CHAPTER XX

No individualism--Effect of isolation--Extreme reserve of

Indians--Cruelty--Dislike and fear of strangers--Indian

hospitality--Treachery--Theft punished by death--Dualism

of ethics--Vengeance--Moral sense and custom--Modesty

of the women--Jealousy of the men--Hatred of white

man--Ingratitude--Curiosity--Indians retarded but not

degenerate--No evidence of reversion from higher culture--A

neolithic people--Conclusion.

We find in all savage races, peoples of the lower cultures, that there is

no differentiation of individualism, that is to say all members of the

race or group are at approximately the same level. This is what we know

as a “low state of civilisation.” It has been suggested that such dead

level, the lack of all initiative, of progress in short, is due to the

absence of religion, of ideals or gods, through which true enthusiasm

only is engendered. A religious ideal undoubtedly tends to progress,

and with the exception of patriotism--which, after all, is a religious

ideal--is the main influence. It is a case of cause and effect, however,

for the effect of environment must not be overlooked. Local conditions

initiate progress and may cause enthusiasm for an ideal, the effect and,

at the same time, the potent accelerator of such progression.

It is an extraordinary but undeniable fact that the Indian is

individually wise yet racially foolish, individually intelligent,

racially inept. This may be due entirely to geographical control, to

the peculiar characteristics of the social environment. The greatest

incitement to human progress, intercommunication, is denied in the Amazon

wilds. True, there are the rivers, but the value of rivers and waterways

in this respect is negatived by custom. Existing conditions make this

necessary, for in isolation alone is protection to be found for any

tribe.

We find, then, the group system, where the community is everything,

the individual nothing, blocking the path of progressive evolution to

a very great extent among the forest Indians of South America, as it

has done among the native tribes of Australia. The individual can gain

nothing for himself, he can only work for the greater glory of the group,

and has therefore no intimate incentive for strenuous advancement. A

tribe has little or no opportunity for progress when it consists of

but a few hundred members, and is practically isolated from all other

tribes, except for the hardly intellectual shock of war, or perhaps the

occasional intrusion of some wandering barterer, a member of possibly

a hostile tribe, who is tolerated on account of the necessary articles

which he brings, things that cannot be manufactured by the tribes he

visits.

The Indian is hedged about with a constricting environment against which

he can scarcely be said to battle. He accepts with the resignation of the

East, and knows nothing of the restless rebellion that makes for Western

amelioration and progress. What the Indian lacks is not intelligence but

character, that is to say will-power. The Indian is brave, he endures

pain and privation with the greatest stoicism, he can be doggedly

obstinate, but only in exceptional cases can he rise above his fellows to

anything approaching individuality and strength of mind.

The dominant characteristic of the Indian is a profound and nervous

reserve. The extreme nervousness of his manner is due undoubtedly to

wholesale indulgence in coca. It affects all the conditions of social

intercourse. It makes the Indian character extraordinarily negative.

Enthusiasm is to seek in Amazonia. The Indian never expresses violent joy

or fear. A shock is more likely to raise a laugh from him than a cry. He

will submit to much, he will bear greatly, but it is easy to provoke a

laugh against even a fellow-tribesman. An Indian will invariably laugh at

another’s discomfiture. But with a stranger all Indians are taciturn, and

they will have little or nothing to say to him if he be a white man.

Outside the narrow limit of the tribe the Indians possess no altruistic

feelings, no sympathy with strangers. They look upon every man as a

definite, or at least a possible enemy. The gentle Indian, peaceful and

loving, is a fiction of perfervid imaginations only. The Indians are

innately cruel. They certainly have no true kindliness for animals;

every animal is a foe, as I have elsewhere noted. The Maku children are

especially cruel to them, but cruelty to the dumb brute is universal

among the tribes. On the other hand, intra-tribal hospitality is without

end. I have given a single biscuit to a boy and seen him religiously

divide it into twenty microscopic pieces for all and sundry. But they

are quite improvident so far as the morrow is concerned. If a family is

threatened with famine the whole party will walk over to another house,

make themselves at home, eat and drink without the slightest hesitation,

without even craving invitation so to do. The reason is obvious. The

host of to-day may be the guest of to-morrow. I have seen, however, a

hunting party doing their best to eat a whole tapir, with the evident

desire to finish the feast before the arrival of another, and possibly a

less successful, hunting party. Otherwise division of spoil is absolutely

equal, except that the chief by right has the greatest share.

The Indian is not always a hospitable host where other than his own

tribe or language-group is concerned. Vague tales have penetrated even

to his well-guarded ignorance of the customs of the Rubber Belt, of the

servitude of his fellows. He hates the white man and mistrusts him.

The Andoke are invariably surly in their attitude towards him. There

are tribes--the Karahone, for instance, on the northern bank of the

Japura--who refuse all attempts whatsoever at intercourse. They will

neither receive presents nor ambassadors. If the explorer persist despite

the rejection of his overtures he will find poisoned stakes sunk in his

path. He will be harassed in all his doings. When at length he attains to

the tribal head-quarters he will find a house indeed, and perhaps food,

but no warriors, no women, no children The fire will still be burning

within the _maloka_, but the tribe has vanished, leaving no track, no

sign of its whereabouts. The Indian’s “Not at home” is no mere social

euphemism. It is a demonstrated fact.

When the stranger finds such silent evidence of the tribal attitude

toward his presence, it behoves him to take steps very promptly for

his protection. He may be certain that the natives, though hidden, are

covering his every action. If he, or one of his party, show himself, a

flight of poisoned arrows whistles forth from the bush. Then follows a

siege that tries the nerves of the stoutest campaigner. The hidden enemy,

the noiseless weapons, menace from every tree. It is almost certain

death to stop in the open. Within the house is a shelter little more

dependable. The natives pierce the thatch with fire-javelins, with tiny

spears bearing blazing tufts of hemp or cotton, and sooner or later the

great structure will catch fire. There follows the imposed rush into the

clearing, and the quick butchery by that unseen but ever-watchful enemy.

Later comes the dance of triumph and the feast of the victims.

Against such an enemy, in such a situation, the resources of civilisation

are of little avail. A wretched little dart steeped in the tribal

war-poison may be fragile as a reed, but fired from the near shelter of

the bush it is as effective as a Mauser bullet.

When travelling among these Indians it is necessary in order to gain

their respect to do as they do. I have emphasised this throughout. The

traveller must cross the most nerve-racking bridge without help, he may

have no hammock in which to be carried. This is a striking contrast to

what I have met with in parts of Africa, where to walk is taken as a sign

of unimportance; the man who does so cannot in native eyes be what they

would call in India a “burra sahib.” I have also noted that the student

of life must conform in all things that may be with the customs and

habits of the tribesmen with whom he wishes to associate. In a land where

_pia_ is the supreme law, deviation from custom can be only regarded as

criminal.

When an Indian house is reached the chief comes out with a party of his

warriors. The burden of proof rests with the invading European. He

advances to the chief with his interpreter, and must make declaration of

friendship. If the explanation of his appearance be accepted, the Indian

laughs and may slap his visitor vigorously on the back, after the usual

custom of the native in South America welcoming the stranger. Together

they then proceed to the house, and the chief calls his woman and orders

food to be provided for the strangers. The white man on his part tenders

whatever he has brought by way of presents--beads, gun-cartridges, a

small-tooth comb, or a knife.

When the evening meal is finished the chief stalks into the centre of

the _maloka_, which has hitherto been untenanted, like the arena of a

circus before the performance begins. A great fire is made up, and about

it the men of the tribe squat on their haunches. The chief explains to

them the presence of the stranger, and takes counsel on the question

of his entertainment. As he describes his intentions he falls into a

rhythmic chant, and his followers assent with deep-chested _Huhh!_ All

this is a lengthy business, but the tribe eventually arrive at a common

decision. The chief then bends forward to the tribal tobacco pot that has

been placed midway among the group. Into this he solemnly dips a tobacco

stick, and conveys a little of the liquid to his tongue. Man after man

bends forward round the circle, and each in turn dips his splinter of

wood into the pot to notify his assent. It is a sign of tribal agreement

as binding as the Lord Chancellor’s seal on a document of state. With it

the tobacco palaver is concluded and the Indians seek their hammocks for

sleep.

The Indian’s treachery is proverbial. I may mention on this point two

sayings--there are hundreds similar--which illumine this phase of the

character and customs of the tribesmen. The Andoke says, relevant to the

Karahone, “If your spirit wander (sleep) in the hammock of a _monkey_

or _beast_ Indian, it wanders always.”[408] The meaning is this, the

Karahone appear to have a real and exact knowledge of virulent poisons.

It is related that they can saturate a hammock with some narcotic which

the victim does not discover, thus ensuring his death or destruction.

They also burn fires under the hammock of those they wish to remove from

the world, and stifle them with a narcotic smoke.

Another proverbial remark runs: “If a Karahone give you a pineapple,

beware.” This refers to the Karahone’s playful habit of presenting

poisoned pines. The Boro have a similar saying: “Take a pine from an

enemy and die,” but this is due to the recognition of the fact that an

Indian is never so dangerous as when simulating hospitality that is

treacherous in the extreme.

Perhaps the Indian trait that soonest strikes, and most indelibly

impresses the observer, is his charming altruism in the community of the

family or tribal group, his wild misanthropy towards other tribes. His

ambition is to live undisturbed with his family in the deep recesses of

the forest. He asks only to be let alone.

In a region where land is free for all to take who will, and personal

belongings are few--and invariably buried with the owner--laws of

inheritance there can be none. But the law of possession is strict, and

the penalty is death. There can be no toleration of theft, as on account

of the publicity in which the Indians live it may be effected with such

ease. The punishment for theft has therefore to be drastic, final. The

victim may kill the thief. I was told that this is done by hacking at

the culprit’s head with a wooden sword or a stone axe. This savours of

ceremonial sacrifice. But though to steal from a member of the tribe is

to steal from the whole community and therefore a crime, there is no

bar against stealing from the stranger. They will do so unblushingly. I

remember once missing a pair of scissors. On searching I discovered a

Witoto woman stealing them. But she swore she had never put them in her

basket, though they were found there!

There is very distinctly a dualism of ethics, one law for the tribe, and

another law for all who are not members of it. To kill a fellow-tribesman

is to injure the tribe by destroying one of its units. Sin against the

individual is of no importance except in so far as injury to any one

person is injury to a unit of the tribe, to be punished by the law of

retaliation in kind if the offender be of another tribe. Sin against

another tribe is no sin except in the eyes of the tribe sinned against;

then for its members it becomes not the sin of the individual doer but of

his whole community. It is the tribe and not the individual that would be

held guilty for any offence committed by one of its members. For instance

if a Boro killed a Menimehe, vengeance may be taken by the dead man’s

tribe on all or any of the members of the Boro tribe concerned.

Vengeance is primarily a matter for the individual principally affected.

A man considers it a disgraceful thing not to be able to avenge himself,

and will therefore never apply to the chief for tribal help. On the other

hand the chief and the tribe will sometimes take up a quarrel and make it

their own. This is a common custom amongst small communities, an affront

to any one of the community being a personal attack upon every other

member, though it is not necessarily avenged by all unless the affronted

one is himself unable to compass revenge.

Members of a tribe sometimes quarrel, though rarely, but at times a fight

commences in which others join, till eventually it becomes a “set to”

between two families. On the whole I am inclined to say that the natives

of the Amazons are the least quarrelsome people I have ever met.

It would be wrong to state that these people have no moral sense, because

a slavish adherence to custom in itself is moral. That is to say they

possess a moral code. However that does not entail any right or wrong as

we know it, but only _pia_, that is “what our forefathers thought and

did,” in other words tribal usage, which may be translated by what we

call “good form.” There are no words in the Indian tongues for virtue,

justice, humanity, vice, injustice or cruelty. These are unknown to the

tribes who differentiate only with the equivalents for good and bad.

Points like this earmark the ethics of a people. The curious negative

character I have already noted is carried out here also. Again there

is recognition of the moral law of conjugal fidelity in that there is

definite punishment for infidelity--the ordeal of the stinging ants.

Punishment infers transgression of a law or code. It is not sufficient

to say that in this case it is due to the extraordinary jealousy of

Indian husbands, for the penalty is imposed on both husband and wife,

the retribution is due to public opinion not personal revenge. Before

marriage the men take the tribal prostitutes--the Maku girls and to

some extent the unattached women--openly, but after marriage this is

not the case. Incest is unknown among them, and in that term I include

promiscuous intercourse among any of the members of a household. The

antipathy to this lies only between those living under the same roof,

it does not extend to consanguineous individuals who are members of

different households.

The women are extraordinarily modest in their behaviour. Their eyes

rarely leave the ground in the presence of a stranger. I had one woman

in my party who never spoke to me, or even looked in my direction, the

whole time we were together. After much dancing, I have seen the women,

succumbing to dance stimulation, show their preference for certain men

in the dancing party by placing their hands on their shoulders, an act

in obedience to the impulse of the moment. In fact after dancing for a

length of time they become comparatively boisterous and irresponsible.

But even at the height of excitement there is nothing markedly rude in

the dance, when one allows for the fact that sexual suggestion is not to

be included in that category in Indian ethics. Even on this point they

have their limitations, for Koch-Grünberg relates that when talking to

some Desana Indians on sexual subjects, the conversation was stopped by

them till the women were sent away. After their departure the men talked

freely and broadly. This I did not remark among the Indians I visited, in

fact sexual matters appeared to be discussed freely and lewdly by both

sexes, and even by young children.

The Indians under the range of discussion most certainly possess the

greatest racial antipathy towards the white man. This is noticeable among

the women especially, for they will never admit to their own people if

they have ever had any dealing or connection whatsoever with the white

man.

Gratitude among Indians is unknown--at least to me. Take this example:

I had Indians who had been slaves, who had elected to come with me, or

at least had evinced no repugnance at the idea, with whom I had shared

all the food at my disposal, stinting myself often to ensure their

gratitude--as I thought--caring for them, doctoring and curing them when

sick, till eventually I became fond of them. But on the main river at the

first opportunity they ran, apparently at the suggestion of one of their

own tribe, the Peon of a rubber-gatherer. What arguments were used I know

not--perhaps that I was a devil, that my real motive was to fatten them

for culinary purposes. The fact remains they left me, to all appearances,

willingly.

This stealing of Indians is a well-recognised source of amusement on the

Amazon river, and the victims of such loss--who of course perpetrate

the same sort of outrage on others directly opportunity permits--are so

indolent, so lethargic, that they will not cross a river to recover the

stolen. The custom is the more prevalent on account of the character of

the Indian. He will always leave one white man to go to another. He is

always on the alert to run, to go elsewhere. This is true of Indians

enslaved by other Indians, to a limited extent. Unless they are well

treated and identified with the tribe they will run, only to be again

enslaved by others, or put to death. The matter is hard to explain. It

simply is in the blood. It is _Pia_, as Brown remarked. It is their

custom. They do it “just for so.”

Another point about the Indian is that he must always be kept up to the

work in hand. The women toil unceasingly, but the men are only too ready

to seize any excuse to cry off a job. They spend their time mainly in

mooning around. Obtaining food is their chief occupation. But when an

Indian is kept up to his work he works hard and well.

Though the Indian attitude at first is invariably stoical they are not

lacking in inquisitiveness. Their curiosity was enormously aroused by

many of my possessions. It is hard to say what will evoke their wonder.

I have seen an Indian evince no interest in a steam-boat, but show the

most extraordinary interest in my jackboots, and be greatly occupied with

the problem of how I got into them. A walking-stick was an unanswerable

conundrum to them, it never occurred to their minds that I could use it

as an assistance in walking. My eyeglass, my camera, were mysterious

devils that could read into their hearts and filch their souls, as I

have already noted. My watch, with an alarm to it, struck consternation

to their simple minds. My phonograph, that reproduced records of dancing

which were repeated on reversal, raised shouts of wonder. An Indian in

a down-river town saw nothing to excite him in a tram, and took a ride

thereon quite unconcernedly, but the women’s hats were exciting, and at

the sight of a man on a bicycle his astonishment was unbounded: it was

“man on spider-web!” Horses are unknown in these regions, and there is no

possibility of the majority of the Indians seeing any one on horseback. I

could only get a mule as far as the first big river, but beyond the bush

became too dense. Otherwise I fancy their amazement would equal that of

the Australian natives when they saw the beast come in two on the man

dismounting.[409]

Decadent the Indian may be, and thanks mainly to his inveterate cocainism

he undoubtedly is, but that he is the degraded descendant of a higher

race is a theory that I beg leave to doubt entirely. According to von

Martius the standard of ethics rises or falls with the increase or

decrease of a tribe. He based his theory on the fact that the most

corrupt Coeruna and Nainuma were nearly extinct. It is possible to

argue that they were dying out because they were corrupt,[410] rather

than they were corrupt because they were dying out. Sir Roger Casement

appears to have accepted the theory expounded in _Vergangenheit und

Zukunft der amerikanischen Menschheit_. But Tylor remarks, “I cannot but

think that Dr. Martius’ deduction is the absolute reverse of the truth.”

Certainly the theory of the Indians’ regression is, I consider, entirely

erroneous. I see nothing to suggest it. On the contrary it appeared to me

that in spite of the awful handicap of their environment, these tribes

were slowly evolving a higher standard of culture. There is no evidence

of their having reverted from a higher culture. A people who once knew

how to produce fire by friction do not easily forget that method to rely

on the clumsy processes of fire-carrying. Men who have smoked tobacco

are not very likely to content themselves, nor would their offspring be

contented, with merely sucking it. People who knew the simple method of

preparing yarn with a spindle would only revert in exceptional cases

to the slow and even painful process of rolling fibre on the naked

thigh, and that in a land where cotton is abundantly to hand on every

side. The tedious method of plaiting and tying by hand would hardly,

one imagines, be substituted for weaving. A race that has once worked

metal and relapsed to the use of stone without even more exceptional and

definite reasons for that relapse, is no more likely in fact than it is

recorded--so far as I am aware--in history.

Examples are known of peoples who have forgotten one useful art, for

material and utilitarian, or social, or magico-religious reasons; but a

people who have allowed some half dozen to disappear is unknown to me.

Yet these Indians carry fire, lick tobacco, roll fibre on the thigh, and

though they make use of an embryo loom--the two posts between which their

hammocks are plaited--have not appreciated its potentialities. Some of

the Amazon tribes,[411] though surrounded by canoe-building peoples, can

only make rafts; the secret of the dug-out, if ever known to them,[412]

has been forgotten. But it is possible that an isolated section of the

original canoe-builders--as we have seen these tribes today are all

isolated sections--may for some reason have had no need to construct

a canoe for such lengths of time that the method of fire-heating and

burning, especially of forcing the hot trunk open, had through disuse

been at least partially forgotten.[413] Presume that they failed in

their attempt to build one for some reason,[414] and it was found that a

raft would do momentarily in its place, the original skill and knowledge

might easily die out in a generation. Therefore the absence of canoes

alone would be no convincing argument. Nor must it be forgotten, as Dr.

Rivers has pointed out,[415] that other causes besides defective memory

and lack of practice may result in the entire disappearance of even

useful arts. But I repeat hardly of so many among all these tribes in

common.

Everything points to the conclusion that these tribes found their way to

the forest in a very primitive condition. The forest has arrested, it

has stunted their growth, but it has not plunged them back from later

cultures to the Stone Age. The stones themselves deny it, _for stone is

not the natural substitute for iron in these regions_.[416] Whence the

tribes came hither, and when, in whatsoever far back age of our earth’s

story, they were a Neolithic people--hardly that, a people emerging from

the unsettled conditions of the Paleolithic hunter, agricultural but not

yet pastoral, and such they have remained throughout the centuries.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Physically, as may be judged from the accompanying tables, there is a

wide margin for dissimilarity among these tribes. Their appearance is

nearly as varied as their speech, more so in fact, in that there is much

diversity of type even among individuals of the same speaking-group. I

have seen a Boro as dark as a Witoto, while his fellow-tribesmen may be

yellow as a Chinaman. It is, of course, possible that the darker Boro are

sons of Witoto women. The custom prevalent in all the tribes of adopting

the young children captured from their enemies, makes of necessity

for great changes in type even in one household, so that despite the

preference for group endogamy that undoubtedly exists there are few

households where cross-breeding is not in evidence.

In stature the Indian is small, which I take to be a result of depression

due to his forest environment; but the body is well-balanced and upright.

Among the tribes I visited the Andoke as a speaking-group were, so far

as I could observe, the largest in build and the tallest. The Okaina

may possibly come into the same scale. The Karahone represent the mean,

while the Maku are invariably small, a low class and badly-fed people.

The average measurements of the tribes are best gathered from the types

tabulated. I made the average height to be for men 5 feet 6 inches;

and for women 4 feet 10 inches.[417] I certainly remember one case of

a man among the Andoke nearly 6 feet high, but can recall no other.

The women were never much over the average of the female type. I give

my measurements for what they are worth, but unfortunately I did not

know the correct way in which they should have been taken; they were

made with a centimetre rule, but not on the correct anthropometrical

principles. The Indians stood against the side of the house to be

measured, and I registered their height by the simple process of placing

the ruler on the head and measuring its distance from the ground.[418]

The bone of the Indian’s skull is thick, and both dolichocephalic and

brachycephalic types are in evidence.[419]

The Indian does not run to fat, rather is he inclined to be thin, but

strong, muscular and healthy, with rounded outline and finely-developed

chest. The Witoto, however, though broad and strong, fail in the limbs,

their legs especially lack development. On this point my observations

tally with Robuchon’s notes. The Tukana have a magnificent physique. The

Andoke, though some are tall, with large frames, as a group incline more

to breadth of both face and figure. The tribes of the Tikie are of a low

grade.

The Indians as a rule, have hands of an average size, with stumpy

fingers, and short, spatulate nails. Constant manual labour of some

sort would seem to keep the nails naturally of a normal length. I never

remember seeing an Indian pare his nails, but fear this is a point that

may have escaped my observation. The men’s arms are frequently distorted,

and the shoulders gain an artificial breadth by the use of ligatures to

swell the muscles of the upper arm by means of constriction.

The natural symmetry of the Indian’s person is further enhanced by slight

hips, flat buttocks. The abdomen seldom protrudes though the navel is

prominent, but not to the same extent as is found among negroes.

[Illustration: PLATE LI.

1 & 2. WITOTO TYPES.

3. WITOTO FROM KOTUE RIVER]

The men generally have large feet,[420] with long toes. Both men and

women have very prehensile toes, and will pick up objects off the ground

with their feet rather than trouble to stoop. They are flat-footed.

The Indian does not extend his legs when he walks, as Europeans do. He

moves rather with the action of an unathletic woman. His step is on an

average about two-thirds of an ordinary man’s thirty-inch pace. The foot

is of necessity raised well above the ground, on account of the lianas

which would trip the slovenly walker. This does not make for rapid

progression. But though he walks more slowly than the white man, the

Indian can keep up a jog-trot of about five miles an hour for tremendous

distances. Moreover his wind is far better than any white man’s. At a

push, to get away from hostile neighbours for example, he is capable of

going sixty miles a day. In ordinary circumstances he walks nowhere,

except about the house and compounds. Consequently he has developed a

different set of muscles from the ordinary pedestrian.

As the Boro are more harassed than the Witoto they march as a rule in

silence, while the Witoto are noisy generally; but a march in country

that might prove hostile is done in silence by every tribe for obvious

reasons. In friendly country the Indians go along chattering and joking,

or in silence, just as the spirit moves them: there is no rule. The

necessity for walking in single file, and the invariable difficulties

of the route, do not, however, altogether encourage conversation. These

restricted paths have a further influence upon the Indian. Often enough

it is necessary to place one foot directly in front of the other in

order to find any footway at all. This is the probable reason, or one of

the reasons, why the men walk with a straight foot, a specially needed

precaution on the narrow bridges, that are merely formed of single

trees. The women walk in rather a stilted fashion, with the toes turned

inwards at an angle of some thirty degrees, on account of the tight

ligatures they wear below the knee and above the ankle, which cause the

calf to swell to enormous proportions, as has been noted. This may not

inconceivably have a contracting effect in the angle of the foot. It is

regarded as a sign of power if the muscles of the thighs are made to come

in contact with each other when walking.

That the men run and jump well is due to their good wind, but they have

no pace, and could easily be outstripped over a limited course by an

average white man in good condition. But the women neither run nor jump

with any facility, as they all suffer from varicose veins, caused by the

ligatures to some extent, but also by the burdens they carry, and from

labouring in the fields when in a condition unsuited to such physical

exertion. As weights are carried on the back suspended by a strap

across the forehead, the tendency to stoop or grow round-shouldered is

counteracted, for the pull of the strap brings the head back, and the

strain is taken by the muscles of the neck.[421] Water is always carried

in vessels balanced on the head, and though the Amazonian Indian may not

have the superb carriage of her sisters in the East, yet the young girls

at least are very well set up, though with advancing age a lifetime of

field work and burden-bearing may bow the elder women till they walk, as

described by Robuchon, “in an inclined position.”

The Indian woman has generally a beautiful figure, well proportioned

and supple, with high, straight shoulders. Untrammelled by dress she is

graceful and free in her actions. Before marriage the women have very

small breasts, but after they have borne a child the breasts develop

considerably. Old women, probably on account of poorer nourishment, are

very flat-chested, and one never sees a woman with very pendent breasts.

In the older women they atrophy.[422]

There is great individuality in the faces of the Amazonian Indians. A

tribe is no herd of sheep, differentiated only to the experienced eye

of the shepherd; the dissimilarities of countenance are immediately

apparent, and even to the most casual observer Indians show marked

variety of face and colour and feature. Like all savages the Indians

admire most the lightest coloured skins. The divergence of colour is

both tribal and racial; and as a rule it will be found that the higher

the type the better the physical development, and the greater the mental

capacity, the lighter will be the skin. On account of the saturation of

the atmosphere the Indians mostly have skins of a good texture. I never

found rough skins on Indians in these districts.[423] Of all the tribes

the Menimehe have the lightest complexions, and they are invariably

fatter and in better condition than the surrounding tribal groups.

[Illustration: PLATE LII.

COMBS--1. ANDOKE COMB WITH NUTSHELL CUP FOR RUBBER LATEX

2. WITOTO COMB

3. BORO COMB]

I have mentioned the custom of covering a new-born infant with rubber

milk either for warmth or to protect the skin; the women daub themselves

with gum and a yellow clay because it is supposed to preserve the skin;

but none of these peoples use any oil for lubricating purposes, and they

are free from any noxious-smelling secretion. The smell of a negro they

consider most offensive, but do not extend this dislike to the white man.

The Indian owes his immunity from this unpleasant trait in part because

he does not perspire at all freely, perhaps to difference of glandular

secretion, and in part to frequent ablutions. Yet, though even a dirty

people like the Witoto will bathe at least three times a day and most

tribes far more often, these Indians, as has already been noted, are by

no means free of body parasites. Head lice may be said to be universal,

and in addition jiggers and the red tick that drops off leaves in the

forest and burrows under the human skin, there is another burrowing

parasite that invades the human body to lay its eggs, which is extremely

common among these people. One is apt to be infested with these pests

merely from touching an Indian, certainly by lying in an Indian hammock.

The parasite causes considerable irritation, and the local remedy is to

apply babasco juice.

Except in the case of a medicine-man, who never depilates, hair is

looked upon as dirt; therefore it is always removed, only the hair

of the head being permitted to grow. Depilation is usually done just

before a dance. The method of removal adopted is to cover the hirsute

parts with rubber latex. This is allowed to dry, so that a grip can be

obtained and the hair removed simply with the forefinger and thumb or by

means of two small pieces of cane. Two persons will, as far as facial

hairs are concerned, depilate one another. It is universally considered

a sign of cleanliness to remove all the body hairs, and even to pull

out the eyebrows and eyelashes.[424] That the eyebrows are not removed

for æsthetic purposes is proved by the fact that the effect is promptly

reproduced with paint. It is not easy to get information with regard to

the removal of body hair,[425] but I was able to obtain a little from a

Karahone slave boy who was with an Andoke tribe I met. He told me that

the Karahone did not depilate the hair of the face. This is the one

exception among these tribes.

On the authority of Schomburgh, im Thurn states that occasionally when

there is great demonstration of grief at a burial “the survivors crop

their hair.” So far as my experience went none of the Indians of the

Upper Amazons ever “crop” the hair close, except that of young girls when

danger threatens. Should there be any reason to suppose that some man is

inclined to steal a girl, her hair might be closely cut as a preventive

measure to save the child from being kidnapped, for a hairless woman is

looked upon as a social outcast among the tribes. The young Indians have

long hair that often reaches to below the small of the back, but this

length does not continue, and it is a varying quantity among the adults.

The hair is uniformly scattered over the scalp, and is coarse in texture,

lank, and very abundant. Baldness is unknown, and greyness, as with the

negroes, is very rare. I have only seen grey hair on a few people of

apparently unusual age. In colour it is almost uniformly black, a red-

not a blue-black, which gives it an occasional brown glint. Some of the

children are lighter-haired, but such a variation as red hair is unknown,

though in the sunlight the women’s hair may take a reddish gleam. Both

women and children have finer hair than the men, and with young children

it is often quite downy. As a rule it is straight, but among the Tukana

wavy hair is more evident.

Among the greater part of these peoples the hair is not cut, either by

the men or women. The Karahone men cut their hair to the shoulders; the

Boro women, and in some cases the men, trim theirs round very much as is

often seen among our small girls. Sometimes the Witoto women trim their

lank locks. This is done with a knife if they have one, otherwise it is

singed. With the Menimehe and Karahone it grows very low on the forehead.

The Tikie tribes have most untidy and ill-kept hair.

Owing to race--possibly of Mongoloid origin--and to the prevalence of

depilatory customs, the men have scanty beards, if any.

On the whole these Indians hold their own in the matter of good looks,

even the lowest types are not repulsive in appearance. I mean, of course,

to the eye of the stranger, not according to their individual standard

of beauty. In feature both the various language-groups and the tribes

of each group show many grades. It may be taken as usual that with a

lighter skin the nose and lips are thinner than among those with darker

colouring. The Boro and the Resigero, both comparatively light-skinned

groups, have thin lips. This naturally follows from what I have already

said as to colour and type, the higher type possessing, as would be

expected, the more refined features. The Boro, taken as a group, are

the best looking, many of them are very handsome, and some of the Andoke

also are notably well favoured in appearance. “Noble” is Koch-Grünberg’s

decision on the question of the Tukana tribesmen’s appearance. The

Okaina, also, must be classed as good looking.

[Illustration: PLATE LIII.

BORO TRIBESMAN FROM THE PAMA RIVER

A MENIMEHE CAPTIVE]

It seems somewhat of a contradiction after this to remark that a squint

is so common a trait among these tribes that one cannot but notice

immediately any one with normal eyes. This is, however, with the

exception of the Tukana, very prevalent among all these tribes. The

eyes are not large, and are deeply set. They are black in colour with

occasional yellowness of the eyeball, but never to the degree seen in the

bilious eye of the negro. Both eyesight and hearing are very acute. In

the bush, or in the dark, the tribesmen have most penetrating sight, and

can distinguish details at a glance where the ordinary white man can see

nothing of any description. In the sun, or any strong light, their sight

is inferior.

It is difficult to judge what an Indian’s ears would be like if left to

Nature’s fashioning, as they are invariably distorted to more or less

degree by artificial means. They are frequently prominent, and do not

appear to be set close to the head in any case. The large ear-plugs will

pull the lobe of the ear half-way down the neck and more. Nose-boring is

not carried to so disfiguring an extent. The Boro, especially the women

of those tribes, bore the wing of the nose--a custom peculiar to this

people--as well as the septum, which is also bored by Muenane and Witoto

women, but the nose pins are small, and do not distort the feature as

the ear-plugs do the ear. The Tukana’s nose has naturally large alæ. The

tribes on the Tikie also have broad noses, with prominent cheek-bones, a

characteristic noted by Wallace among the Kuretu.[426]

The Indian’s chin is narrow, small, rounded, and, especially in the case

of the women, retreating. There is no dimple or cleft. The teeth are big

and even, and very rarely found projecting.

The Indian’s expression is stolid enough ordinarily, but when talking

he has much play of feature, and he will gesticulate freely under the

influence of coca. Among the tribes to the south of the Japura a man will

look a stranger straight in the face, but north of that river the native

has a more furtive glance. The Indian’s gaze is intense.

They are never demonstrative of affection, and, though they will touch a

white man as a salutation, never touch each other. By this I mean that

when friendlily disposed an Indian would return a white man’s salute,

the offer of the hand, but no Indian would grasp a fellow-tribesman’s

hand, or put an arm around his neck. Kissing is unknown among these

people. Crevaux records that he saw children among the Calina kiss to

show affection, but the nearest approach to an embrace I ever witnessed

was a slap on the shoulder, probably under the shoulder-blade, which is

the salutation between great friends. Mothers of course fondle their

children, and I have even seen a woman with her arm round her husband,

but such an exhibition is considered barely decent. Neither do they

exhibit grief by weeping. The girl children cry occasionally, but no

child ever screams; and adults may whine but never shed tears.

As regards brain-power, the Boro group are the most intelligent, with

the possible exception of the Menimehe. I invariably found the Boro

exceedingly anxious to learn from me anything they judged might be of

utility to themselves. They evinced a definitely intelligent interest,

not to be confounded with the ordinary curiosity of the untaught. Among

all these peoples the power of mental development ceases after they have

attained puberty.

One limitation that is to be noticed with all of them is their inability

to grasp any chronological data. They have nothing in the way of a tally

of any description, and in speaking use the vaguest expressions only

for reckoning. It is my opinion, based on observation of the number of

generations still living at any one time, that these people live to an

advanced age. They grow elderly at from twenty-five to thirty years, and

may, under favourable conditions, live another half-century or more.

This is borne out by the fact that I found occasionally a man with grey

hair--a sign in all coloured peoples, and I believe in Mongoloid peoples,

of great age. But no Indian can give any information as to his own age,

or the age of his children. For him age is non est, time of little value.

He cannot tell you when he came to the neighbourhood in which you find

him, though obviously only a year or two may have been passed there. His

day is regulated to some extent by the rising and the setting of the

sun, portioned only by its height in the heavens. If but occasion serve,

one or other of the warriors, drunk with coca, will talk the whole night

through, excitedly recounting some folk-tale, or endlessly boasting his

feats in the hunt or on the war-path. The interruption is not resented by

his comrades, nor does it seem to interfere with their slumber. Indians,

in fact, never appear to sleep much, or rather they sleep little and

often, as chance offers. Night is no more the time of repose than day,

except in so far as darkness puts a stop to certain of their avocations.

When sleeping on the ground an Indian curls up on one side with his knees

to his chin, or he sleeps on his stomach, seldom lying on the back.[427]

Though, as has been noted, they sleep with no wrap or covering, these

Indians are most sensitive to climatic changes. They are decidedly

susceptible to a difference of locality, and, more than this, in a

land where the extreme contrast of temperature is no more than twenty

degrees throughout the year, with an average of half that total, they are

affected by even slight variations of temperature. They fear the cold of

the early morning, and, accustomed as they are to the half-lights of the

forest, they dislike sunshine, and prefer to keep in the shade, fearful

of sun-sickness if exposed to the sun.

It has been suggested by some travellers that the curious habit of the

Indians of inducing sickness every morning by means of a feather was

based on the idea that any food which was retained in the stomach all

night must be unwholesome and ought to be removed immediately.[428] I

have often seen the Indians do this, but always put it down to a desire

to rid the stomach of the non-absorbent constituents of the coca powder,

as only the men, who alone may take coca, resort to this practice. The

Indian in the early morning drinks an infusion of herbs, as I have

already mentioned, which induces the removal of such substances by

vomiting, although not taken primarily for this purpose.

Sickness is also secured with the fingers after a prohibitive quantity

of cahuana has been drunk, as afore noted, during a big dance. Having

imbibed to his utmost capacity, the Indian adopts this simple expedient

to enable him to drink again.

The tribes of the upper Amazons are, comparatively with others, very

cleanly. But it is only comparatively. The Boro are the cleanest, and the

Witoto unquestionably the most dirty. Immediately on rising all Indians

resort to the river, but except among the Boro and the Resigeros, who rub

themselves with sand, the performance can hardly be called washing, it is

simply bathing. The Nonuya and Muenane are cleanly, like the Resigero.

Even the Andoke, though they use no sand, are cleaner than the Witoto,

for this tribe never wash, and only take a dip two or three times a day,

while at least five times is the ordinary rule with the majority.[429]

The first duty of the morning is a visit, as has been said, to the

bathing-place. Thither troop the old and the young, both male and female,

to wash and revive in the water. They do not attempt to rub their bodies

dry, but are content to let the moisture evaporate when they emerge from

the stream. When on a march or out hunting Indians will always bathe in

any water available on the route. They go in streaming with perspiration,

but seem to suffer no ill-effects. Bates has described them as “taking

merely a sitz-bath” like a dog,[430] but they seemed to me to bathe as

any ordinary person would who went into the water to get cool.

After returning from war the Indians bathe scrupulously before they

re-enter the house. It is in the nature of a ceremonial washing, and

possibly is a subconscious act of purification, though the Indians,

when asked the reason, told me only that it was _pia_, our custom. In

fact lustration with the Indian is too frequent an action to keep any

ceremonial significance it may ever have had.

It follows as a matter of course with people so familiar with water that

one and all are expert swimmers. The Indian of the Amazons invariably

swims as naturally as he walks, and with as little tuition. From the hour

of his birth he has been conversant with the river, and in a climate

where the temperature of the water varies but little from 75° to 80° or

more, he regards a dip as his chief solace. He never passes a stream

without taking advantage of its proximity to bathe, and the fact that he

may have recently fed, or that he is perspiring freely, does not hinder

him from a plunge, and makes no difference to his enjoyment.

In swimming the Indian paddles like a dog, and does not attempt to attain

to anything approaching the breast-stroke of the European, nor does he

extend the legs widely. He flexes the legs sharply upon the trunk, and,

suddenly stretching them in a straight line, drives the body forward.

The stroke is not a tiring one, and the native is capable of undergoing

long immersion without suffering exhaustion, but the speed he can acquire

is not remarkable. For that matter there are no reasons why the Indian

should desire to make rapid progression. Swimming to him is an adjunct to

bathing, or a means to cross a stream; its finer developments trouble him

not at all. In the muddy rivers of the Amazons there is nothing to tempt

the native to dive, nor are there suitable places to jump off the banks.

The Indian slips in as best suits the occasion, and does not aspire to

exhibition feats, or to water games.

[Illustration: PLATE LIV.

WITOTO TYPES

WITOTO WOMAN WITH LEG LIGATURES]

When bathing the Indian is exposed to a certain element of danger from

fish that inflict varying degrees of injury. There is the stinging eel,

and skate of some sort and another stinging fish,[431] the caneiro, and

the piranha. Electric fish are less common in the upper rivers than in

the main streams, and I never noticed one Indian of the Issa-Japura

tribes take any special precaution against them, though elsewhere the

natives will beat and prod the water with rods before they bathe, to

discover, if possible, whether any eels are lurking in the vicinity.

The caneiro’s method of attack is by suction, not shock. They are

very plentiful in all these rivers, and their power of suction is

most extraordinary. I am not likely to forget the first time I made

acquaintance with one of these voracious little fish. It suddenly

attacked, or rather attached itself with its sucker-like mouth, to the

inner side of my leg. The sensation was most alarming. I made with all

possible speed to land. The caneiro certainly sucks up the flesh rapidly

and painfully, but I am doubtful if it really “tears off pieces of the

skin and flesh,” as it is said to do.[432] The piranha, though quite a

small fish,[433] is even more ferocious. It will attack anything, and is

said to be capable of reducing a large animal to a skeleton in the space

of a few minutes. There is a story, repeated elsewhere, that one very

small fish is actually a human parasite. The Indians aver that it will

enter the body of a man when bathing. Orton mentions this fish, which

according to him is “a slender silurid fish (_Vandellia_)” but remarks

that he never met “with one confirmatory case.”[434] Neither did I. But I

found that all Indians take precautions against it when bathing.

APPENDIX II

MONGOLOID ORIGIN

On the vexed question of original Asiatic extraction what little evidence

I have to offer is in general support of the theory that some at least

of the ancestral stock probably found their way hither from Asia,

or--what is more in accordance with the laws of migration as so far

ascertained--spread from the American to the Asiatic continent. There is

undeniably a marked prevalence of what are recognised as Mongoloid traits

among these peoples. I fully accept Ratzel’s dictum, “We may hold firmly

to the relationship of the Americans with the East Oceanic branch of the

Mongoloid race.”[435] To quote another writer, “As Burton remarks, this

strain demonstrates itself in big round Calmuck skulls, flat faces, with

broad, prominent cheek-bones, oblique oriental eyes, rather brown than

black. They have also dark thick eyebrows, and thin moustaches fringing

large mouths, with pointed teeth and sparse beards hardly covering the

long pointed chin.”[436] The truth of this description can be judged from

the illustrations in this volume. The most casual observer must notice

the prevalence of Mongoloid facial characteristics prevalent among the

South American Indians, such as obliquity of eye, prominent cheek-bones,

broad flat nose. My own observations led me to conclude that the

Mongoloid type was very pronounced in individual cases, so much so that

I estimated at least one per cent to be of a pure Chinese type, and my

common name for them (_vide_ my note on secrecy of individual names, p.

154) was Chin-Chin. I would refer to such illustrations as that facing p.

254 in the second volume of Spruce’s _Notes of a Naturalist_. (See again

Spruce, i. 328; Orton, p. 170, for references to prevalent obliquity of

eye.) On the other hand, Bates remarks of the Tupuyo that “their eyes are

black and seldom oblique like those of the Tartar races” (Bates, i. 78);

and Wallace remarks, “I never could discern an unusual obliquity of the

eyes” (Wallace, p. 332). I cannot agree with this statement. The latter,

however, noted the prominent cheek-bone among the Curetu (p. 354); and

Orton refers to it and to the flat nose (Orton, p. 170).

Further characteristics in common among Mongoloid peoples and these

tribes are the customs of shaving or depilating facial hair, and a

prolonged period of suckling the young (_vide_ Westermarck, p. 484).

APPENDIX III

DEPILATION

All tribes south of the Japura remove hair, except that on the head.

Tukana depilate body hair.

Tuyuha men depilate armpits, not pudenda: women depilate pudenda.

Kuretu--all depilate.

Purakato, according to Koch-Grünberg, do not depilate.

Karahone are said not to depilate. This (see text) is debatable. I

believe that they pluck out the hair of the chin and whiskers, but leave

eyebrows and moustache.

Bara--women only depilate.

Menimehe--all depilate, but the women are not so careful about it as the

Boro.

Boro--all depilate.

Witoto--men more careless, women depilate.

Tuhana, according to Koch-Grünberg, do not depilate.

Okaina--all depilate.

Resigero--all depilate.

Muenane--all depilate.

These tribes have no body hair, except pubic hair, which is very scanty.

The Indian women are most particular about the removal of all pubic hair.

The men are less careful, though it is supposed to be done, but as that

part of their bodies is never voluntarily exposed they are more heedless

than the women.

APPENDIX IV

COLOUR ANALYSIS AND MEASUREMENTS

COLOUR

(_Vide_ Colour Curve. Tintometer.)

1. Menimehe--lightest.

2. Resigero.

3. Okaina.

4. Boro.

5. Nonuya.

6. Andoke.

7. Karahone.

8. Muenane.

9. Witoto.

Robuchon gives the colours of the Witotos as brown-copper colour,

varying between twenty-nine and thirty of the chromatic scale of the

Anthropologicas of Paris.

COLOUR ANALYSIS

_Unexposed Part--Armpit_

+---------------+-----------------------------------------------------+

| Substance | Matching Standards. Colour developed. |

| examined. +------+---------+-------+--------+---------+---------+

| | Red. | Yellow. | Blue. | Black. | Orange. | Red. |

+---------------+------+---------+-------+--------+---------+---------+

| Witoto } | | | | | | |

| Muenane } | | | | | | |

| Karahone } | 3.6 | 2.8 | 1.6 | 1.6 | .2 | .8 |

| Andoke } | | | | | | |

| Nonuya } | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | |

| Boro } | | | | | | |

| Okaina } | | | | | | |

| Resigero } | 3.3 | 2.7 | 1.5 | 1.5 | .2 | .6 |

| Menimehe } | | | | | | |

+---------------+------+---------+-------+--------+---------+---------+

Mean average attempted by means of colour markings and identified

according to Lovibond’s tintometer scale.

There was practically no tribal differentiation of pigmentation in the

units of these groups, as far as the unexposed part of the body is

concerned. This is understandable. The palm of the nigger’s hand differs

little from his white brother’s.

COLOUR ANALYSIS

_Exposed Part--Back_

+---------------+-----------------------------------------------------+

| Substance | Matching Standards. Colour developed. |

| examined. +------+---------+-------+--------+---------+---------+

| | Red. | Yellow. | Blue. | Black. | Orange. | Red. |

+---------------+------+---------+-------+--------+---------+---------+

|9. Witoto } | | | | | | |

|8. Muenane } | 10.6 | 9.2 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 3.0 | 1.4 |

| | | | | | | |

|7. Karahone } | | | | | | |

|6. Andoke } | 8.7 | 7.5 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 3.0 | 1.2 |

| | | | | | | |

|5. Nonuya | 8.0 | 7.0 | 4.0 | 4.0 | 3.0 | 1.0 |

| | | | | | | |

|4. Boro } | | | | | | |

|3. Okaina } | 4.9 | 4.4 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 2.9 | .5 |

|2. Resigero } | | | | | | Yellow. |

| | | | | | | |

|1. Menimehe | 3.4 | 4.1 | .7 | .7 | 2.7 | .7[437]|

+---------------+------+---------+-------+--------+---------+---------+

There is here more differentiation. The tribes numbered 1-9 are in order

of shade, from the lightest according to personal observation. This is

borne out by data except the grouping which was not so apparent to the

eye.

Apparently in one tribe only is red non-existent, free yellow taking the

place--No. 1 (_vide_ curve).

[Illustration: COLOUR CURVES OF SKIN PIGMENTATION (INDIANS OF THE MIDDLE

ISSA AND JAPURA VALLEYS)]

_Note._--It will be seen at a glance that differentiation is caused by

increased “sadness” or excess of black, and by the amount of free red.

These are the two governing factors. Orange is constant throughout.

_N.B._--There is extraordinary variation amongst individuals of the

same tribe, as well as amongst tribes of the same language-group and

language-groups themselves.

HUIS’ MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLES OF WOMEN’S HAIR

No. 1. Maturity.

No. 2. Ante-pubertal.

_Note._--The lighter tips of latter which become eliminated after

puberty, _i.e._ elimination of _orange_.

+--------------+------+---------+--------------+--------+---------+

| | Red. | Yellow. | Blue. Black. | Green. | Yellow. |

+--------------+------+---------+--------------+--------+---------+

| No. 1 | 19.5 | 31.0 | 28.0 = 19.5 | 8.5 | 3.0 |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | Orange.| |

| No. 2 | 18.5 | 26.0 | 17.0 = 17.0 | 1.5 | 7.5 |

| | | | | | |

| Light tips } | | | | Green. | |

| Dark ends } | 19 | 26.0 | 25.0 = 19.0 | 6.0 | 1.0 |

+--------------+------+---------+--------------+--------+---------+

_Descriptive Characters_

_Eye._--1. Dark, _i.e._ black-brown iris. _Note._--Outer angles of eyes

visibly elevated; deep-set; eyeball thick; covers the caruncle; outer

angle slightly compressed and pointed.

_Hair._--_Colours_--1. Black, _not coal_ black. 2. Children’s hair is

some shade lighter than adults’, but still “black.”

_Form of Face._--1. Face inclined to be square and wedge-shaped. 2.

Inclined to concavity. 3. Compare photographs. 4. Chinese, Fig. 6,

but not so pronounced. (_N.B._--There is great variation.) 5. Chin

small, round, retreating. 6. Cheek-bones broad. Face flat (inclination

to, _vide_ photographs). 7. Medium lips--great variation. 8. Ears

medium-sized--flat. 9. Lobes sometimes attached.

MEASUREMENTS OF TYPES[438] IN CENTIMETRES

+-------------+-----------------+-----------------+

| | Head--Round. | Head--Across. |

| Tribe. +-----------------+-----------------+

| | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. |

+-------------+-----------------+-----------------+

| 1. Resigero | 56 | 53 | 14 | 14 |

| 2. Nonuya | 56 | 51 | 16 | 14 |

| 3. Boro | 56 | 52 | 18 | 15 |

| 4. Andoke | 57 | 53 | 17 | 16 |

| 5. Witoto | 54 | -- | 15 | -- |

+-------------+-----------------+-----------------+

+-------------+-------------------+------------------+

| | Head-Length. | Neck. |

| +---------+---------+--------+---------+

| Tribe. | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. |

+-------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+

| 1. Resigero | 20 | 18 | Short | Short |

| 2. Nonuya | 21.5 | 19 | Long | Short |

| 3. Boro | 24 | 20 | Short | Long |

| 4. Andoke | 22 | 19 | Medium | Short |

| 5. Witoto | 21 | -- | Short | -- |

+-------------+---------+---------+--------+---------+

+-------------+-------------------------------+------------------+

| Tribe. | Cheek-Bones. | Mouth. |

| +---------------+---------------+----------+-------+

| | Male. | Female. | Male. |Female.|

+-------------+---------------+---------------+----------+-------+

| 1. Resigero | High, not | High, not | Moderate | Large |

| | pronounced | pronounced | | |

| 2. Nonuya | Very high | High, not | Large | Large |

| | | pronounced | | |

| 3. Boro | Wide, high | Wide, high | Small | Small |

| 4. Andoke | -- | -- | Small | Small |

| 5. Witoto | Wide, high | -- | Large | -- |

+-------------+---------------+---------------+----------+-------+

+-------------+---------------------+--------------------+

| Tribe. | Teeth. | Eyes. |

| +-------------+-------+----------+---------+

| | Male. |Female.| Male. | Female. |

+-------------+-------------+-------+----------+---------+

| 1. Resigero | Large | Large | Oblique | Oblique |

| 2. Nonuya | -- | -- | Deep-set | Oblique |

| 3. Boro | -- | -- | Deep-set | Oblique |

| 4. Andoke | -- | -- | Slightly | Oblique |

| | | | oblique | |

| 5. Witoto | Large, even | -- | Oblique | -- |

+-------------+-------------+-------+----------+---------+

+-------------+-----------------------+---------------+

| Tribe. | Nose. | Height. |

| +-----------+-----------+-------+-------+

| | Male. | Female. | Male. |Female.|

+-------------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+

| 1. Resigero | Straight | Broad, | 160 | 138 |

| | | bridged | | |

| 2. Nonuya | Aquiline | Flat | 168 | 149 |

| 3. Boro | Depressed | Depressed | 162 | 146 |

| 4. Andoke | Aquiline | Depressed | 171 | 146 |

| 5. Witoto | Flat | -- | 164 | -- |

+-------------+-----------+-----------+-------+-------+

+-------------+---------------+---------------+

| Tribe. | Chest--Round. | Waist. |

| +-------+-------+-------+-------+

| | Male. |Female.| Male. |Female.|

+-------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

| 1. Resigero | 85 | 75 | 73 | 71 |

| 2. Nonuya | 87 | 79 | 73 | 75 |

| 3. Boro | 88 | 75 | 77 | 65 |

| 4. Andoke | 89 | 82 | 76 | 76 |

| 5. Witoto | 90 | -- | 77 | -- |

+-------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

+-------------+---------------+------------------------+

| Tribe. | Hips--Round. |Tip Shoulder-Tip Elbow. |

| +-------+-------+------------+-----------+

| | Male. |Female.| Male. | Female. |

+-------------+-------+-------+------------+-----------+

| 1. Resigero | 82 | 79 | 35 | 28 |

| 2. Nonuya | 83 | 88 | 35 | 32 |

| 3. Boro | 87 | 81 | 34 | 30 |

| 4. Andoke | 90 | 87 | 38 | 33 |

| 5. Witoto | 84 | -- | 36 | -- |

+-------------+-------+-------+------------+-----------+

+------------+---------------------------+-----------------------+

| Tribe. |Elbow to Top Middle Finger.|Eminence Buttock to Tip|

| | | Flexed Knee.[439] |

| +-------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+

| | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. |

+------------+-------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+

| 1. Resiger | 45 | 39 | 52 | 44 |

| 2. Nonuya | 47 | 41 | 53 | 48 |

| 3. Boro | 46 | 42 | 47 | 45 |

| 4. Andoke | 48 | 40 | 53 | 48 |

| 5. Witoto | 44 | -- | 52 | -- |

+------------+-------------+-------------+-----------+-----------+

+-------------+-----------------------------+------------------------+

| Tribe. |Crutch to Tip of Flexed Knee.|Eminence Knee to Ground.|

| +---------------+-------------+-------------+----------+

| | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. |

+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+----------+

| 1. Resigero | 37 | 28 | 51 | 44 |

| 2. Nonuya | 40 | 31 | 53 | 45 |

| 3. Boro | 36 | 32 | 51 | 45 |

| 4. Andoke | 41 | 33 | 55 | 44 |

| 5. Witoto | 38 | -- | 52 | -- |

+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+----------+

+-------------+-----------------------------+-------------------------+

| | Feet. |Distance between Nipples.|

| Tribe. +--------------+--------------+------------+------------+

| | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. |

+-------------+--------------+--------------+------------+------------+

| 1. Resigero | Broad, large | Broad, small | 20 | 23 |

| 2. Nonuya | Long | Broad | 21.5 | 23 |

| 3. Boro | Large | Small | 23 | 22 |

| 4. Andoke | Large, broad | Medium | 22 | 20 |

| 5. Witoto | Large, broad | -- | 22 | -- |

+-------------+--------------+--------------+------------+------------+

+--------------+---------------------------+--------------------------+

| |Length from Centre Nipples | |

| | to Navel. | Navel to Crutch. |

| Tribe. +-------------+-------------+-------------+------------+

| | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. |

+--------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------+

| 1. Resigero | 23 | 24 | 19 | 19 |

| 2. Nonuya | 25 | 22 | 24 | 20 |

| 3. Boro | 21 | 22 | 20 | 20 |

| 4. Andoke | 25 | 25 | 24 | 23 |

| 5. Witoto | 26 | 22 | -- | -- |

+--------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------+

+----------------------+----------------------------------------------+

| | Remarks. |

| Tribe. |-------------------+--------------------------+

| | Male. | Female. |

+----------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+

| 1. Resigero | Moderate | Plump |

| 2. Nonuya | Lean | Fat |

| 3. Boro | Well-nourished | Well-nourished |

| 4. Andoke | Well-nourished | Very plump |

| 5. Witoto | Well-nourished | -- |

+----------------------+----------------------------------------------+

ESSENTIAL MEASUREMENTS

_Two Cases, Women, Witoto_

Centimetres.

1.} Head {Maximum length 17.3 18.15

2.} {Maximum breadth 13.85 13.9

3.} Nose{Length from base to root 4.3 4.0

4.} {Breadth across nostrils 3.0 3.0

5.} {From vertex to root of nose 9.2 10.0

6.} Projection { ” ” mouth 16.0 14.2

7.} of head { ” ” chin 19.0 17.4

8.} { ” ” tragus of ear 10.7 12.0

9. Bizygomalic breadth of face 12.75 12.0

9. Face length from nasim to chin 10.2 9.3

10. Length of upper limb 60.0[440]

11. ” cubit 38.0

12. ” hand along its back 15.0

13. ” foot 23.0

14. Sitting height 72.0

15. Kneeling height 103.75

16. Standing height 139.5

17. (Obvious) height to chin 120.5

18. Height to sternal notch 117.0

19. Height from internal malleolus to ground 6.4

20. Span of arms 140.5

EXTRA NOTES ON TWO WOMEN, WITOTO (chosen types)

No. 1. Very short neck; short sternum; straight shoulders. When standing

at ease the middle finger of hand is half-way between flexion of knee and

hip-joint. Thighs short.

No. 2. Neck short; shoulders straight; good teeth--very large and even.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF TWO INDIAN WOMEN FOR EVOLVING A TYPE. BOTH

WITOTO-SPEAKING

No. 1. Woman full grown. No. 2. Still growing, of pubertal age. According

to _Schedule_, pp. 11, Anatomical Observation.

_External Characters._--General condition well nourished--healthy. No. 1.

Stout. No. 2. Medium.

_Descriptive Characters._

A. Colour of skin.

No. 1. Exposed part light reddish-brown.

No. 2. Unexposed part--very much lighter, and

tintometer curve, etc.

B. Colour of eyes. Black.

No. 1. Dark-brown iris.

No. 2. Black iris.

C. Fold of skin at inner angle of eyes.

No. 1. } Covering the caruncle.

No. 2 }

D. Colour of hair.

No. 1. } Black, brown in sunlight,

No. 2. } _i.e._ brown-black.

E. Character of hair (_vide_ Section of Hair).

No. 1. } Straight and coarse (horse hair but finer).

No. 2. }

F. Amount of hair.

No. 1. Body very very scanty, depilation not recent.

No. 2. Face _nil_. Body _nil_.

G. Shape of face.

No. 1. Short. Broad.

No. 2. Pyramidal. Wedge-shaped.

H. Profile of nose.

No. 1. Chinese type.

No. 2. Chinese type, but not so pronounced, between

this and European.

I. Prognathism.

No. 1. Slight.

No. 2. Very slight.

J. Lips.

No. 1. Medium--slightly everted.

No. 2. Medium European type.

K.

No. 1. } Platyoprosopic _not_ excessive.

No. 2. }

APPENDIX V

ARTICLES NOTED BY WALLACE AS IN USE AMONG THE UAUPES INDIANS THAT ARE

FOUND WITH THE ISSA-JAPURA TRIBES

_Household Furniture and Utensils_

Hammocks.

Baskets, flat and deep.

Calabashes and gourds.

Earthenware water-pots.

Earthenware cooking-pots.

Manioc graters.

Manioc squeezers.

Wicker sieves.

_Weapons_

Bows and arrows.

Quivers.

Blow-pipes.

Small pots and calabashes for poison.

Spears.

Nets.

Rods, lines, and palm-spine hooks.

Wicker fish-traps.

_Musical Instruments_

Fifes and flutes of reeds--Menimehe and Napo tribes.

_Dress and Ornaments_

Feather head-dress.

Palm-wood combs.

Necklaces of seeds, beads, and teeth.

Wooden ear-plugs.

Armlets.

Painted aprons.

Rattles and ornaments for legs.

Knitted garters.

Calabashes of red pigment.

Painted earthen pot for _caapi_.

Small pot of dried peppers.

Dancing rattles.

Balls of string.

Baskets for edible ants.

Small dug-out canoe.

Paddles.

Pestles and mortars.

_Bombax_ silk-cotton for arrows.

Stone axes.

APPENDIX VI

NAMES OF DEITIES

Many writers have stated that the Indians of the Upper Amazon forests

have no words in their languages to express a Supreme Being. (See, for

example, Bates, i. 162; Wallace, p. 354; Nery, p. 273; Orton, p. 316;

Bates, ii. 137, 162-3; Markham.) It therefore seemed to me worth while to

make the following list of words expressive of some idea of a superior,

non-human being, good or bad.

Tribe. | Good Spirit. | Bad Spirit.

Amazon (proper) | | _Curupira_

| | _Diabo do mato_

| | (Spruce, ii. 437)

Atabayoo, Inivida | _Cachimana_ | _Iolokiamo_

(Orinoco tribes) | (Humboldt, ii. 362) | (Humboldt, ii. 362)

Baniwa | _Diotso_ | _Yenauepena_

| | (Koch-Grünberg)

| | _Ienahabapen_

| | (Tavera-Acosta)

Baré | _Diose_ (Sp. _Dios._) | _Iyehe_

| (Koch-Grünberg, | (Koch-Grünberg)

| p. 92) |

| _Oayaba_ |

| (Spix) |

Boro | _Neva_[441] | _Navena_[442]

Bororo | | _Bope_[443]

| | (Cook, p. 55)

Casiquiari | | _Yamadu_

| | (Spruce, ii. 437)

Equatorial Andes | | _Munyia_

| | (Spruce, ii. 437)

Guayana | | _Yawahoo_

| | (Bancroft and

| | Stedman, Spruce,

| | ii. 437)

Hypurina | | _Kamiri_

| | (Steere, p. 379)

Imihita Miranya | _Nawene_ |

| (Koch-Grünberg, |

| Z. 9081) |

Karutana | | _Inei_

| | (Koch-Grünberg,

| | p. 93)

Katapolitani | | _Iyemi_, _Koai_

| | (Koch-Grünberg,

| | p. 93)

Puru | _Ara_, _Carimade_ | _Arabuny_, _Camery_,

| (Clough, p. 117) | _Mendy_

| | (Clough, p. 117)

Quichua | _Apunchi-yaya_[444] |

| (Orton, p. 628) |

Siusi | _Yaperikuli_[445] | _Iyeimi_

| (Koch-Grünberg, | (Koch-Grünberg,

| p. 92) | p. 93)

Tamanac | _Amulivaca_[446] |

| (Humboldt, ii. |

| 473-474). |

Tariana | _Yaperikuli_ | _Iyei_

| (Koch-Grünberg, | (Koch-Grünberg,

| p. 93) | p. 93)

| _Iapiricure_ | _Inhat_

| (Crevaux) | (Crevaux)

Ticuna | _Nanuloa_ | _Locazy_

| (Markham) | (Markham)

Tupi-Guarani | _Tupan_[447] | _Ananga_[448]

| (Nery, p. 281) | (Nery, p. 281)

Uaupes | _Tupanau_ |

| (Wallace, p. 348) |

Uarekena | | _Kue_

| | (Koch-Grünberg,

| | p. 92)

Witoto | _Usiyamoi_,[449] | _Taifeno_, _Taifa_,

| _Husinaimui_ | _Taegfeno_ (spirit),

| (Koch-Grünberg) | _Foremo_ (phantom)

| | (Koch-Grünberg)

_Yagua_ | _Tupana_ |

| (Orton, p. 628) |

Yukuna | | _Hiya_

| | (Koch-Grünberg,

| | p. 93)

Zaparo | _Piatzo_[450] | _Mungia_ (black

| (Orton, p. 628) | spectre)

| | (Orton, p. 170)

| | _Zamaro_

| | (Simson, p. 175)

| | _Samaro_

| | (Simson, p. 263)

APPENDIX VII

VOCABULARIES AND LISTS OF NAMES

_Note re Pronunciation._--Vowels as in Italian and consonants as in

English. The system adopted by the Anthropological and Geographical

Societies has been followed.

SOME WITOTO TRIBES OF THE ISSA-JAPURA WATERSHED

Achopego.

Aifuya.

Aiguya.

Aigwene.

Aimene.

Aiyofo.

Amenane.

Angarofo.

Aniliene.

Arama.

Aronia.

Baienise.

Chaigero.

Chepeye.

Choria.

Dedinuia.

Diguene.

Eguidafo.

Eifuya.

Eikifo.

Emerai.

Emuidifo.

Enao.

Enenea.

Enifofo

Enokaise.

Erai.

Erifo.

Fainya.

Feyagene.

Fitia.

Foetano.

Fueragero.

Futekwene.

Gidone.

Gimene.

Guidua.

Gwamareya

Hane.

Hedua.

Hegero.

Hemui.

Heone.

Heya.

Hifikuine.

Hikoniai.

Himene.

Himua.

Hipunya.

Hitamene.

Homaguya.

Huieku.

Hui-Hui.

Hurae.

Husinene.

Iagero.

Iane.

Iconya.

Ifekwene.

Ipunya.

Isikifo.

Itomangero.

Iyane.

Kaiduya.

Kaio.

Kaniane.

Kaniene.

Kitopeise.

Kokoya.

Kotuene.

Kotwine.

Kuito.

Kumaiere.

Machifuri.

Megiya.

Menia.

Merekweine.

Mereta.

Mikagwe.

Minwa.

Mofuinista.

Mokine.

Monane.

Monanisei.

Monanuise.

Monawike.

Muidofege.

Muititefa.

Muitofeiche.

Naikwene.

Naimene.

Naiuiene.

Nefesa.

Nemuigaro.

Nigwerene.

Nimaita.

Nofuinista.

Nirafo.

Nomene.

Nomuene.

Nongone.

Nonuya.

Nufuidai.

Nufuya.

Nuisai.

Nuiuene.

Owapirei.

Owapure.

Pofaito.

Pueneisa.

Puinaise.

Puineita.

Puruia.

Raikene.

Riai.

Rochegero.

Ruiraga.

Sebua.

Seguene.

Sigwene.

Sikibia.

Sikitaise.

Taigwene.

Taikebua.

Tiase.

Torifa.

Uane.

Uchopego.

Uekanise.

Uguine.

Uiguene.

Uhiya.

Urafo.

Urama.

Utiguene.

Yaaniani.

SOME TRIBES OF THE OKAINA GROUP

Aniokasa.

Dukaiya.

Ekanocha.

Enoya.

Fatite.

Harabahanako.

Konega.

Movanio.

Netarako.

Nimone.

Ofofo.

Pikaha.

Tokoia.

Tonhanoija.

Zohonoija.

SOME BORO TRIBES OF THE ISSA-JAPURA WATERSHED

Atehl.

Bachiwame.

Bakiehe.

Bakohe.

Chemaio.

Chenome.

Chibame.

Dossamehe.

Ibamahe.

Ikepake.

Imene.

Inege.

Itiage.

Ivamehe.

Kontadura.

Kugwamihe.

Kugweme.

Megwae.

Megwamehe.

Mememue.

Metakwe.

Nabeme.

Nevahe.

Nonuya.

Nuremehe.

Oha.

Okaina.

Paheime.

Pei.

Pirehamuena.

Teiere.

Tichibamuene.

Ugwame.

Uhemehe.

Uratefo.

Uwame.

Wanahe.

Warime.

Warine.

Warume.

Wawako.

WITOTO CHIEFS AND MEDICINE-MEN

Aikikwe.

Ainenatofe.

Amenatofe.

Amuiyena.

Bogana.

Diehi.

Diomao.

Eavama.

Echu.

Efuyaima.

Etokwenami.

Fenamena.

Forina.

Hename.

Henatoba.

Hifaro.

Hirevaina.

Huguraitoma

Husinachire.

Itomakuto.

Kaimarigero.

Kutina.

Kutofirima.

Kwegado.

Kwegare.

Magui.

Maiji.

Maiu.

Mayi.

Meinyitofo.

Monagara.

Naimekwe.

Okaima.

Okainama.

Puinanyete.

Puinayeni.

Puineima.

Riaduema.

Sekwana.

Sotaro.

Suneirokwe.

Tifecheamena.

Wamue.

NAMES OF BORO CHIEFS AND MEDICINE-MEN

Adiama.

Adiwako.

Agepa.

Akteume.

Ativa.

Ativatahe.

Bugwaheio.

Chevetahgwe.

Chiako.

Chikaho.

Darapade.

Dekio.

Dihidihe.

Ekeniba.

Evahihaia.

Evahikie.

Gwanebe.

Ibaje.

Ibapakama.

Imenepa.

Inateraka.

Kadokuri.

Katinere.

Kivape.

Magapamena.

Matremiko.

Mewago.

Mucheochime.

Muchichigwako.

Nehevaio.

Nevamarime.

Nevame.

Nipemeiwako.

Nivagwa.

Nivahna.

Poachiiba.

Rimetagwa.

Tchitchitaga.

Teripa.

Tikaame.

Tirakagwako.

Tirakawako.

Uvatipa.

Wadikova.

WITOTO

Darkness (devil) _Apuehana_

Fire _Ireiki_

God _Usiyamoi_

Moon _Fuibui_

Sky _Mona_

Sun _Itoma_

Water _Heinowei_

Hunger _Ameniti_, _naimede_

Laugh _Sateide_, _seteide_

Metal _Okkupe_

Paper (book) _Kwerape_ (literally my leaves)

Paper (leaves) _Rape_

Paper, a speaking leaf _Kwede_, _hweyarape_

Powder (dust) _Himuisa_

Sleep _Inude_, _unyude_, _kwinyakate_

Sleep, dream _Inie_

Bush, the _Aisikumo_

Cliff _Ifere_

Compound _Gicheipwere_

Palm jungle _Amena_

Plantation _Akafo_

River _Imane_

River, a large _Ichue_

Road _Io_

Stream _Hurete_

Streamlet _Ichemo_

Alligator pear _Nomedo_

Coca _Hibia_

Cocoa _Museje_

Fruit (general) _Rie_

Grape fruit _Hurekoi_

Gum (rubber milk) _Hittie_

Leaves _Rape_

Maize _Bechado_

Mango palm _Himeki_

Mango palm drink _Hayabei_, _hagapui_

Manioc (poisonous) _Maika_

Palm _Amena_

Palm _Himepile_, _hitiji_

Palm drink (pjnayo) _Himepwi_

Palm-spines _Edo_

Pepper _Ifigo_

Pineapple _Rosiji_

Plantain _Ogoda_

Plum _Nemawsi_

Rubber _Isire_

Rubber latex _Hittagei_

Sugar-cane _Kananoganei_, _kononga_

Sugar-cane juice _Kananogan’heinowei_, _kononochiki_

Tobacco _Deui_

Tree _Inya_

Trees, felled _Amena_

Tree poles _Neda_

Withe _Vineihi_

Bird (small generally) _Siji_

Bird (small unknown species) _Iguyitoi_

Bird, cock _Eitaba_

Birds (small game) _Ataba_

Birds, chickens _Ataba hissa_

Capybara _Okeina_

Curassoa _Eifoke_

Deer (one species) _Kito_

Deer (generally) _Chaota_

Eggs (generally) _Herga_

Eggs (one kind) _Ataba hige_

Fish (general) _Jukua_

Jaguar _Hekko_

Monkey (general) _Homa_

Monkey (one species) _Hemwi_

Monkey, small _Hidobe_

Parrot _Kwiyoto_

Parrot (another kind) _Kweko_, _Uiyike_

Pig _Mero_

Pig, small _Emo_

Spider _Humakinyo_

Tapir _Zuruma_

Tiger, dog, etc. _Hekko_

Turkey _Muitoka_, _muito_

Turkey (another kind) _Egwe_

Turkey Buzzard _Eifoke_

Boy _Toii_

Girl _Rinyosa_

Lad _Hivisa_

Man _Rema_

Man, old _Weikiroma-superoma_

Man, strong _Reima_

Men, white (Europeans) _Riei_, _riama_

People _Komweine_

Stranger _Oikommo_

Stranger, an enemy _Ikagmake_

Stranger, a friend _Cheinama_

Woman _Rinyo_

Woman, old _Weirinyo-irokwe_

Brother--

Man speaking _Ama_

Woman speaking _Tio_

Brother-in-law _Oima_

Child _Hito_

Father _Moma_

Grandfather _Marama_

Grandmother _Einyoko_

Husband _Une_

Mother _Einyo_

Nephew--

Brother’s child _Enasai_

Sister’s child _Komona_

Niece--

Brother’s child _Enasanyo_

Sister’s child _Momonio_

Sister--

Man speaking _Mirinyo_

Woman speaking _Epunyo_

Sister-in-law _Ofanyo_

Uncle--

Father’s brother _Iso_

Mother’s brother _Vichama_

Wife _Ei_

Anus _Sirafo_

Arm _Onawji_

Fore-arm _Onefai_

Belly _Ero_

Blood _Dueidi_

Body _Namaseapwi_

Bowels _Hepe_

Clitoris _Hito_

Ears _Efo_

Eyes _Uise_

Face _Uyeko_

Feet _Elba_, _epa_

Finger _Onoko_

Flesh _Jukua_

Hair _Ifoterai_

Hair (body) _Heinektere (!)_, _heineitere_

Hair (face) _Eimago_

Hair (pubic) _Hueke_

Hand _Ono_

Head _Ifo_

Heart _Komeke_

Limbs _Rueisi_, _reesi_

Mouth _Fue_

Nails _Onokobi_, _onopeko_

Nails (toe) _Ekobe_

Navel _Modda_

Neck _Kimo_

Nose _Dofo_

Penis _Hechina_

Pudenda _Jana_

Semen _Uke_

Skull _Ifoku_

Teeth _Isido_, _isife_

Testicles _Hinyergo_

Tongue _Hufe_

Urine _Poji_

Vagina _Berirafo_

Ague _Fuibuiko_

Diarrhœa _Nuimuisa_, _Jui_, _chui_

Illness _Duide_, _tuike_

Small-pox _Guiyoko_, _tutuko_

Bark cloth _Vinei_

Beads _Sirie_

Breech cloth _Mokoto_, _makuto iroi_, _hinoi-giroi_

Clothes (general) _Uiniroi_

Cord (belt) _Kirige_

Feather head ornaments _Eniago_

Necklace, dance _Chikai_

Necklace of seeds _Imaidu_

Necklace, of teeth _Efoke_

Slippers, boots _Epa iko_

Socks _Epa iko_ (see Feet and Cap)

White man’s cap _Ifoigiko_, _ifoiko_, _iko_

White man’s shirt _Kaifofero_

Baking-pan _Sipe_

Cassava _Tano_

Firewood _Rege_

Hammock _Kunei_

House _Hofo_

House, large _Ejo hofo_

Hut _Hiochupe_

Light (artificial) _Maha_

Lighted torch _Maha_

Mat _Duriei_

Pot _Inogo_, _ichuki_

Thatch _Ereije_

Tobacco-pot _Kuruke_

Torch _Rekekawdo_, _rekeketo_, _recheki_

Axe _Chovema_

Blow-pipe _Obidiake_

Fish-hook _Fakawasi_

Knife _Chovefa_, _chovetera_

Drum _Hugwe_

Drum mallet _Quaki_

Pan pipes _Piabami_

Sword _Chovega_

Trap, animal _Iregi_

Weapons, stones, shot _Chowefi_, _jowefi_, _chowefei_

Signal-drum _Ware_

Afternoon _Nawipe_

Morning _Wiremoni_

Morning, early _Monanyeno_

Night _Nagona_

Night, last _Nago_, _hahe nago_

Night before last _Beinawife_

To-day _Beiruido_

To-morrow _Wiremonei_ (see Morning)

To-morrow, day after _Dawire_

Twilight _Naruide_, _nagona-yakate_

Yesterday _Nawire_

Yesterday, day before _Beinawire_

All _Nana_

Before _Fuere_

Before (position) _Uikota_

Before (long time) _Heiyei_

Behind _Moina_

Behind (position) _Moina_

Enough _Asirete_

Farther _Beife_

For _Mero_

Full, carefully, good measure _Einue_

Full _Moniteidi_, _monite_

Here _Benomo_

How many? _Nigama?_

How much? _Niga?_

Much _Eijo_

Much, enough _Monome_

Nobody _Buna_

Now _Monokoi_

Only _Dama_

Then, afterwards _Achue_

There _Batinomo_

This _Pie_

Together _Fofona (?)_

Well? _Mei?_

What? _Nifote?_

Where? _Ninomo?_

Who? _Bu?_

Why? _Nibaji_, _nibeiji?_

No _Damaita_

Not _Inyete_

Yes _Huhh_, _U_ (ventral)

I _Kwe_

Thou _O_

He, she, him _Afima_

We _Koko_

You _Omei_

They, them _Afimaki_

Bad _Figonigete_

Big _Eijue_

Bitter _Neimenete_

Black _Ituide_

Cold _Rosirete_

Cool _Maneide_

Dark _Hitirite_

Dead _Teide_

Deeper _Nane efarite_

Dry _Daherede_

Good _Figora_

Hard _Agarrite_

Heavy _Merete_

Hot _Usirete_

Light (sun) _Hite_

Light (weight) _Fekote_

Long _Are_

Red _Larede_

Short _Hiannare_

Small, little _Yewrete_

Soft _Itieide_

Straight _Huchinyete_

Strong _Agarrite_

Thick _Herie_

Thin _Henite_

Twisted _Huchite_

Well (in health) _Gagritte_

White _Userede_

Early, soon _Ono_

Slowly _Puiya_

Soon _Reiri_

To bathe _Noise_

To bring _Ate_

To carry _Ui_

To come down _Anabi_

To come up _Kifobi_

To cool _Rosirete_

To cry _Ede_

To dry _Nokitenyete_, _nohipuinyete_

To eat _Oko_, _gunyo_

To go down _Anahei_

To go quickly _Reiri maka_

To go up _Kifohei_

To hear, listen, understand _Kekate_

To heat _Usirete_

To hurt _Isirete_

To like, love, desire (persons) _Dwere-uite_

To like, love, desire (things) _Oyakate_

To know _Onote_

To make _Nenyo_, _fuiho_

To rain _Nokitede_, _nokipuite_

To sit down _Anarana_

To sleep _Mei-ine_

To speak _Naitode_

To stay _Fuipire_

To take _Gweipi_

To urinate _Chowei_, _pochite_

To wait _Anafue_

To wash _Hokoa_

To work _Biefono_

I am _Iti kwe_

Thou art _Iti-o_

He is _Afima ite_

We are _Iti koko_

You are _Iti omoi_

They are _Afimaki ite_

I was _Kwe ia_

Thou wert _Ia o_

He was _Afima ia_

We were _Koko ia_

You were _Ia omoi_

They were _Afimaki ia_

One _Dahe_

Two _Mena_

Three _Dahe-amene_

Four _Menahere_

Five _Dapekwiro_

Ten _Nagapekwiro_

Ask me _Kwemohikka_

Give me _Kweme_

Give me food _Eka_

A few days ago _Tika irue_

It is dark _Nawite_

It is going to rain { _Teyakate_

{ _Puiyakate_

What tribe do you belong to? { _O Komweine?_

{ _O Memeka bu?_

Move along! { _Hei!_

{ _Ifo!_

Come! _Bi!_

It is very far { _Hikka Ite_

{ _Hikka Are_

It is near _Hiannare_

It is very near _Hikka-iannare_

It is very much farther _Hikka-fe_

Be quick _Reiri_

Be slow { _Pwia hei_

{ _Pwia ifo_

You do not want me _Kwena dueruenyeteo_

I am about to punish you _O feitakkwe_

What do you want? _Nifote oyakateo_

How much do you want? _Niga oyakateo_

I want to see _Eroi yakatekwe_

I want to eat _Okoyakatekwe_

I want to sleep _Iniyakatekwe_

I do not want to sleep _Iniyakanyetekwe_

Let us sleep _Meikoko ini_

Let us walk _Manyakoko maketchi_

Let us bathe _Manya koko noi_

Go and wash _Hokorise_

What are you doing? _Nefoteo nia?_

What are they doing? _Nefoteo nietimeke?_

What have you done? _Nefoteo nieteo?_

What have you others done? _Nefoteo omoi nieteo?_

Are you sick? { _O seicha?_

{ _Tuiko teiteo?_

What is the matter with you? _Neisoi o icha?_

What pains you? _O nino isiritte?_

He is dead _Ei e teide_

He is well again _Ei e hichoet_

Put water to boil _Heinoi kokoita_

We are nearly there _Duki-eikateki_

We have not arrived _Duki nieteke_

It is a long way yet _Nia areiti_

It is a very long way _Nia are are are_

It is very short _Wei iannare_

Put on more wood _Nane rege honne_

Fill it full _Nue oruita_

Be careful not to break it _Chitesai_

Remove the leaves _Rape honne_

Open it carefully _Nue ekonotta_

Cook only manioc and plantains _Dama seteo meika ogoto_

Eat the skins _Igore ine_

Take some crushed maize _Pechato tuta hisano ui_

How many women are there? _Niga rinyona hisa ite?_

From what cause has your

brother died? _Nipeiche tio teide?_

Why did you leave the child

outside? It will be eaten

by the dogs _Nipeiche hito hino o fuaka ia daria_

Go soon and guard the women _Mei rieri rinyona hofona ipeise_

Do not do it again _Mene amanyete omoi_

An unmoral Indian woman _Rinyo Rei-irage_

An immoral Indian woman _Rinyo Kachirete_

With whom have you been having

intercourse? _Bu tika beriteo?_

How many husbands have you had? _Nigama bettora-o?_

Are you (a virgin) married? _Nia rutanyega-o?_

Who ravished you? _Bu-o rutaka?_

You are blind (a fool) _O ui nirite_

Do not delay _Fwepi neri_

Give me something _Feka_

Do not give anything _Fekanyete_

Walk _Mekkate_

Do not walk _Mekanyete_

I do not understand _Kehanyete_

That’s my business (common

expression without intention

of rudeness) _Pia_

My body aches _Kwe apui isirete_

Let me go _Kwe-mosueta_

Hold me _Kwe-mojeno_

Turn round _Jireno_

Do not move _Weihoi_

Why do you shout? _Nipeiche kicheteyo?_

It is big _Ei ichwe_

It is small { _Hurete_

{ _Eichonyete_

It is not good _Fogonyete_

Do you like it? _Kimmarueteo?_

Do you not like it? _Kimmaruenyeteo?_

You are pretty _Nuen otego_

You are ugly _Nuenonyeteo_

You are dirty _Oapwi gagrette_

I want you _Ona dueruetckwe_

I do not want you _Ona dueruenetckwe_

Tie well (the cross poles) _Nue kwina_

Tie higher _Keifofe kwina_

Take care not to break _Titeise_

Well done, you thatch well _Mei omoi ita_

Is everything clean? _Nana ganino fuinore?_

That is dirty, I shall

punish you _Vie gagrette a kioiteo o feitikwe_

It is very sweet _Eicho nimerettega_

I do not like it hot _Usirete ittinyetekwe_

I like it warm _Chiei maneide ittitekwe_

Look well in front of you _Nue oroi_

The plantation is a good one _Nue akafo icha_

The plantation is a bad one _Akafo fogonyete_

Let us go and build a house _Manya ofo koko fuinoche_

There are not sufficient

palisades _Nia amena nana inyete_

All of you bring timber _Omoi amena atiche_

You make the thatches _Are niite omoi_

These boys will bring canes _Bie hettanitino are gweichi_

These others will bring palm

leaves _Bimeke ererite_

Those will make holes _Bimeichino iffweirakte_

I do not want it there _Batinomo ittinyetekwe_

Open it here _Benomo ekkono_

Send me the small boy _Urettema kwemo hito_

Go and throw away that water _Mei ba i heinoi dota_

Wash it well _Nue hokorii_

Do not delay _Are enyeno bi_

You are dirty _Nia gagrette_

Put it there _Batinomo honne_

Put it here _Benomo honne_

Put it yonder _One honne_

Do not put it over there _Batinomo honne nieno_

Why are you sad? _Nipeiche sure iteo?_

Who hurt you? _Bu o faga?_

When did you come? _Nirueteo viteo?_

When did you go? _Nirueteo heito?_

It is so firm I cannot move it _Are agagrette ekkononyette_

Bring the wood _Itofie nue omoi ire_

Do not throw them away _Oni tinyeno nue ofitare_

I am going to see _A chimitekwe_

If you do not bring them, I

shall punish you _Omoi pweya fachiomoi_

Plant them carefully _Nue omoi haire_

Go and clean up _Mei omoi reitiseiri_

Place all the sticks together _Reitekinyo nue omoi ofitare_

You have left the plantation

untidy _Akkafo gagritte omoi fueka_

Why don’t you bring it? _Nipeiche atinyeta omoi?_

Make enough cassava _Eichwe tano fuinore_

Let it be good _Nuere finoiche_

Bring a little _Yewre atitomoi_

Not enough _Dutenyete_

It is soft _Itieide_

What are you doing? _Nifote niecomoi?_

What are you eating? _Nifote okoteomoi?_

Where are they--the rest

of you? _Ninomo iteomoi?_

Why have they (the others)

gone without telling me? _Nipeiche kwe jonyeno heite omoi?_

Bring it to the light _Useritenomo ate_

To-morrow go and see the tribe

and then return here together _Weirimoni dama komweine hoke teiteo

nana fofona orerire_

Split it with the knife _Chovefa do ekkono_

Take out the cane early _Monanyano kononwe ono_

It is rich _Kei maritte_

Wash the pot well before

boiling water in it _I chiko nue hoko heinowei hoku-itechi_

Do not put much fruit in it _Eicho rie dotenyino_

It is very inconvenient _Y otirette_

I am unable { _Kwe mona_

{ _Hitinyete_

I shall carry it _Diuitikwe_

Do not carry it _Uinyetekwe_

I am tired _Aeeiontekwe_

You are going to carry manioc _Meika omoi ui_

BORO

Brother _Tanyabe_

Chief _Abihibya_

Chief’s wife _Abihilya_

Child _Chemene_

Father _Iero_

Fellow-tribesman _Miamuina_

Husband _Tahe_

Liar _Aliraje_

Man _Gwapime_

Medicine-man _Chekobe_

Mother _Gwaro_

People _Akime_

Sister _Tanyali_

Sluggard _Ubeye_

Son _Chukije_

Wife _Tapa_

Woman _Gwame_

Abdomen _Mebigwa_

Arm _Menejeko_

Back _Meatche_

Belly _Epae_

Blood _Tibune_

Body _Kepe_

Bone _Pukene_

Bosom _Neghpane_

Buttocks _Medehe_

Cheek _Mekwa_

Ear _Menimeo_

Eye _Ajike_

Finger _Utsigwako_, _mechiko_

Flesh _Iyame_

Foot _Tia_

Hair _Nikwako_

Hand _Meuche_

Head _Nikwa_

Heart _Meebe_

Knee _Mimoko_

Leg _Take_

Mouth _Mehe_

Navel _Icheba_

Neck _Metchke_

Nose _Metiko_

Penis _Nomeo_

Testicles _Domiba_

Thigh _Kibaje_

Tongue _Menigwa_

Tooth _Igwahe_

Vagina _Elyapo_, _diugwa_

Ague _Chinabe_

Prickly heat _Nikemoi_

Smallpox _Maraipa_

Tick _Chichihe_

Wound _Pepene_

Dance _Machiba_

Falsehood _Achipe_

Fear _Apichune_

Grief _Abiyene_

Ill _Chemei_

Remedy (in general) _Tabota_

Smell _Tukine_

Truth _Imiane_

Agouti _Bute_

Anaconda _Bua_

Ant-eater _Ehe_

Armadillo _Tie_

Bird _Karaha_

Capybara _Uba_

Deer _Nibigwa_

Fish _Amome_

Flea _Ikookwa_

Frog _Nihagwa_

Hawk _Ane_

Head-louse _Knawni_

Jigger-flea _Mipahe_

Land crab _Nekwalige_

Monkey _Kemuime_

Mosquito _Nee_

Paca _Tahe_

Parrot _Yabe_

Pig _Mene_

Tapir _Ukahe_

Tiger, wild dog _Wipe_

Tucan _Neiche_

Turkey-buzzard _Pikahe_

Wild turkey _Imiko_

Cane _Imuepa_

Cassava _Mao_

Cassava (cake) _Topohe_

Coca _Ipe_

Fruit _Kome_

Grain _Tsokome_

Guarana fruit _Inye_

Guava _Tuche_

Gum _Makhine_

Leaf (letter) _Gwahake-ane_

Lemon _Teheba_

Maize _Ihio_

Manioc (flour) _Chobéma_

Manioc (Poisonous) _Pika_

Manioc (Sweet) _Baheri_

Millet _Matsaka_

Palm needle _Aneto_

Peppers _Dio_

Pine-apple _Kitsea_

Plantain _Uhiko_

Plantation _Emiye_

Stinging-herb _Ate_

Twig _Katine_

Withe _Ahéba_, _mo_

Yam _Kate_

Basket _Minyeba_

Baulks of timber _Imei_

Comb _Pidogwa_

Cooking pot _Iguanye_

Door _Cheugwa_

Drinking gourd _Jirijo_

Firewood _Kuba_

Grater _Chilye_

Hammock _Gwapa_

House _Ha-a_

Manioc squeezer _Buahe_

Mirror _Mekeme_

Oil _Diripa_

Platter _Patahe_

Salt _Kanama_

Small timber _Igwa_

Soap _Nishtie_, _tagwa_

Spoon _Daihigwa_

Tobacco _Banye_

Tobacco stick-match _Kugwao_

Torch _Diripa_

Water jar _Ijo_

Arrow _Beremehe_

Arrow-poison _Bakua_

Boat, canoe _Kihikwame_

Blowpipe _Dodike_

Dance rattle _Tekie_

Fish-net _Tsene_

Gun _Anihe_

Head feathers _Aboka_

Knife, sword _Nitsikwa_

Mallet _Imepachura_

Paddle _Bodugwa_

Rope (vegetable cable) _Igwanye_

Signalling drum _Kimwe_

Sword _Pitoho_

Whip _Gwachike_

Beads _Ichkabe_

Clothes _Kwaiame_ (loin-cloth)

Garment _Kameha_

Head ornament _Gwatako_

Loin-cloth _Ike_, _pakehe_, _kwaiame_

Man’s bracelet _Manyame_

Metal _Tsitsi_

Bush, the _Bahe_

Dawn _Tsitsibeko_

Death _Tsihibeko_

Devil _Navena_

Dust _Anijio_

Fire _Kihigwa_

God _Neva_

Good Spirit _Neva_

Gunpowder _Anijio_

Morning _Neva_

Night _Beko_

Plantation _Emie_

Rain _Nihava_

Shadow _Nave_

Star _Mikirigwa_

Stream _Te-e_

Sun _Neva_

Thunder _Tsitsi_

Water _Nepakio_

Now _Ikuka_

To-morrow _Pekore_

Yesterday _Aiupe_

Yes _Eh_

No _Cha_

To call attention of a man _Mupe!_

To call attention of a woman _Muije!_

All _Bemere_

Enough, much _Lirane_

Other _Chipe_

Same _Tedere_

Slowly _Tsikene_

Quickly _Chukure_

Far _Chiejene_

Far away _Kamine_

Here _Iji_

Near _Perine_

There _Eji_

What _Itsebane_, _ina_

When _Mukoka_

Where _Kia_

Why _Ivekie_

Angry _Kaiyupa_

Bad _Nemine_, _imitine_

Black _Kiribebe_

Cold _Tsigore_

Good _Imine_

High _Kame_

Higher _Kame-kame_

Lazy _Urenere_

Little _Neku_

Long, big _Kameme_

Low _Paa_

Lower _Paa-paa_

Old _Kieme_

Purple _Chepanye_

Small _Chuchine_

Strong _Kupene_

Thin _Arenegwe_

Warm _Kogore_

White _Alijimuinya_

Young _Balyika_

I }

Me }

We } _O_

Us, Mine }

Ours }

You }

Yours } _Di_

My _Ta_

One _Tsanere_, _tsape_

Two _Mieke_

Three _Tsape-mieke_

Four _Mieke-mieke_

Five _Sause_

One-half _Tiamie_