawthorn, white, 132
Hays, W.M.
on individual selection, 20, 94, 95, 117,
821, 823, 824
Hazelnut, 133, 181, 242
Hazels, cut-leaved, 596,-616
Heath family, 146, 222, 660
Heaths, origin of, 662
Heather, 577
_Hedera Helix arborea_, 437
Hedgehog burweed, 140
_Hedys_Arum_, 664
Heeger, 582
Heer, Oswald, 74, 105
Heinricher, 172, 173, 174
_Helianthemum_, 53, 125, 126, 561
_apenninum_, 52
_pilosum_, 52
_polifolium_, 52
_pulverulentum_, 52
_vulgare_, 440
_Helichrysum_, 420
_Helwingia_, 678, 678, 682
_rusciflora_, 675
Hemp, 419
Henbane, 282
_Hepatica_, 322, 490
Heredity, 731, 734, 818
bearers of, 632
in teasels, 642
_Hesperis_, 241, 322
_matronalis_, 323, 411
_Heylandia latebrosa_, 450
_Hibiscus Moscheutos_, 591
_Hieracium_, 59, 439
_alpinum_, 696
Hildebrand, 160, 240, 241
Hoffman, 160, 662
Hofmeister, 160, 370, 480
Holbein, 164, 596
Holly, 140, 196
Holtermann, 449, 451
Hollyhock, 427
Honeysuckle, 674
ground, 443
_Hordeum distichum_, 677
_hexastichum_, 677, 678
_tetrastichum_, 677
_trifurcatum_, 676, 678
_vulgare trifurcatum_, 203
Hornbeam, European, 180
Horse-chestnut, 219
thornless, 234
Horsetail, Canadian, 695
European, 649
Horsetail, family, 641
Horse-weed, 132
Canadian, 452
_Hortensia_, 134, 181
Horticulture, mutations in, 604
Houseleek, 370, 371
Hunneman, John, 521
Hyacinths, 178, 322
white, 160
Hybrids, 58, 201, 202, 206, 250, 575
between elementary species, 253
constant, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269
law of varietal, 716
Mendelian, 324
nature of, 20
species, 256, 260
splitting of, 210
varietal, 208, 209, 247, 277, 278, 279, 281,
285, 293, 294
Hybridization, 706, 751, 752, 758, 759, 764
_Hydrocotyle_, 668
_Hyoscyamus niger_, 282
_pallidus_, 283
_Hypericum perforatum_, 725
_Hyssopus officinalis_, 161
I
_Iberis umbellata rosea_, 195
Improved races, inconstancy of 770-797
Indian cress, 668
pelorism of, 485
Indian pipe, 661
Ipecac spurge, 55
_Iris_, 456
_falcifolis_, 172
_kaempferi_, 174
_lortetii_, 521
_pallida_, 172
_pallida abavia_, 681
Isolation, 108
Ivy, 436
J
Jacob's ladder, 200, 202
Jacques, 614
Jacquin, 52, 632
Jaggi, 594, 595
Jaeger, 228, 662
Jalappa, 165
Janczewski, 266
Japanese plum, 58
_Jasminum Sambac_, 662
Joly, 712
Jordan, Alexis, 45, 47, 49, 50, 129
experiments with species, 37, 40
_Juncus effusus spiralis_, 684
Juniper, 684
K
Kapteyn, 716
Kelvin, Lord, 720, 711
Kerner von Marilaun, 266, 267
Keteleer, 618
Knight, 390, 719, 720
Koch, 433, 667
Koelreuter, 279
Korshinsky, 609, 612, 614, 617, 667
Krelage, 510, 619
Kuhn & Co., Messrs., 801, 809, 817
L
_Labiates_, 237
pelories of, 577
_Labiatiflorae_, pelorism of, 468
Labrador tea, 661
_Laburnum_, 270, 284, 342
oak-leaved 147, 179
pelorism of, 485
_Lactuca_, 52
_Scariola_, 456
Lagasca, Mariano, 96, 97, 114
Lamarck, 1, 447, 461, 522, 522
Lamarckism
objections to, 449
_Lamium album_, 237
_maculatum_, 237
pelorism of, 486
_purpureum_, 237
Larch, 804
Larkspur, 124, 192, 311, 452
hybrid, 213
white, 160
Latency, 657
individual, 219
specific, 246
systematic, 219, 220, 235
varietal, 246
Latent characters, 216
_Lathyrus odoratus_, 776
_Laurea pinnatifida_, 450
Laurel, lady's, 146
Laurent, 802
Leaves, cleft, 685
variegated, 426, 431
LeBrun, Mme., 614
Le Couteur, 96, 97, 107, 108, 114, 115, 116, 742
_Ledum_, 222, 661
_Lemna_, 222
Lemoine, 762, 762
Lettuce, 684
crisped, 158
prickly, 456
Life, struggle for, 103, 119, 120
Lilacs, 59, 769
double, 762
_Lilium candidum flore pleno_, 331
_pardalium_, 116
Lime-tree, 355, 366, 428, 669
fern-leaved, 147
_Linaria_, 467, 471, 480
_dalmatica_, 482
_genistifolia_, 267
_italica_, 267
_vulgaris_, 267, 471
_vulgaris peloria_, 464
Lindley, 63, 129, 506
Linnaeus, 32, 33, 129, 132, 256, 663
on the idea of species, 11, 13
on origin of species, 2, 34
on primroses, 52
_Linum angustifolium_, 80
_crepitans_, 81
_usitatissimum_, 80, 161
Link, 466
Liver-leaf, 322
_Lobelia syphilitica_, 161
_Lonicera etrusca_, 640
_tartarica nana_, 614
Lorenz, Chr., 482
Lothelier, 454
_Lotus corniculatus_, 442
_corniculatus hirsutus_, 139
London, 615, 616, 667
Lucerne, 264
Ludwig, 738
Lupines, 90
_Lychnis_, 282
_chalcedonica_, 161
_diurna_, 238, 578
_preslii_, 578
_vespertina_, 238, 281, 585
_Lycium_, 455
_Lycopersicum_, 655
_grandifolium_, 654
_latifolium_ (see _L. grandifolium_).
_solanopsis_, 854, 656
_validum_ (see _L. solanopsis_).
Lyell, 1, 710
_Lysimachia vulgaris_, 684
M
MacDougal, D.T., 62, 575, 590
Macfarlane, 56, 255, 268
_Madia elegans_, 779
_Magnolia_, 355, 366, 428, 674, 675
_obovata_, 355, 669
_Magnus_, 228
_Mahonia aquifolia_, 270
Maize, 134, 775
"Cuzco," 152
European, 206
"Gracillima," 152
"Horse-dent," 152
"Quarantino," 118
Mallow, 663, 684
_Malva crispa_, 684
Maples, laciniate, 615
Marchant, 592
Marigold, 131, 158
corn, 729
field, 503, 505, 508
garden, 503
Japanese, 490, 494, 495
Marsh-marigold, 331
Martinet, 80
Measart, 434
Masters, 228, 370, 372
_Matricaria Chamomilla_, 130
_Chamomilla discoidea_, 156
Matricaria discoidea, D.C., 157
May-thorn, red, 196
_Medicago media_, 264
_falcata_, 264
_Melanium_, 39
Melons, 118
Mendel, 6, 210, 294, 296, 306, 308
Mendel's law, 276, 293, 294, 298, 299, 300, 301,
307, 612, 613, 616, 716
Mendelism, 307
Mentha, 52
_Mercurialis annua_, 420
_annua laciniata_, 592
Mercury, 420, 422, 425, 820
Methods of investigation, 21
Metzger, 205, 206
Milde, 38
Milfoil, 441
Millardet, 266
Miller, 611
Millet, 105
_Mimulus_, 151
_quinquevulnerus_, 725
_Mimusops_, 697
Miocene period, 698
Miquel, 83
_Mirabilis_, 241
_Jalappa_, 322
Mirbel, 615
_Monardella macrantha_, 444
Monstrosities, 400, 401, 445, 446, 447
Monkey-flower, 725
Monocotyledons
ancestry of, 1, 5
regression in, 630
_Monotropa_, 222, 661
Morphologic units, 145, 152
Monstrosities, 818
Morgan
on mutation-theory, 9
Morren, 244, 762
Mountain-ash, 342
Muller, Fritz, 775, 776, 780
Multiplication, vegetative (see Asexual propagation)
Munting, Abraham, 164, 165, 490, 762
Munting's drawings, 512
Murr, 158, 236
_Muscari comosam_, 134
Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 522
Mutability vs. fluctuating variability, 568
Mutation, 659, 674, 677, 685, 686, 694, 713, 716,
825
absence of intermediate steps in, 474, 480
conditions for observing, 601
decided within the seed, 28
definition of, 7
easily observed, 30
experimental, 688
few observations of, 8
fluctuation vs., 7, 16, 719
influence of on variability, 335
iterative nature of, 476, , 703
laws of, 556, 558, 560, 562, 564, 566, 568,
570
limited in time, 29
observation of, 16
in _Oenothera_, 521, 525, 690
oldest known, 609
oldest recorded, 22
periodic, 690, 692, 694
perodicity of, 519
progressive, 307
repetition of, 476
in _Saponaria calabrica_, 612
simultaneous, 614
in tomato, 655
Mutations, 141, 275, 280, 445, 449, 573, 608, 620,
626, 678, 685, 686, 701, 704, 712, 713, 716,
800
artificial, 402
chance for useful, 598
defined, 191
frequency of, 597
in garden-flowers, 488
in horticulture, 604, 706
latent, 703
mode of appearance, 517
numerical proportion of, 475
original production of, 702
peloric, 707
periodic, 686, 705
progressive, 704
retrograde, 704
stray, 704, 705, 706
synonyms of, 191
Mutation-period, 714
_Myosotis azorica_, 368
_Myrtus communis_, 684
N
Nageli, 60, 439, 443, 448, 795
Nagelian principle, 448, 450, 451
Natural selection, 18, 119, 120, 445, 456, 682,
694, 703, 743, 744, 798-826
basis, 604
nature of, 6, 19
Naudin, 118
Nectarines, 137, 138, 226, 627
Nemec, 578
Neo-Lamarckians
principle of, 8
Neo-Lamarckism 447
_Nepenthes_, 671, 672, 673, 674
Newton, 1, 732, 767
_Nicandra_, 152
_Nigella_, 134
Nightshade, 298
black, 282
Nourishment
meaning of, 732
variability and 771
_Nuphar_, 268
Nutrition and growth, 720, 722
_Nymphaea_, 698
O
Oats, 98, 100, 101, 105, 112, 113, 115, 119, 133,
452
"Early Angus," 115
"Early Fellow," 115
"Fine Fellow," 115
"Hopetown," 112
"Longfellow," 115
"Make-him-rich," 112
wild, 207, 803
Oak, 136, 239
_Oenothera_, 260, 262, 279, 700, 706, 708, 709
European species, source of, 575
mutation in, 521, 525, 585, 690, 708
new species of, 516-546
_albida_, 537, 553, 555, 563, 565, 573
_biennia_, 82, 205, 256, 257, 258; 259, 262,
263, 264, 521, 524, 527, 574, 575, 586,
587, 683, 690, 708
_biennis cruciata_, 22, 587
_brevistylis_, 263, 280, 526, 529, 530, 547,
563, 564, 565, 573, 574, 702, 706
_cruciata_, 575, 585, 586, 589, 590, 683
_elliptica_, 540, 545, 555, 562
_gigas_, 533, 534, 535, 536; 537, 553, 554,
563, 565, 566, 567, 573, 574, 702
_glauca_, 424
_hirtella_, 262
_laevifolia_, 526, 528, 529, 547, 563, 564,
573, 574, 701, 706
_lamarckiana_, 17, 262, 262, 522, 523, 527,
528, 529,, 533, 574, 575, 586, 690, 699
pollination of, 524
_lata_, 540, 541, 542, 549, 550, 551, 552,
555, 559, 563, 566, 573, 574, 702
_leptocarpa_, 540
_muricata_, 256, 257, 258, 259, 262, 263,
264, 513, 575, 690
pollination of, 524
_nanella_, 526, 531, 549, 50, 551, 552, 555,
563, 564, 565, 566, 703
_oblonga_, 537, 538, 552, 555, 563, 565, 566,
572
_rubrinervis_, 533, 534, 536, 537, 550, 551,
552, 555, 563, 565, 568, 573, 574
_scintillans_, 540, 543, 553, 555, 563, 566,
573, 574
mutability of, 544
_semilata_, 540
_suaveolens_, 521
_Oleander_, 684
_Onagra_, 262, 708, 709
Onions, wild, 684
_Ononis repens_, 577
Orange, 90, 133, 134
Orchids, 631
Origin of species (Darwin), 109
_Orobanche_, 220
_Othonna crassifolia_, 442
Otin, 618
Oviedo, 89
P
_Paeonia corallina leiocarpa_, 126
Paillat, 618
Pangenes, 306
Pangenesis, 306, 689
_Panicum_, 105
Pansies, 640
Pansy, 118, 121
_Papaver alpinum_, 139
_bracteatum_, 661
_bracteatum monopetalum_, 661
_commutatum_, 357
_dubium glabrum_, 126
hybridism, 662
_somniferum Danebrog, 162
_somniferum monstruosum_, 371
_somniferum polycephalum_, Parris, 754
Parsley
crisped, 158, 181
Parsnip, water, 457
Pea-family, 344
Peach, 138, 226, 240
Peach-almond, 769
Pears, 79, 90, 134, 147, 152, 203, 283
Pearson, Karl, 716
Peas, sugar, 135, 158
_Pedicularis_, 410
_palustris_, 410
Pedigree-culture, 109
experimental, 547
_Pelargonium_, 272, 355
Peloria, definition of, 164
Peloric toad-flax
first record of, 466
origin of, 459, 464, 472
sterility of, 467
Pelorism
_Antirrhinum majus_ (see snapdragon)
_Digitalis purpurea_, 482
_Gloxinia_, 484, 485
labiates, 486
_Laburnum_, 485
_Lamium_, 486.
_Linaria_, see Toad-flax
_Linaria dalmatica_, 482
_Linaria vulgaris_, 464
orchids, 479, 486, 487
_Salvia_, 486
_Scrophularia nodosa_, 486
snapdragon, 481
toad-flax, 459-487
_Tropaeolum majus_, 485
_Uropedium Lindenii_, 487
wild sage, 486
_Peltaria alliacea_, 663
Pennywort, marsh, 668
Penzig, 638
Periodicity, law of, 365, 368, 721, 722
Periods, mutative, 706, 708
Periwinkles, 322
Persicaria, water, 433, 434, 435, 643
Petalomany, 330
Petunia, 491, 626
_Phacelia_, 420, 422, 820
_Phaseolus lunatus_, 592
_multiflorus_, 202
_nanus_, 202
_Phleum alpinum_, 696
_Phlox_, 232
_drummondi_, 161
_Phyllonoma ruscifolia_, 676
Physiologic units, 144, 153, 249
_Picris hieraoioides_, 411
Pimpernel, scarlet, 162
Pinacothec, Munich, 164
Pine, 368, 804
Pine-apples, 90, 134
Pinks, 178
_Pinus sylvestris_, 368
Pistillody in poppies, 369, 370, 372
Pitcher-plants, 671
Plankton, 711
_Plantago_, 53
lanceolata_, 520, 671, 684
Plantain, 684
Plater, 610
Plum, 79, 134, 789
beach, 58
Japanese, 58
purple-leaved, 619
_Plusia_, 204
_Poa alpina vivipara_, 684
_Podocarpus koraiana_, 169
_Polemonium coeruleum_, 282
_coeruleum album_, 200
_dissectum_, 161, 202
_Polygala_, 242
_Polygonum amphibium_, 432
var. _natans_ Moench, 433, 434
var. _terrestris_ Wench, 433, 434
_Convolvulus_, 419, 424
_viviparum_, 684
Polymorphy, 188
Pomegranate, 90
Pond-lily, yellow, 268
Poplar, fastigiate, 623, 624
Italian, 623
_Populus italica_, 622
_nigra_, 624
Poppy, 146, 151, 152, 163, 165, 241, 356, 640,
723
"Danebrog," 283, 291
garden, 661
"Mephisto," 283, 291
opium, 89, 189, 195, 198, 282, 291, 369,
371, 373, 379, 383, 391, 405, 406, 420, 452,
720, 789
pistillody in, 369
pistilloid, 508
polycephalous, 405
Potatoes, 765, 810
_Potentilla Tormentilla_, 52
Pre-Linnean attitude, 2
Primrose, 268, 372, 410
evening (see evening-primrose).
_Primula acaulis_, 52, 632
_elatior_, 52, 633, 635
_grandiflora_, 268
_imperialis_, 697
_japonica_, 410
_officinalis_, 52, 268, 633, 635
_variabilis_, 268
_veris_, 52, 633, 634
Prodromus (De Candolle) 370
Progression, 430, 705, 774, 775, 777, 779, 805
in evolution, 630
Propagation
asexual, 745, 751, 766, 767, 770, 774, 777
sexual, 745, 777
vegetative (see asexual)
Proskowetz, Em. von, 70
Prototype
definition of, 170
_Prunus_, 52
_cerasifera_, 619
_Mahaleb_, 617
_nana_, 612
_maritima_, 59
_Padus_, 617
_Pissardi_, 619
variation in, 56
_Pyrethrum roseum_, 511
_Pyrola_, 222, 661
Q
Quartile, 736, 737, 767
_Quercus pedunculata fastigata_, 596
Quetelet's law, 463, 716, 717, 725, 730, 734,
738, 748, 753, 759, 767, 775, 779, 780, 806
R
Races, inconstancy of improved, 770-797
Raciborsky, 682
Radishes, 325, 806
Ragwort, tansy, 157
Raisins, 134
Rameses, 697
_Ranunculus_, 331
_acris_, 331
_arvensis_, 282
_arvensis inermis_, 125
_asiaticus_, ,241
_bulbosus_, 357, 410, 740
Ra-n-Woser, King, 104
_Raphanus Raphanistrum_, 202, 424,520
_caudatus_, 202
Rasor, John, 588, 589
Raspberry, 268, 768
"Phenomenal," 268
"Primus," 269
Siberian, 269
Ratzeburg, 467
Raunkiaer
on variation in _Taraxacum_, 60
Recessive character, 280
Sports, 191, 715, 689
bud, 427
S
Sprenger, 610, 611
Stability, 155
Stahl, 611
_Stellaria Holostea apetala_, 585
Stocks, 146, 322, 328, 329, 332, 334, 336, 338,
432
Stock
"Brompton," 329
chamois-colored, 198
"Queen," 324
white, 160
Stork's-bill, white hemlock, 161
Strasburger, 196, 448
Strawberry, 158, 266, 342
"Gaillon," 135
"Giant of Zuidwijk," 614
one-leaved, 164, 596, 666
white, 158, 165
Striped flowers, 309, 374, 431, 606, 607
races, types of, 328
Struggle for life, 674, 571, 682, 702, 799, 803,
824, 825
St. Johnswort, 725
St. Sebastian, 164
Sub-species (see also Elementary species), 224, 225
Sugar-beets (see Beets, sugar)
Sugar-cane, 731, 752
"Black Manilla," 753
"Cheribon," 753, 755, 756
"Chunnic," 753
"Hawaii," 755, 756
seeds of, 754
"White Manilla," 752
Sundew, 268
Sunflower, 410, 425, 820
Sweet-flag, 222
Sweet-pea, 160, 776
Sweet William, 163, 282, 322, 648
twisted variety, 408, 648
Syncotyls, 417, 424
_Syringa vulgaris axurea plena_, 763
Systematic species, 12, 64, 101, 128
nature of, 54, 62
Systematic units, 61, 91
T
_Tagetes africana_, 510
_signata_, 612
"Talavera de Bellevue," 97
_Tanacetum vulgare_, 131, 132, 236
Tansy, 131, 132, 236
_Taraxacum_, 125, 126
officinale, 59, 411
_Tares_, 105
_Taxus_, 136
_baccata_, 169
_baccata fastigiata_, 170, 618
_minor_, 169
Teasels, 402, 642, 645, 674, 675
twisted, 405, 412, 446, 447, 643, 646, 647,
648, 819
_Tetragonia expansa_, 162
Theatre d'Agriculture, 72
Thibault, 618
Thomson, Sir William (see Kelvin, Lord)
Thorn-apples, 139, 142, 143, 145, 238, 283, 300,
452
thornless, 234
Thorn-broom, 457
_Thrincia hirta_, 411
Thuret, 38, 47, 49
Thyme, white creeping, 201
_Thymus Serphyllum album_, 201
_vulgaris_, 577
_Tilia parvifolia_, 355, 669
Toad-flax, 267, 282, 707
cross pollination of, 471
experiment with, described, 468
invisible dimorphous state of, 470, 471, 478
latent tendency to mutation in, 479
peloric, see Peloric toad flax
sterility of mutants, 477
unusual pelorism, 486
Tomato, 653
"Acme," 656, 657
"Mikado," 654
mutation of, 655
upright, 654
"Washington," 657
Tournefort
author of genera, 32
Tracy, W.W. 592
Trees, genealogic, 707, 708
Tricotyls, 416, 419, 420
_Trifolium incarnatum_, 352
_Triticum dicoccum_, 105
_Tropaeolum_, 193, 668
_majus_, pelorism of, 485
"True Exercises with Plants" (hunting), 490
Tulips, 149, 178, 274, 322
black, 620
Turnip, 244, 621
Twisted stems, 402, 403, 405, 413
Twisted varieties
atavists of, 406
U
_Ulex europaeus_, 140, 217
_Ulmus pedunculata_, 615
_pedunculata urticaefolia_, 615
Umbellifers, 457
_Umbilicus_, 669
Unger, 105
Unit-characters, 249, 261, 306, 307, 313, 658,
689, 715, 716
Urban, 265
_Uropedium lindenii_, 487
Utility, 685, 724
Utricularia, 672
V
_Vaccinium Myrtillus_, 577
Valerian, 402, 409, 648
twisted, 403
_Valeriana officinalis_, 402
_Vallisneria_, 684.
Van den Berg, 625
Van de Water, 614
Van Mons, 76, 77, 78, 806
Variability (see also Fluctuation ), 188, 190, 191
analogous, 244
apple, 75
asexual, 320
correlative, 142, 143, 148, 167
cultivated plants, 66
embryonic, 770, 771, 814
ever-recurring, 190
fluctuating (see also individual), 62, 142,
190, 233, 375, 416, 454, 698, 759, 762, 765,
766, 767, 770, 771, 789, 805, 814
fluctuating vs. mutability 569
homologous, 244
individual (see also fluctuating), 190, 716,
718, 746, 749, 770, 814
influence of mutation on, 335
kinds of, 715
nutrition and, 390, 391, 719, 771
parallel, 243
partial, 440, 444, 718, 746, 748, 753, 814,
816
repeated, 242
restricted, 598
sectional, 317
sexual, 320
sources of, 758
Variation
bud, 176, 178, 180, 284, 317, 318, 321, 338,
427, 750
definition of, 188
partial, 788, 789
seed, 750
spontaneous, 191
use of term, 189
Variegation, 426, 427
Varietal marks, origin of, 275
Varieties, 84, 95, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 142
broom-like, 618, 624
constancy of, 532
constant, 135
crosses of species with, 247, 277, 278, 281
elementary species vs. 459
ever-sporting, 178, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313,
321, 324, 328, 329, 332, 333, 334, 350, 358,
365, 368, 372, 399, 413, 420, 430, 431, 432,
434, 445, 606, 607, 628, 740, 789, 790, 795
fasciated (see Fasciated stems).
groups of, 606
horticultural, 607, 609
hybrid, 122, 190, 608
hybrids of, 210, 254, 255
inconstant, 135, 154; 155, 161
mutation of, 141
negative (retrogressive), 131, 132, 134, 224,
226, 238, 245, 277
positive, 131, 132, 134, 224, 238, 245
pure, 122, 190
retrograde, 14, 15, 16, 95, 121, 208, 430,
435, 606, 607
retrogressive (see negative).
seed, 122
single, 191
spontaneous crosses, 209
sporting (see inconstant)
stability of, 207
sterile, 622
types of, 142
variable, 606
vegetative, 122
weeping, 617
Variety, 130
definition of, 11, 12
elementary species vs. 141, 152, 154, 224,
243, 247, 251
origin of, 141, 152, 224
use of term, 189, 435
Variety-testing, 95, 97, 116, 119, 743, 799, 825
Varro, 106
Veitch & Sons, 272
Venus' looking-glass, 367
Verlot, 186, 612
Vernon, 132
_Vernonia cinerea_, 450
_Veronica longifolia_, 282, 284
_scutellata_, 139
_spicata nitens_, 126
_Viburnum Opulus_, 134, 239
Vicinism, 185, 188, 203, 205, 206, 213, 214, 776
definition of, 188, 192, 606
Vicinist, 199, 201
_Vicoa aurioulata_, 450
_Victoria regia_, 668
Villars
on _Draba verna_, 49
Vilmorin, 570, 607, 612, 622, 661, 662, 773, 775,
776; 792, 795, 796, 797, 806, 807, 810, 813,
818, 820
Vilmorin, Louis de, 72, 92, 93, 97, 108, 109, 110,
114, 185, 818
Vilmorin, Messrs., 322
_Vinca_, 242, 490
_minor_, 322
Vine, parsley-leaved, 179
_Viola_, 126, 546, 547, 692
_agrestis_, 45
_alpestris_, 40
_altaica_, 39
_anopetala_, 44
_arvensis_, 39, 40, 41, 44
_curtisepala_, 45
_striolata_, 45
_aurobadia_, 44
_caloarata_, 39
_cornuta_, 39, 281
_lutea_, 38
_lutescens_, 44
_nemausensis_, 45
_ornatissima_, 44
_palescens_, 45
_patens_, 45
_roseola_, 44
_segetatis_, 45
_stenochila_, 41
_tricolor_, 38, 40, 41, 44, 46
_ammotropha_, 41
_coniophila_, 41
_genuina_, 42
_versicolor_, 42
Violets, 63, 232, 233, 490
Violet, dame's, 322, 323, 411
long-spurred, 281
Virgil, 105, 106, 108
_Viscaria oculata_, 4, 648, 821
twisted variety, 408
_Vitis_, 52
Volckamer, 228
Von Lochow, 821, 822, 822
Von Rumker, 94
Von Wettstein, 448, 805
Vrolik, 164, 483
W
"Waare Oeffeninge der Planten" (Munting), 490
Wallace, 5, 7, 8, 30, 205
Wall-flower, 370, 371
Walnut, 243, 766
cut-leaved, 616
one-bladed, 666
Water-lilies, 668
Weber, 228
Weeping-willow, 180
crisped, 181
Weigelias, 740
_Wellingtonia_, 618
Wheat, 96, 98, 105, 113, 119, 283, 810, 823
bearded, 98
"Blue-stem," 117
"Galland," 100, 207
"Hopetown," 112, 112
"Hunter's," 111, 112
"Minnesota No. 169," 117
"Mungoswell's," 110, 111
"Pedigree," 109
"Pringle's," 114
"Rivett's bearded," 207
"Sheriff's bearded red," 114
"Sheriff's bearded white," 114
"White Hunter's," 112
Wheat-ear carnation, 227
White, C.A., 656, 657
White varieties, 577
Whitlow-grasses, 63, 118, 119
Whorls, ternate, 684
Wild sage (see Salvia)
Willdenow, 468, 666, 667
Williamson, 491
Willows, 135, 267
Willow
weeping (see Weeping-Willow)
Willow-herb, 268, 269, 682
Wintercress, 427
Wintergreen, 661
Wittmack, 682
Wittrock, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46
Wooton, E.O., 140
Wormseed, 638
X
_Xanthium canadense_, 140
_commune_, 140, 152, 591
_commune Wootoni_, 22
Wootoni, 140, 152, 591
Y
Yarrow, 131, 132
Yew, 136, 169
pyramidal, 618
Z
_Zea Mays cryptosperma_, 641
_tunicata_, 641
_Zinnia_, 490
Zioberg, 466
Zocher & Co., 230