various periods formerly, as centres for circles, or "clusters" of
diamonds mounted as scarf-pins, finger-rings and formerly, when they
were worn, as ear-rings. The pearls are sometimes drilled and set on
a peg; sometimes they are held by claws or prongs as the diamonds
surrounding them are.
Pearls are very generally used now as studs by men for evening dress,
usually mounted on pegs so as to avoid the display of any gold.
But all fashions of wearing pearls except as necklaces, are ephemeral.
The fashion of pearl necklaces has been constant for thousands of
years, though it is only brought to general public notice when some new
country with its great and rapid accretions of wealth, adopts it. The
markets of the world are then affected, the price of the gem rises, and
this in turn tempts ancient and impoverished families to unlock their
jewel cases to the bidding of the nouveau riche. That this condition
has existed from the beginning of this century is shown by the sales
which are being made constantly in Europe at the great public auctions
of jewels. In 1901 the Comtesse de Castiglione necklace was sold for
$84,000. At the sale of the Princess Mathilde jewels in Paris, a three
strand necklace of 133 pearls weighing 3320 grains, once the property
of Queen Sophie of Holland, brought 885,000 francs, which with the
taxes to the purchaser made the cost $188,000. At the same sale, a
seven strand collar given by Napoleon I. to the Queen of Westphalia,
weighing 4,200 grs., brought $89,000, and another collar once owned by
the same Queen containing thirty-three black pearls, weighing 1040 grs.
was sold for $20,240. Several fine strings were sold in London in 1903.
Among them a three-row necklace from the Aquila Jewels for $22,400.
A string of 198 finely matched gem pearls, round and graduated, was
sold at Christie's for 6,500 pounds. A triple row of 153 of the same
kind brought 6,500 pounds. Many important sales have been made in the
States, during the last ten years especially, but as they were made
privately, and as buyers here are averse to any publicity they are
not chronicled. It is a fact well known to jewellers, that Americans
in their home market are extremely difficult. They demand a degree of
perfection, not only in the gems themselves, but also in the matching
of them, rarely exacted in other countries. There are strings of pearls
in this country which if less magnificent, for extreme perfection and
beauty are seldom equalled by the more notorious jewels of Europe,
and princely sums have been paid for single pieces of great size and
purity. Greater quantities of the coveted treasures of the earth
are pouring into the lap of the United States of America through the
channels of peaceful industry, than were ever gathered to a nation in
the olden times by the marauders of the sword, and the jewel cases of
our princes of commerce will soon eclipse those held by the scions of
ancient freebooters.
VARIETIES
True pearls are divided primarily into two classes, "oriental," and
"fresh-water." By true pearls those creations are meant which consist of
concentric layers of nacre or mother-of-pearl, as distinguished from
similar formations by mollusks out of material that is not pearly.
In the early days pearls brought from the Orient were therefore called
"Oriental" pearls. For the same reason the fine mellow luster which
characterized and made them superior to others came to be known as the
"orient" of the pearl. These pearls were taken from oysters found on
the coasts of Ceylon, Arabia, and the Red Sea. Later, when the same
kind of oysters containing similar pearls were found in other seas,
they were also classified with them, until the term "oriental" is now
applied usually to all true pearls taken from salt water mollusks, to
distinguish them from those found in the fresh water mussels and other
products of ocean shell-fish which, though similar in construction and
composition, are not nacreous. Occasionally, however, the term is
still applied specifically to pearls from the Indian Seas, though their
"orient" or luster is not always finer than that of like pearls found
in many other localities.
Pearl oysters are varieties of the Avicula Margaritifera, of which
the Meleagrina Margaritifera is the most prolific of mother-of-pearl
and pearls combined, and, the Indian excepted, yields the finest
pearls. All pearl oysters do not produce sufficient mother-of-pearl
to make their shells valuable, nor do they all contain pearls. The
name therefore applies to all oysters whose secretions are productive,
in some degree, of mother-of-pearl and therefore under favorable
conditions of pearls also.
"Fresh-water" or "sweet-water" pearls are, as the name signifies, those
found in the mollusks of inland waters. This mollusk is a mussel. The
name "mussel" in Anglo-Saxon signifies something which retires on being
touched. It is known as "Unio" of which there are many pearl-bearing
varieties.
In both the sea oyster and the fresh-water mussel, other nacreous
formations occur of irregular shape called "baroque" pearls. The
orientals approach more nearly to the globular and hemispherical form
of true pearls, having frequently the lumpy rotundity of a snowball and
sometimes sections which are smooth and round. The fresh-water baroques
are usually very irregular, often fantastically so. Many resemble
the incisor teeth of man or distorted grains of corn. Slender pieces
similar to the wing of a bird and therefore called "wing" pearls, or
"hinge" pearls because they are found near the hinge of the shell,
are common. Some are shaped like a flat spike nail. Unlike oriental
baroques, the surface of a large proportion of the fresh-waters is
grooved or indented and some show a beautiful iridescence. Large button
baroques of fine luster and iridescent, especially when they have a
decided tinge of pink, have come to be known of late as "rose" pearls.
Another variety of pink baroques having a fairly regular shape with a
lustrous and finely irregular pimply surface are known as "strawberry"
pearls. These terms are applied indiscriminately to the two varieties
however.
Another nacreous formation found in the mother-of-pearl oyster shells
is the "blister." It is produced by the raising of the nacreous
deposits above the level of the shell to cover some intruder of
considerable size. This results in a growth similar in shape to a
blister on the flesh, hence the name. It is cut out of the shell and
used in various ways as a set for jewelry, or to imitate the bodies
of insects or small animals. Others with a slightly higher dome and
rounded oval shape, regular in form, are called "turtlebacks."
[Illustration: PANAMA PEARL-SHELL, SHOWING MUD-BLISTERS, BORERS, AND
PEARL]
Some of these hollow shells of pearl have been found to cover small
fish, lizards, etc. The writer saw one which appeared to be a
large button-pearl. On lifting, it proved to be a shell of several
thicknesses of nacre covering a small shell-fish about a half-inch in
diameter. The imprisoned mollusk was shrunken and crumbling so that the
nacreous covering could be lifted from over it, a hollow dome of pearl.
Mud blisters are common in some waters and depreciate the quality of
the shell and are otherwise useless. A typical mud-blister appears in
the shell illustrated herewith.
The Abalone pearl occurs usually as a baroque or blister but
occasionally it is found solid and spherical. Although it is not
classed among true pearls, a few globular pieces found are entitled to
a place among them because they are sometimes identical in construction
and have a similar pearly luster, it is however very liable to crack
and break and can seldom be pierced with safety.
The shell-fish from which it takes the name is the Haliotis, called
here the Abalone. It is known under many names—ear-shell, Venus's
ear, etc. In the English Channel Islands it is the ormer, and on the
adjacent coast of France where it is very abundant the name for it is
similar—"ormier." The Aelonians called it the "Ear of Venus." The shell
is ear-shaped, flattened, slightly spiral and has a series of round
holes near the edge curving with the last whorl toward the boss. As
it grows, the oldest of these are successively filled up and the last
remaining open, serves as the anal channel. The exterior is very rough
and unsightly, but the mother-of-pearl interior is one of the most
exquisite pieces of color work painted by the hand of nature and to
this is added an enlivening iridescence most fascinating. Like it, the
pearl formations are deeply tinted. Brownish reds, peacock greens, and
dark grays are the prevailing colors. They are seldom of even color or
luster, many of them having but one lustrous point where a pearly glaze
seems to have been incorporated with the earthenware like surface.
Usually the pearls when round and lustrous are not constructed as
compactly as those of the bivalves. The texture of the skins vary in
quality and the frequent presence of intermediary strata of black
conchiolin which shrink, makes them liable to crack and break. The
blisters run very even in these two qualities of color and luster and
though seldom quite as brilliant as the nacre of the shell, are very
beautiful and often curiously formed. These blister-baroques are like
two blisters joined at the edges, and are liable to separate there. The
interior consists chiefly of black conchiolin, rough and somewhat shiny.
The "Conch" pearl, found in the Conch (Strombus gigas) of the West
Indies, also is not a true pearl. The shell is used largely for
ornamental purposes, especially for the cutting of cameos, and also
in porcelain works. It is a large shell, sometimes weighing four or
five pounds. Formerly great quantities were exported to England from
the Bahamas; in one year as many as three hundred thousand. Conch
pearls are devoid of nacreous luster, the surface having an appearance
like china. They are slightly transparent and show under the surface a
series of delicate wavy markings.
The silky sheen of these lines causes them to appear lighter than the
body color of the pearl, and they seem to branch toward the surface,
changing kaleidoscopically as the pearl is turned. Almost without
exception the shape is ovoid, or a flattened ovoid, though some are
distorted. In color they range from very pale to deep pink and coral
red, the ends being usually much lighter than the body and often
white. In the deeper tints they are more uniform in color, and as they
are apt to be less lustrous and transparent as the shade deepens to
red they show less plainly the distinguishing wavy lines, and may be
easily mistaken for pieces of coral cut to the shape and polished. They
are very delicate and therefore easily fractured or cracked. As the
natives usually obtain the pearls by cooking the fish, for which they
have a great liking, a large proportion of the few which come into the
market are cracked. It is claimed also that the color fades with time.
They are sometimes called "Nassau" pearls.
Pearls similar in appearance to the Conch, except that the wavy lines
are absent and the skin rarely as brilliant, are taken with true pearls
from the small varieties of the Avicula, especially about the coast of
Venezuela. Some are white as chalk, many are tinted in various shades
of gray, yellow and brownish reds. They have the shining appearance of
china in different degrees, but no nacreous luster. The skins of many
of these are peculiarly constructed, they show modified characteristics
of various parts of the shell. The surface wave lines are present
to some extent, together with curious malformations of prisms and
conchiolin.
The hexagonal faces look as though they had been doubled up upon
themselves together with a layer of conchiolin, the latter appearing
as thick black V or U shaped marks in the faces of the distorted
hexagons. Heretofore these have been considered valueless, but it is
possible that with the increasing vogue of pearls and the growing
desire for oddities, they will be utilized in the cheaper forms of
jewelry.
Creations similar in construction to pearls are found occasionally
in the common oyster and clam. Though entirely devoid of the pearly
texture and luster, some of them are very perfect in shape and
smoothness of skin. Whether taken from the oyster or clam they are
usually called "clam pearls." The color of the oyster pearl is
generally a light drab. The clam pearls are mostly purplish red or
blue, often dark enough to appear black. Those taken from the oyster
are generally round; those from the clam are more frequently ovoid.
Occasionally one or both ends of the oval are lighter in color, as
the Conch pearl is, changing there to a dark red or purple. When the
color is very dark and the skin uncommonly good, they have been sold
for black pearls by unscrupulous dealers. They are accounted of little
value, though exceptionally large pieces will sometimes sell for as
much as one hundred to a hundred and fifty dollars. Similar to these,
pearly formations characterized by a glazed, or glassy, or shiny
surface, are found in many molluscan varieties, bivalves and univalves,
but none of these are true pearls.
Pearls similar to the pink Conch are found in the shank or chank of
Ceylon (Turbinella scolymus). This is the sacred shell of the Hindus
and the national emblem of Travancore in the Madras presidency, India.
Vishnu carries a chank called "Devadatta" in his hand. It is said his
first incarnation was for the purpose of destroying Shankhásura (the
giant chank shell), and thereby regaining the Vedas, which had been
stolen and taken to ocean deeps.
COLOR
The ideal color for a pearl is white. Although all fine white pearls
show by comparison a tint of some color, a fine white must be free
from an appearance which can only be described as "dark." It is not
color always but a certain density which makes the gem appear dead by
comparison with the soft, warm, life-like white of the perfect pearl.
The layers or skins of some pearls are more transparent than others and
this imparts a liveliness which is absent in the more dense.
Upon looking at a string of pearls held between the eye and the light,
some will appear much lighter than others and show a translucent band
about one-fifth the diameter of the pearl, extending from the edge of
the circumference inward. Such pearls upon examination will be found
much finer in color and texture than those which have the appearance
beside them of dark opaque spots when held against the light.
There is also a white which is not dark and is yet dead. To some
extent it is characteristic of all fresh-water pearls. It is a chalky,
milky white that even when lustrous, carries a reminder of chalk in
the texture and lacks the essential life of the ideal pearl. Color
in the highest perfection is found in the pearls of the Ceylon and
Australian waters, the former being also very lustrous, and such are
sometimes termed by the trade "Madras," after the city where the Indian
pearls have been marketed for ages. It must not be inferred however
that pearls equally good are not found in other localities, but that
the color averages better, and the number of gems of ideal color and
luster is greater from the Ceylon fisheries than elsewhere. The color
and texture, and therefore luster, of fine Indian pearls is seldom
equalled, never surpassed.
To those who are without experience, and see for the first time a
large quantity of pearls apparently alike in color, it would seem an
easy matter to match any required number; but in attempting to gather
sufficient for a single strand necklace, one would learn that a parcel
or series of pearls, seemingly all white, contains a surprisingly
great variety of shades or tones of color; that which appears at first
sight quite easy becomes in the attempt extremely difficult. Probably
nothing requires a sharper eye, a more delicate sense of color and
greater patience, than the assembling of a finely matched string of
pearls. Bearing in mind that size, shape, color, and perfection, must
all correspond, it is not surprising that few strings exist which are
above criticism.
Those who buy them seldom realize what enormous quantities of pearls,
and skilful and painstaking effort is necessary, to match perfectly,
thirty or more, especially of large size. Pearls which, separated by a
few inches seem alike, when brought close together reveal differences
of texture and tone of color sufficiently pronounced to arrest the eye
and destroy that ideal perfection of purity which permits no spot to
mar the symmetry of an assemblage of these emblematic gems. It was said
in old times that to match a pearl perfectly was to double the value
of both; one may imagine therefore the difficulty which confronts the
modern jeweller when he undertakes in this critical age to match thirty
or forty.
The color most common in pearls of all seas is yellow, but it is not so
with fresh-water ones. Other colors are seldom found except as tints in
white pearls, but distinctly yellow oriental pearls are abundant. The
tones of color in the white are, yellow, blue, pink and green. They are
so slight that it is difficult to recognize them except by comparison.
The blue and pink are considered best, the champions of each being
about equal. The green come next in favor and the yellow last. This
order applies fully however to the Occident only. Some Oriental peoples
do not draw such fine distinctions, and the Chinese prefer the creamy
yellow to any other.
The "blue" pearls, or "Panama" pearls as they are sometimes called
in the trade, must not be confounded with the blue white pearls just
mentioned. "Blue" pearls are of a dingy, slaty blue tint. They have
a dark appearance and the luster is seldom good. As many of this
character are found in the Panama waters such pearls are often sold as
"Panama" pearls. They are even less desirable than those which are
decidedly yellow, though persons of a little knowledge will often buy
them in preference to others which are better, because they are not
yellow and are cheap.
"Fancies" include all decided colors, or those having a rare and
beautiful tint. Yellow pearls as generally found are not classed among
them because the color is not fine, but dark,—"brackish" one might term
it. A clean buttercup yellow, or an orange yellow, would be "fancy"
however. On the other hand a deep pink is seldom fine as the color is
then almost invariably muddy, whereas the clean delicate light pink
pearls are rare and highly esteemed. A clear grass green is never seen
but the color occurs in very beautiful bronze and peacock shadings.
Various shades of blue, rose, copper, and red with bronze effects, and
black are included in this classification.
Black pearls are much prized, and the term covers a wide range of
dark shades of gray, slate, brown and red. The ideal color however
is sufficiently deep to be, as the name indicates, black, though it
has not the metallic appearance of hematite, nor the polished shine
of the black clam pearl. Black pearls having a bronze effect are
open to suspicion, especially if they are pierced, as many of them
are artificially colored and are liable to fade. Such pearls have a
somewhat metallic appearance, are seldom very lustrous, and if there
is a rough chalky place in the skin it will be blacker there than
elsewhere.
It is difficult to give rules by which to judge color, but there is
a quality which can only be described as "clean." It is free from
muddiness and is desirable in pearls as in all other gems.
The proportion of fancy colors is greater in fresh-water pearls than in
the orientals. In the United States the fisheries which have yielded
the finest "fancies" are those of Wisconsin, Kentucky and Tennessee. Of
sea pearls, most of the fine black ones come from the coasts of Mexico.
Beautiful colored pearls are found in fisheries of the Oceanic Islands,
for instance at the Isles of New Caledonia and Gambier, and in China
and Japan.
To make close comparisons of color in pearls, place them on white
cotton under or opposite a strong natural light. To judge shape and
luster, roll them on black cloth. These are the most trying conditions
and it should be remembered by those who test them thus, that no
position as jewels when worn can be so unfavorable or trying.
IMPERFECTIONS
Few pearls are perfect. The great majority of small pearls even, fail
in one or more of the ideal qualities, and as the size increases
perfection becomes more rare. A perfect pearl is not necessarily of the
finest luster, but it must be lustrous and of even luster all over. If
round, it must be spherically round; if pear or ovoid, symmetrically
so, and the skin must be free from blemishes.
Baroque and button pearls are naturally imperfect pearls, the former
being fantastically irregular in shape and the latter partially
deformed. Imperfections of shape in what are termed round pearls are
more numerous than those unaccustomed to handling them would suppose.
A lot of pearls which to the casual glance seem to be all quite round,
will be found often on close examination to contain many, if not a
majority, that are not. Upon rolling them separately, irregularities
will appear which the luster and contiguity of others concealed. It
will be discovered that the domes of some are slightly flattened at
one part of the sphere; in others at two opposite points so as to form
a double domed disk. Very many have slight protuberances above the
contour of the sphere, or places in the spherical line, which though
not flat, are depressed. While these minor imperfections of shape do
not materially hurt the beauty of the pearl, they do decrease the value
somewhat, and as they are quite common even among fine selected pearls
they accentuate the rarity of the perfectly spherical.
The adventures of a pearl from the moment when the mollusk begins to
cover its nucleus with nacre, until the fisher squeezes it from the
folds of the creature's mantle, are many and varied. A few only escape
untoward happenings. The fortunate, born where the mollusk gathers and
spreads its choice secretions of mother-of-pearl, with room to grow
on every side, are nursed in the lap of good fortune and uncheckered,
round out layer by layer to perfection.
But some are not so fortunate. In some way cramped, they are held
against the unyielding shell and grow flat on one side. These are the
button pearls. Others either from an irregular rolling, or unequal
action of the mollusk's mantle, become imperfectly round. Sometimes
foreign particles attach themselves to a growing pearl and becoming
enveloped with it in future layers, make an uneven surface.
Not infrequently two round pearls grow side by side until they touch,
and together are enveloped by succeeding deposits; a twinned pearl is
the result. For some reason, drop and pear-shaped pearls are seldom
imperfect in shape. They may not be ideal but the form is usually good
and the contour even and regular. This would imply that the simple
rolling motion by the fish is more regular than the more complicated
movements necessary to form a sphere.
Imperfections in the texture and luster of the skin are said to be due
to the movement of the growing pearl among the zones of the mollusk's
mantle supplying the varied material for the epidermis, middle shell,
and lining. The difficulties confronting this theory are explained in
the chapter on the "Genesis of Pearls." These imperfections consist
generally of dead white chalky spots and streaks, distributed over the
surface of the pearl, oftentimes so small as to escape notice except
under the loup. Sometimes these imperfections take the form of rings
or bands which encircle the pearl. Pearls so marked are rarely if
ever round, but ovoid, capsule, or cartridge shaped, and these chalky
lines always encircle the cylinder; they never cross the dome. Rings
around the dome occur, but the surface over them is of equal luster.
Frequently the entire outer skin is without luster. Whether this arises
from lack of some element in the exudations of the mollusk from which
the pearl is created, or from an imperfect crystallization of the
calcium carbonate, is not known. Such skins have the usual nacreous
surface wave lines and are often lustrous immediately under the outer
plates of the skin.