_THIRD PAPER._
Cavalry! At this word whose mind does not involuntarily recall pictures
of mailed knights rushing upon each other with levelled lances, and of
the charging squadrons of Austerlitz, of Jena, of Marengo, of the
Peninsula, and of Waterloo? Whose blood is not stirred with a throng of
memories connected with the noble achievements of the war horse and his
rider? Who does not imagine a panorama of all that is gay and glorious
in warfare--prancing coursers, gilded trappings, burnished sabres,
waving pennons, and glittering helmets--rank after rank of gallant
riders--anon the blast of bugles, the drawing of sabres, the mighty
rushing of a thousand steeds, the clash of steel, the shout, the
victory? The chief romance of war attaches itself to the deeds
accomplished by the assistance of the power and endurance of man's
noblest servant. Every one has read so much poetry about valiant youths,
mounted on fiery yet docile steeds, doing deeds of miraculous prowess in
the ranks of their enemies--our literature is so full of tapestried
representations of knightly retinues and charging squadrons--the
towering form of Murat is so conspicuous in the narratives of the
Napoleonic wars--and history has so often repeated the deeds of those
horsemen who performed such illustrious feats in the combats of half a
century ago, that we associate with the cavalry only ideas of splendor
and glory, of wild freedom and dashing gallantry. But the cavalry
service is far different from such vague and fanciful imaginations.
Instead of ease, there is constant labor; instead of freedom, there is a
difficult system of discipline and tactics; and instead of frequent
opportunities for glorious charges, there is a constant routine of
toilsome duty in scouting and picketing, with rarely an opportunity for
assisting prominently in the decision of a great battle, or of winning
renown in overthrowing the ranks of an enemy by the impetuous rush of a
mass of horses against serried bayonets.
In many respects cavalry is the most difficult branch of military
service to maintain and to operate. It is exceedingly costly, on account
of the great loss of horses by the carelessness of the men, by overwork,
by disease, and by the fatalities of battle. The report of General
Halleck, for the year 1863, stated that from May to October there were
from ten thousand to fourteen thousand cavalry in the Army of the
Potomac, while the number of horses furnished them for the same period
was thirty-five thousand; adding to these the horses taken by capture
and used for mounting men, the number would be sufficient to give each
man a horse every _two months_. There were two hundred and twenty-three
regiments of cavalry in the service, which, at the same rate, would
require four hundred and thirty-five thousand horses. This is an immense
expenditure of animals, and is attributable in part to the peculiarities
of the volunteer service--such as the lack of care and knowledge on the
part of the officers, and the disposition of the men to break down their
horses by improper riding, and sometimes out of mere wantonness, for the
purpose of getting rid of animals they do not like, for the chance of
obtaining better. A measure has recently been adopted to remedy these
evils, by putting into the infantry cavalry officers and men who show
themselves incompetent to take proper care of their animals, and who
neglect other essentials of cavalry service. The provision and
transportation of forage for cavalry horses also constitute items of
great cost.
To attain proficiency and effectiveness, cavalry soldiers require much
longer instruction than those of any other arm. They must become expert
swordsmen, and acquire such skill in equitation that horse and rider
shall resemble the mythical centaurs of the ancients--shall be only one
individual in will. The horses should be as thoroughly trained as the
riders. In European armies this is accomplished in training schools. The
Governments keep constantly on hand large supplies of animals, partly
purchased and partly produced in public stables, and capable instructors
are continually employed in fitting both men and horses for their
duties.
To insure the provision of proper horses and to recuperate those which
are sent from the army disabled or sick, an immense cavalry depot has
been established at Giesboro', near Washington. Thousands of horses are
kept there ready for service, and as fast as men in the army are
dismounted by the loss of their animals, they are sent to this depot. It
is one of the most useful and best-arranged affairs connected with our
service, and has greatly assisted in diminishing the expense attending
the provision of animals, and in increasing the efficiency of our
cavalry.
We have had all the difficulties to contend with resulting from
inexperienced riders and untrained horses. No one who has not beheld the
scene, can imagine the awkward appearance of a troop of recruits mounted
on horses unaccustomed to the saddle. The sight is one of the most
laughable that can be witnessed. We have seen the attempt made to put
such a troop into a gallop across a field. Fifty horses and fifty men
instantly became actuated by a hundred different wills, and dispersed in
all directions--some of the riders hanging on to the pommels, with their
feet out of the stirrups, others tugging away at the bridles, and not a
few sprawling on the ground. After a few months' drills, however, a
different scene is presented, and an old troop horse becomes so
habituated to his exercises that not only will he perform all the
evolutions without guidance, but will even refuse to leave the ranks,
though under the most vigorous incitements of whip and spur. An officer
friend was once acting as cavalier to a party of ladies on horseback at
a review, when, unfortunately, the troop in which his horse belonged
happening to pass by, the animal bolted from the group of ladies, and
took his accustomed place in the ranks, nor could all the efforts of his
rider disengage him. Finally, our friend was obliged to dismount, and,
holding the horse by the bit, _back_ him out of the troop to his station
with the party of ladies--a feat performed amid much provoking laughter.
Cavalry can operate in masses only when circumstances are favorable--the
country open, and the ground free from obstructions. Yet it is in masses
alone that it can be effective, and it can triumph against infantry only
by a _shock_--from the precipitation of its weight upon the lines,
crushing them by the onset. Before the time of Frederic the Great, the
Prussian horsemen resembled those to be seen at a militia review--they
were a sort of picture soldiers, incapable of a vigorous charge. He
revolutionized the service by teaching that cavalry must achieve success
by a rapid onset, not stopping to fire themselves, and not regarding the
fire of their opponents. By practising these lessons, they were able to
overthrow the Austrian infantry. But if the force of a charge is
dissipated by obstructions on the ground, or is broken by the fire of
the assailed, the effectiveness of cavalry, as a participant in the
manoeuvres of a battle field, is entirely destroyed.
The question of the future of cavalry is at present one of great
interest among military investigators; for notwithstanding its
brilliant achievements during our civil war, the fact is apparent that
its sphere has been entirely changed, its old system has become
obsolete, and former possibilities no longer lie within its scope. Since
Waterloo there had not been, until our war commenced, any opportunity to
test the action of cavalry; for its operations in the Crimea and in
Italy were insignificant. The art of warfare had, meanwhile, in many
respects, become revolutionized by the introduction of rifled arms.
Military men waited, therefore, with interest, the experience of the war
in this country, to judge from it as to the part cavalry was to perform
in future warfare. That experience has shown that the day in which
cavalry can successfully charge squares of infantry has passed. When the
smooth-bore muskets alone were used by infantry, cavalry could be formed
in masses for charging at a distance of five hundred yards; now the
formations must be made at the distance of nearly a mile, and that
intervening space must be passed at speed under the constant fire of
cannon and rifles; when the squares are reached, the horses are
frightened and blown, the ranks have been disordered by the
impossibility of preserving a correct front during such a length of time
at rapid speed, and by the loss of men; the charge breaks weakly on the
wall of bayonets, and retires baffled. Infantry, before it learns its
own strength and the difficulty of forcing a horse against a bayonet--or
rather to trample down a man--has an absurd and unfounded fear of
cavalry. This feeling was in part the cause of the panic among our
troops at Bull Run--so much had been said about the Black Horse troop of
the rebels. The Waterloo achievements of the French were then thought
possible of repetition. Now adays it is hardly probable that the veteran
infantry of either army would take the trouble to form squares to resist
cavalry, but would expect to rout it by firing in line. Neither party in
our war has been able to make its mounted forces effective in a general
battle. Nothing has occurred to parallel, upon the battle field, those
exploits of the cavalry--French, Prussian, and English--in the great
wars of the last century, extending to Waterloo.
The enthusiastic admirers of cavalry still maintain that it is possible
to repeat those exploits, even in face of the improved firearms now in
use. All that is necessary, they say, is to have the cavalry
sufficiently drilled. The ground to be crossed under a positively
dangerous fire is only five hundred or six hundred yards, and once
taught to continue the charge through the bullets for this distance, and
then to throw themselves on the bayonets, horsemen will now, as
heretofore, break the lines of infantry. All very true, _if_ cavalry to
fulfil the conditions named can be obtained; but in _them_ lies the
difficulty. Occasional instances of splendid charges will undoubtedly
occur in future warfare; but it seems to be an established fact that the
day for the glory of cavalry has passed. Once the mailed knight, mounted
on his mailed charger, could overthrow by scores the poor, pusillanimous
pikemen and crossbow men who composed the infantry; he was invulnerable
in his iron armor, and could ride them down like reeds. But gunpowder
and the bayonet have changed this; and now the most confident and
domineering cavalryman will put spurs to his horse and fly at a gallop,
if he sees the muzzle of an infantryman's rifle, with its glittering
bayonet, pointed at him from the thicket.
Another revolution effected in the mounted service by the improvements
in arms and the consequent changes of tactics, is the diminution of
heavy and the increase of light cavalry--that is, the transfer of the
former into the latter. These two denominations really include all kinds
of cavalry, although the non-military reader may have been puzzled by
the numerous subordinate denominations to be found in the accounts of
European warfare--such as dragoons, cuirassiers, hussars, lancers,
chasseurs, hulans, etc.
Heavy cavalry is composed of the heavier men and horses, and is usually
divided into dragoons and cuirassiers. It is designed to act in masses,
and to break the lines of an enemy by the weight of its charge. Usually,
also, it has had some defensive armor, and is a direct descendant from
the knights of the Middle Ages. But the cuirasses, which were sufficient
to resist the balls from smooth-bore muskets, are easily penetrated by
rifles. Consequently the occupation of this kind of cavalry is gone, and
it is likely to disappear gradually from the service. In this country we
have never had anything except light cavalry--the only kind adapted for
use in our Indian warfare. This kind of cavalry is intended to
accomplish results by the celerity of its movements, and all its
equipments should therefore be as light as possible. The chief
difficulty is to prevent the cavalry soldier from overloading his horse,
as he has a propensity not only to carry a large wardrobe and a full
supply of kitchen utensils, but also to 'convey,' in the language of
Pistol, or, in army language, 'gobble up,' or, in plain English, steal
anything that is capable of being fastened to his saddle.
It is evident that the efficiency of a cavalry soldier depends as much
upon his horse as upon himself; and it is requisite, therefore, that the
weight upon the horse should be as light as possible. The limit has been
fixed at about two hundred pounds for light, and two hundred and fifty
for heavy cavalry; but both of these are too much. A cavalry soldier
ought not to weigh over one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty
pounds, and his accoutrements not over thirty pounds additional; but in
practice, scarcely any horse--except where the rider is a very light
weight--carries less than two hundred and twenty or two hundred and
thirty pounds. One great cause of the evils incident to our cavalry
service is the excessive weight imposed on the horses. The French take
particular pains in this respect; while in England the cavalry is almost
entirely 'heavy,' and, though well drilled, is clumsy. John Bull, with
his roast beef and plum pudding, makes a poor specimen of a light
cavalryman. English officers are now endeavoring to revolutionize their
mounted service, so as to diminish its weight and increase its celerity.
The _arms_ of cavalry have been various, but it is now well settled that
its true weapon is the sabre, as its true form of operation is the
charge. A great deal of ingenuity has been expended in devising the best
form of sabre. Different countries have different patterns, but the one
adopted in our army is very highly considered. It is pointed, so as to
be used in thrusting; sharp on one edge for cutting; curved, so as to
inflict a deeper wound; and the weight arranged, by a mathematical rule,
so that the centres of percussion and of gravity are placed where the
weapon may be most easily handled. The lance is a weapon very
appropriate to light mounted troops, and is still used by some of the
Cossacks and Arab horsemen. But to wield it effectively requires
protracted training. For a long time in Europe it was the chief weapon
for horsemen; with the knights it was held in exclusive honor, and
continued in use for a considerable period after firearms had destroyed
the prestige of the gentlemen of the golden spurs. Prince Maurice, of
Orange, when he raised mounted regiments to defend the Netherlands
against the Spanish, rejected it, and since his time it has become
obsolete except in some regiments especially drilled to it. Such a
regiment was raised in Philadelphia at the commencement of our war, but
after eighteen months' experience the lances were abandoned. Besides the
sabre, cavalry-men are armed with pistols or carbines--the men having
the latter being employed particularly in skirmishing, sometimes on
foot.
The proportion of mounted troops in an army varies according to the
nature of the country which is the theatre of military operations. In a
level country it should be about one fourth or one fifth, while in one
that is mountainous, it should not be greater than a tenth. As a general
rule, improvements in firearms have produced a decrease in the
proportion of cavalry and lessened its importance. When artillery was
introduced, the cavaliers, who composed the Middle Age armies
exclusively, commenced to disappear; knighthood passed out of existence,
being superseded by mercenary bands. Infantry gradually assumed
importance, which has constantly increased, until it has now attained
the vast predominance. This has not only caused a general diminution of
the proportion of cavalry, but has entailed on the Governments of Europe
the necessity of keeping their cavalry service always at its maximum, so
that the mounted troops may be perfect in their drill; whereas infantry
troops can acquire comparative proficiency in a few months.
We will give a brief description of the different classes of cavalry,
and close our subject by some remarks on the operation of this arm of
service in our civil war.
The regiments raised by Prince Maurice, of Orange, above referred to,
were the first known as _cuirassiers_, on account of the cuirasses which
they wore for defence. All defensive armor is now being laid aside.
_Dragoons_ originally were a class of soldiers who operated both on foot
and mounted. They are supposed to take their name from a kind of firearm
called a 'dragon.' In modern practice dragoons are almost entirely used
as cavalry, and rarely have recourse to any extended service on foot.
The denomination 'dragoons' has recently been abolished from our
service.
_Carabineers_ were at first some Basque and Gascon horsemen in the
French service, whose peculiarly distinguishing characteristic was a
skilful use in the saddle of a short firearm.
_Hussars_ originated in Hungary, taking their denomination from the word
_husz_, which signifies twenty, and _ar_, pay--every twentieth man being
required by the state to enter into service. From their origin they were
distinguished for the celerity of their movements and their devotion to
fine costumes.
The _hulans_ were a species of Polish light cavalry, bearing lances, and
taking their name from their commander--a nobleman named Huland.
_Chasseurs_ are French regiments, designed chiefly to act as scouts and
skirmishers. The _chasseurs d'Afrique_ are cavalry which have been
trained in Algeria, and have become exceedingly expert through conflicts
with the Arabs. The _spahis_ are Arab cavalry, in the French service,
and are such admirable riders that they will charge over all kinds of
ground, and dash upon a foe who judges himself secure amid rocks or
trees or ditches.
At the commencement of the war the rebel cavalry was superior to that
furnished by the North. For this there were many reasons. Southern
plantation life had accustomed the aristocratic youth to the saddle, and
great attention was bestowed on the training of horses. At the North the
number of skilled riders was comparatively few. Gradually, however,
Northern energy, endurance, and patient discipline began to tell, and
the time soon arrived when the Southern cavalry were invariably driven,
especially in sabre charges, to which Southerners have great aversion.
At present, on account of the scarcity of horses, the difficulty of
supplying forage, and the loss of so many gay youths of the chivalry,
the Southern, cavalry has dwindled into such a condition as to be no
longer formidable.
The service of the cavalry in both armies during the war has been
exclusively as light cavalry--scouting, picketing, raiding, etc. Its
combats have been with forces of its own arm. No commander has yet
succeeded in assisting to determine the issue of a pitched battle by the
charges of his mounted troops. Our cavalry have rendered, however,
brilliant and invaluable services in protecting the rear and flanks of
the armies, and by their magnificent raiding expeditions into the
enemy's country, destroying his supplies, injuring his communications,
diverting his forces, and liberating his slaves. No sufficient accounts
of such expeditions and of the numerous cavalry conflicts have been
published; yet they are very desirable. They would furnish most
interesting narratives, and be a valuable contribution not only to the
history of the times, but to the history of warfare; for the operations
of the cavalry in this war constitute a new era in the history of this
branch of military service. Unless care is exercised to procure such
narratives, our posterity will never know anything of many battle fields
where fought and fell brave troopers from every Northern State.
The chief duties of officers belonging to the _corps of engineers_, when
connected with an army acting in the field, are the supervision of
routes of communication, the laying of bridges, the selection of
positions for fortifications, and the indication of the proper character
of works to be constructed. Should a siege occur, a new and very
important class of duties devolves on them, relating to the trenches,
saps, batteries, etc.
Not only is there in Virginia a lack of good roads, but the numerous
streams have few or no bridges. In many cases where bridges have
existed, one or the other of the contending armies has destroyed them to
impede the march of its opponents. Streams which have an average depth
of three or four feet are, however, generally without bridges, except
where crossed by some turnpike, the common country roads mostly leading
to fords. The famous Bull Run is an example. There were but two or three
bridges over this stream in the space of country penetrated by the roads
generally pursued by our army in advancing or retreating, and these have
been several times destroyed and rebuilt. The stream varies from two to
six feet in depth--the fords being at places of favorable depth, and
where the bottom is gravelly and the banks sloping. Often such streams
as this, and indeed smaller ones, become immensely swelled in volume by
storms, so that a comparatively insignificant rivulet might greatly
delay the march of an army, if means for quickly crossing should not be
provided. The general depth of a ford which a large force, with its
appurtenances, can safely cross, is about three feet, and even then the
bottom should be good and the current gentle. With a greater depth of
water, the men are likely to wet their cartridge boxes, or be swept off
their feet. There is a small stream about three miles from Alexandria,
crossing the Little River turnpike, which has never been bridged, and
which was once so suddenly swollen by rain that all the artillery and
wagons of a corps were obliged to wait about twelve hours for its
subsidence. The mules of some wagons driven into it were swept away.
Fords, unless of the best bottom, are rendered impassable after a small
portion of the wagons and artillery of an army have crossed them--the
gravel being cut through into the underlying clay, and the banks
converted into sloughs by the dripping of water from the animals and
wheels.
A very amusing scene was presented at the crossing of Hazel River (a
branch of the Rappahannock) last fall, when the Army of the Potomac
first marched to Culpepper. The stream was at least three feet deep,
and at various places four--the current very rapid--the bottom filled
with large stones, and the banks steep, except where a narrow road had
been cut for the wagons. The men adopted various expedients for
crossing. Some went in boldly all accoutred; some took off shoes and
stockings, and carefully rolled up their trousers; others (and they were
the wisest) divested themselves of all their lower clothing. The long
column struggled as best it could through the water, and occasionally,
amid vociferous shouts, those who had been careful to roll up their
trousers would step into a hole up to the middle; others, who had taken
still more precautions, would stumble over a stone and pitch headlong
into the roaring waters, dropping their guns, and splashing vainly about
with their heavy knapsacks, in the endeavor to regain a footing, until
some of their comrades righted them; and others, after getting over
safely, would slip back from the sandy bank, and take an involuntary
immersion. Some clung to the rear of the wagons, but in the middle of
the stream the mules would become fractious, or the wagon would get
jammed against a stone, and the unfortunate passengers were compelled to
drop off and wade ashore, greeted by roars of derisive laughter. On such
occasions soldiers give full play to their humor. They accept the
hardships with good nature, and make the best of any ridiculous incident
that may happen. At the time referred to, many conscripts had just
joined the ranks, and cries resounded everywhere among the old soldiers:
'Hello, conscripts, how do you like this?' 'What d'ye think of sogering
now?' 'This is nothing. You'll have to go in up to yer neck next time.'
Generally, when the exigencies of the march will permit, bridges are
made over such streams, either by the engineers of the army, or
detachments from the various corps which are passing upon the roads.
They are simple 'corduroy bridges,' and can be laid very expeditiously.
Two or three piers of stones and logs are placed in the stream, string
pieces are stretched upon them, and cross pieces of small round logs
laid down for the flooring. The most extensive bridges of this kind used
by the Army of the Potomac were those over the Chickahominy in the
Peninsular campaign. 'Sumner's bridge,' by which reinforcements crossed
at the battle of Fair Oaks, was laid in this manner. Of course such
bridges are liable to be carried away and to be easily destroyed. Some
of the bridges over the Chickahominy were laid much more thoroughly.
'Cribs' of logs were piled in cob-house fashion, pinned together, and
sunk vertically in the stream. Then string pieces and the flooring were
laid, the whole covered with brush and dirt. Men worked at these bridges
up to the waist in water for many days in succession.
Military art has devised many expedients for bridging streams, and use
is made of any facilities that may be at hand for constructing the means
of passage; but the only organized bridge trains which move with the
army are those which carry the pontoons. Of these there are various
kinds, made of wood, of corrugated iron, and of india rubber stretched
over frames. But the wooden pontoon boats are most in use. They can be
placed in a river and the flooring laid upon them with great rapidity.
Several very fine bridges have been thus constructed--among them may be
mentioned the one at the mouth of the Chickahominy, across which General
McClellan's army marched in retreating from Harrison's Landing. It was
about a mile long, and was constructed in a few hours.
To cross a river under the fire of an enemy is one of the most difficult
operations in warfare. Yet it has been frequently accomplished by our
armies. The crossing of the Rappahannock by General Burnside's army,
previous to the great battle of Fredericksburg, in December, 1862, is
one of the most remarkable instances of the kind during the war. The
rebel rifle pits lined the southern bank, and the fire from them
prevented our engineers from approaching--the river being only about
seventy-five yards wide. For a long time our artillery failed to drive
the rebels away. About noon of the day on which the crossing was made,
General Burnside ordered a concentration of fire on Fredericksburg, in
the houses of which place the rebels had concealed their forces. A
hundred guns, hurling shot and shell into every building and street of
the city, soon riddled it; but the obstinate foes hid themselves in the
cellars till the storm was over, and then emerged defiantly. They were
only dislodged by sending over a battalion in boats to attack them in
flank, when they retreated, and the bridges were laid.
It is impossible to explain in articles of this character the mysteries
of intrenchment and fortification, so that they will be comprehensible.
A few notes, however, on some of the principal terms constantly
employed, may be found useful and interesting.
_Rifle pits_--as the term is now generally used--are small embankments,
made by throwing up dirt from an excavation _inside_. They can be
erected quickly, for it will be seen that those behind them have the
advantage, not only of the height of the embankment, but also of the
depth of the ditch. Thus an excavation of two feet would give a
protection of _four_ feet. This is the ordinary rifle pit, but when time
permits it receives many improvements.
_Breastworks_ are any erections of logs, dirt, etc., raised breast high,
to shelter the men behind them.
An _abatis_ consists of obstructions placed in front of a work to form
obstacles to a storming party. The most convenient method of forming it
is to cut down trees and allow them to lie helterskelter. When there is
time, the trees are laid with the butts toward the work, and the
branches outward--the small limbs being removed, and the ends of the
remainder sharpened.
[Illustration]
A _redan_ is a letter V, with the point toward the enemy, and is used
generally to cover the heads of bridges, etc.
[Illustration]
A _lunette_ is the redan with flanking wings.
[Illustration]
A _redoubt_ is an enclosed parallelogram.
[Illustration]
These works are very imperfect, because they have exposed points. The
angles are not protected by the fire from the sides. To remedy this
difficulty, the next most usual work is the _star fort_, made in the
form of a regular or irregular star. It will be perceived that the fire
from the sides covers the angles.
The next and still more improved form of work is the bastioned fort,
which consists of projecting bastions at the corners, the fire from
which enfilades the ditches.
The following is a diagram of a vertical section of the parapet and
ditch used in all fully constructed field works:
[Illustration:
A B is the slope of the banquette.
B C head of the banquette, or place where the men stand to deliver
their fire.