Transcriber Note
Text emphasis denoted as _Italics_.
[Illustration: _I. I. Hayes_]
THE OPEN POLAR SEA:
A
NARRATIVE OF A VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY
TOWARDS THE NORTH POLE,
IN THE
SCHOONER "UNITED STATES."
BY
Dr. I. I. HAYES.
[Illustration]
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY HURD AND HOUGHTON,
1867.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by
I. I. Hayes,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court
for the Southern District of New York.
RIVERSIDE, CAMBRIDGE:
STEREOTYPED AND PRINTED BY
H. O. HOUGHTON AND COMPANY.
_I HAD INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS BOOK TO
WILLIAM PARKER FOULKE,
Of Philadelphia,
To whom I am indebted
for all that a powerful intellect and
a generous friendship could do, to give practical
shape to my plans, and to insure success to an enterprise
in which I had embarked, with the simple advantage of an aim,
and with no better guide than the impulse of youth: but
since it is denied me to pay that tribute of my
admiration to one of the noblest of men,
I now inscribe it to his
MEMORY._
PREFACE.
The design of this book may be briefly explained. I have attempted
little more than a personal narrative, endeavoring to select from my
abundant notes such scenes and incidents of adventure as seemed to me
best calculated to bring before the mind of the reader, not merely the
history of our voyage, but a general view of the Arctic regions,--its
scenery and its life, with a cursory glance at those physical forces
which, in their results, give characteristic expression to that
remote quarter of the world. A day of months, followed by a night of
months, where the mean annual temperature rises but little above zero,
must necessarily clothe the air and the landscape with a sentiment
difficult to appreciate, or, I might perhaps say, feel, without actual
observation. I shall be abundantly rewarded if I have succeeded in
impressing upon the reader's mind, with any degree of vividness, the
wonders and the grandeur of Nature as unfolded to us under the Arctic
sky.
I know it is usually thought that a book of travels should be simply
a diary of events and incidents; but this, of necessity, involves a
ceaseless repetition, and it seemed to me that I would do better to
drop from my diary all that did not appear as immediately relevant
to the scene; and, indeed, where the occasion appeared to require
concentration, to abandon the diary altogether, and use the more
concise form of descriptive narrative.
The reader will observe that I have not attempted, in any sense, to
write a work of Science. True, the purpose of the voyage was purely
a scientific one,--its chief object and aim being to explore the
boundaries of the Open Polar Sea; at least to determine if such a
sea did exist, as had been so often asserted; but while I have given
a general discussion of the conditions of the Polar waters and the
Polar ice, and have recorded many new facts in various departments of
physical and natural science, yet I have desired to treat the subject
in a manner which, as it seemed to me, would be most acceptable to the
general reader, rather than to the scientific student,--preferring to
direct the latter to those more strictly scientific channels where my
materials have been or are about being published.
Soon after returning from the North, my principal records were placed
at the disposal of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington; and I
have employed such leisure as I could command in their elaboration and
discussion,--the principal labor, however, falling upon Mr. Charles A.
Schott, Assistant, United States Coast Survey, who brought to the task
the best faculties of a well-stored mind, and unusual powers of patient
investigation; and papers, giving a full analysis of the _magnetic_,
_meteorological_, _astronomical_, _geographical_, _pendulum_, and
_tidal_ observations, were prepared, and were accepted for publication
in the Smithsonian "Contributions to Knowledge." I regret to say
that the publication of these papers has been much delayed. Deeming
it desirable that some of the general conclusions to which we had
arrived in our discussion of the observations should be given to the
world without further postponement, I proposed to embody some leading
facts in a short Appendix to this volume. Upon submitting the matter
to the learned Secretary of the Institution, it was, however, claimed
by him that, since I had intrusted the materials to his care, the
Institution now possessed the exclusive right to whatever advantage was
to be derived from their publication. To a proposition so eminently
reasonable I readily assented, especially as I was informed that the
papers were already in type and were to be published immediately; and,
considering myself thus absolved from any further responsibility to the
scientific world for the long delay, I accordingly abandoned the idea
of the Appendix. The Chart exhibiting the track and discoveries of my
voyage, and of my various sledge journeys, was claimed, in like manner,
as the exclusive property of the Smithsonian Institution, and, like the
papers, was to be published immediately. Hence it is that the small map
which illustrates this volume is but a copy (reduced ten diameters)
of my field chart, projected on the spot from my unrevised materials.
It is perhaps needless for me to observe that entire accuracy was not
attainable in the field, inasmuch as I had neither the leisure nor the
facilities for reducing the magnetic variation, nor for obtaining the
absolute time. I am happy to say, however, that no greater discrepancy
exists than the one which places my highest latitude two minutes too
far south on the field chart; but the reductions having been made,
and a chart projected therefrom, I had confidently relied upon this
source for the correct information which the Smithsonian Institution
now alone possessed. This failing me, I was obliged to fall back upon
my original resources, as the time was too short for a new reduction.
I am glad to say, however, that the field chart is sufficiently
accurate for every practical purpose, and differs chiefly from the
one prepared, with greater carefulness, and of large size, for the
Smithsonian "Contributions to Knowledge," in the unimportant feature
of the names applied to newly discovered places, some of which were
changed after my return. No list of these alterations having been
preserved, and being unable to get the more accurate map again into my
hands from the Secretary of the scientific institution in whose care
it had been placed, as before observed, for publication, I have simply
adopted the original nomenclature, and have used the names as they
appear in my journal and on my field chart. This explanation is made in
anticipation of the possible contingency of the Smithsonian Institution
publishing the map, for some years past in its possession,--an event
which I think unlikely to happen, and which will now be unnecessary,
the more especially as I am at present engaged in a new reduction of
my materials, and the projection of a new map, the publication of
which, in sufficiently large form to give it topographical as well as
geographical value, has been proposed by my distinguished and very kind
friend, Dr. Augustus Petermann, Gotha, in his Geographical Journal.
Papers descriptive of the _botanical_ collection, prepared by Mr.
Elias Durand; of the _algæ_, by Mr. Ashmead; of the _lichens_,
by Professor James; of the _birds_, by Mr. John Cassin; of the
_invertebrata_, by Dr. William Stimpson; of the _mammalia_, by Dr. J.
H. Slack; of the _cetacea_, by Professor E. Cope; of the _infusoria_,
by Dr. F. W. Lewis; of the _fishes_, by Dr. Theodore Gill; and of
the _paleontology_, by Professor F. B. Meek, have appeared from time
to time in the "Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia," excepting the last, which was published in the American
"Journal of Arts and Sciences." Dr. J. Atkin Meigs has in preparation
a monograph on _ethnology_, based upon a collection of upward of one
hundred and forty specimens, and I shall soon have completed a more
elaborate discussion of the Greenland Glaciers and other collateral
topics than has been allowed me by the limits and character of this
work.
I should do great injustice to my own feelings, did I not here express
the acknowledgment of my obligation to those societies, associations,
and individuals who united themselves with me in effecting the
organization of the Expedition, and who liberally shared with me its
expenses. My wishes were always promptly met by them, to the extent
of their ability; and the enterprise was sustained with a zeal and
interest rarely accorded to a purely scientific purpose. That I have
not before published an account of my voyage, or presented any detailed
statement of my discoveries to those who had a natural right to expect
it, has been entirely owing to the circumstance that my time has been
wholly occupied in the public service, from the period of my return
until late last year; and they will, I trust, accept as a sufficient
excuse for my silence during that period, the fact that the command
of an army hospital, with from three to five thousand inmates, which
devolved upon me during the greater part of the recent war, allowed
me little leisure for literary or scientific work. It will also be
understood that the temporary abandonment of the exploration was due to
the same general cause.
_October 23d, 1866._
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
TO THE
EXPEDITION.[1]
[Footnote 1: The author has reason to suppose that there are several
persons to whom the Expedition is indebted for support whose names, not
having been furnished him, do not appear in this list. Desiring to make
it entirely complete, he will feel personally obliged to any one whose
name is omitted to notify him of the fact, through the agency by which
the subscription was furnished.]
[Illustration]
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Henry Grinnell. E. A. Stansbury.
A. D. Bache. W. T. Blodgett.
George Folsom. Dr. Samuel W. Francis.
Henry E. Pierrepont. Frank Moore.
Benjamin H. Field. H. M. Field.
M. de LeRoquette. Blakeman & Phinney.
The "American Journal of Arts Harpers Brothers.
and Sciences"--Profs. John Austin Stevens.
Silliman and Dana. George A. Woodward.
Egbert L. Viele. C. Detmold.
Cyrus W. Field. Z. T. Detmold.
J. L. Graham. Francis Lieber.
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Brown, Brothers & Co. Henrietta B. Haines.
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THROUGH COMMITTEE OF CITIZENS, ALBANY, N. Y. D. V. N. RADCLIFFE,
_Treasurer_.
J. H. Armsby. W. Frothingham.
Thomas W. Olcott. G. J. H. Thatcher.
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THROUGH THE CITIZENS' COMMITTEE AND COMMITTEE OF THE ACADEMY OF
ARTS AND SCIENCES, BOSTON. RICHARD BAKER, Jun., _Treasurer_.
Richard Baker, Jun. James Lawrence.
Warren Sawyer. Jonathan Phillips.
John Stetson. Nathan Appleton.
J. D. W. Joy. Joseph Whitney.
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16
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
1. MAP OF THE POLAR REGIONS 1
Drawn by C. A. Schott. Engraved by J. Schedler.
2. MAP OF SMITH SOUND, SHOWING DR. HAYES' TRACK AND
DISCOVERIES 72
Drawn by Dr. Hayes. Engraved by J. Schedler.
3. MAP OF PORT FOULKE, THE WINTER QUARTERS OF THE
EXPEDITION 96
Drawn by Dr. Hayes. Engraved by J. Schedler.
4. AN ARCTIC TEAM 104
Drawn by G. G. White, from a Sketch by Dr. Hayes.
Engraved by J. A. Bogert.
5. A BEAR-HUNT 174
Drawn by Darley, from Description.
Engraved by J. A. Bogert.
6. CROSSING THE HUMMOCKS 322
Drawn by G. G. White, from a Sketch by Dr. Hayes.
Engraved by J. A. Bogert.
7. THE SHORES OF THE POLAR SEA 346
Drawn by H. Fenn, from a Sketch by Dr. Hayes.
Engraved by Fay & Cox.
8. A WALRUS-HUNT 408
Drawn by Darley, from Description.
Engraved by J. A. Bogert.
9. TYNDALL GLACIER, WHALE SOUND 438
Drawn by H. Fenn, from a Photograph by Dr. Hayes.
Engraved by Kingdon & Boyd.
EXPLANATION OF TAIL-PIECES.
_Drawn on wood by G. G. White from Photographs and Sketches by Dr.
Hayes. Engraved mostly by J. A. Bogert._
PAGE
1. Anchor 15
2. Arched Iceberg 27
3. Greenlander in his Kayak 34
4. Upernavik 43
5. Snowflake (magnified three diameters) 56
6. Seal on Cake of Ice 67
7. Head of a Reindeer 91
8. Port Foulke 100
9. Snowflake (same as No. 5) 126
10. Chester Valley, showing Alida Lake and the Glacier 136
11. "My Brother John's Glacier," from First Camp 148
12. Group of Reindeer 164
13. Schooner in Winter Quarters 211
14. The Esquimau Hut at Etah 235
15. Head of Walrus 247
16. Portrait of Birdie, the Arctic Fox 250
17. Sonntag's Grave 276
18. Snowflake (same as No. 5) 296
19. Camping in a Snow-Bank 306
20. Polar Bear 314
21. Dog Sledge 321
22. Head of the Esquimau Dog Oosisoak 332
23. Cape Union 352
24. A Sketch 362
25. Observatory at Port Foulke 375
26. Snowflake (same as No. 5) 380
27. Kalutunah and his Family 395
28. Head of Arctic Hare 425
29. A Sketch 438
30. "End" 454
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
Plan of the Expedition.--First Announcement.--Appeal to Scientific
Societies.--Aid solicited.--Public Lectures.--Liberality
of various Societies and Individuals.--Vessel purchased
in Boston.--Interest manifested in that City.--Difficulty
in obtaining a proper Crew.--Organization of the
Party.--Scientific Outfit.--Abundant Supplies
1
CHAPTER I.
Leaving Boston.--At Anchor in Nantasket Roads.--At Sea
13
CHAPTER II.
Passage to the Greenland Coast.--Discipline.--The Decks at
Sea.--Our Quarters.--The First Iceberg.--Crossing the Arctic
Circle.--The Midnight Sun.--The Endless Day.--Making the
Land.--A Remarkable Scene among the Bergs.--At Anchor in Pröven
Harbor
16
CHAPTER III.
The Colony of Pröven.--The Kayak of the Greenlander.--Scarcity of
Dogs.--Liberality of the Chief Trader.--Arctic Flora
28
CHAPTER IV.
Upernavik.--Hospitality of the Inhabitants.--Death and Burial of
Gibson Caruthers.--A Lunch on Board.--Adieu
35
CHAPTER V.
Among the Icebergs.--Dangers of Arctic Navigation.--A Narrow Escape
from a Crumbling Berg.--Measurement of an Iceberg
44
CHAPTER VI.
Entering Melville Bay.--The Middle Ice.--The Great Polar
Current.--A Snow-Storm.--Encounter with an Iceberg.--Making
Cape York.--Rescue of Hans
57
CHAPTER VII.
Hans and his Family.--Petowak Glacier.--A Snow-Storm.--The
Ice-Pack.--Entering Smith Sound.--A Severe Gale.--Collision
with Icebergs.--Encounter with the Ice-Fields.--Retreat from
the Pack.--At Anchor in Hartstene Bay.--Entering Winter Quarters
68
CHAPTER VIII.
Our Winter Harbor.--Preparing for Winter.--Organization of
Duties.--Scientific Work.--The Observatory.--Schooner Driven
Ashore.--The Hunters.--Sawing a Dock.--Frozen up.--Sunset
92
CHAPTER IX.
Sunset.--Winter Work.--My Dog-Teams.--"My Brother John's
Glacier."--Hunting.--Peat Beds.--Esquimau Graves.--Putrefaction
at Low Temperatures.--Sonntag climbs the Glacier.--Hans and
Peter.--My Esquimau People.--The Esquimau Dog.--Surveying the
Glacier.--The Sailing-Master.--His Birthday Dinner
101
CHAPTER X.
Journey on the Glacier.--The First Camp.--Scaling the
Glacier.--Character of its Surface.--The Ascent.--Driven back
by a Gale.--Low Temperature.--Dangerous Situation of the
Party.--A Moonlight Scene
127
CHAPTER XI.
Important Results of the recent Journey.--The Glacier System of
Greenland.--General Discussion of the Subject.--Illustrations
drawn from the Alpine Glaciers.--Glacier Movement.--Outline of
the Greenland _Mer de Glace_
137
CHAPTER XII.
My Cabin.--Surveying.--Castor and Pollux.--Concerning
Scurvy.--Dangers of eating Cold Snow.--Knorr and
Starr.--Frost-Bites.--Hans, Peter, and Jacob again.--Coal
Account.--The Fires.--Comfort of our Quarters.--The House on
Deck.--Mild Weather.--Jensen.--Mrs. Hans.--John Williams, the
Cook.--A Cheerful Evening
149
CHAPTER XIII.
Increasing Darkness.--Daily Routine.--The Journal.--Our
Home.--Sunday.--Return of Sonntag.--A Bear-Hunt.--The Open
Water.--Accident to Mr. Knorr.--A Thaw.--"The Port Foulke
Weekly News."--The Tide-Register.--The Fire-Hole.--Hunting
Foxes.--Peter
165
CHAPTER XIV.
Midwinter.--The Night of Months.--Brilliancy of the
Moonlight.--Mild Temperatures.--Remarkable Weather.--A
Shower.--Depth of Snow.--Snow Crystals.--An Epidemic among the
Dogs.--Symptoms of the Disorder.--Great Mortality.--Only one
Team left.--New Plans.--Schemes for reaching the Esquimaux in
Whale Sound
192
CHAPTER XV.
The Arctic Midnight.--Sonntag starts for Whale Sound.--Effects
of Darkness on the Spirits.--Routine of Duties.--Christmas
Eve.--Christmas Day.--The Christmas Dinner
200
CHAPTER XVI.
The New Year.--Looking for Sonntag.--The Aurora Borealis.--A
Remarkable Display.--Depth of Snow.--Strange Mildness
of the Weather.--The Open Sea.--Evaporation at Low
Temperatures.--Looking for the Twilight.--My Pet Fox
212
CHAPTER XVII.
The Arctic Night.
222
CHAPTER XVIII.
Prolonged Absence of Mr. Sonntag.--Preparing to look for
him.--Arrival of Esquimaux.--They report Sonntag dead.--Arrival
of Hans.--Condition of the Dogs.--Hans's Story of the Journey
227
CHAPTER XIX.
Sonntag.--Twilight increasing.--A Deer-Hunt.--The Arctic
Foxes.--The Polar Bear.--Adventures with Bears.--Our New
Esquimaux.--Esquimau Dress.--A Snow House.--Esquimau
Implements.--A Walrus Hunt
236
CHAPTER XX.
Looking for the Sun.--The Open Sea.--Birds
248
CHAPTER XXI.
Sunrise.
251
CHAPTER XXII.
Spring Twilight.--Arrival of Esquimaux.--Obtaining
Dogs.--Kalutunah, Tattarat, Myouk, Amalatok and his Son.--An
Arctic Hospital.--Esquimau Gratitude
255
CHAPTER XXIII.
Kalutunah returns.--An Esquimau Family.--The Family
Property.--The Family Wardrobe.--Myouk and his
Wife.--Peter's Dead Body found.--My New Teams.--The
Situation.--Hunting.--Subsistence of Arctic Animals.--Pursuit
of Science under Difficulties.--Kalutunah at Home.--An Esquimau
Feast.--Kalutunah in Service.--Recovering the Body of Mr.
Sonntag.--The Funeral.--The Tomb
265
CHAPTER XXIV.
Starting on my First Journey.--Object of the Journey.--A Mishap.--A
Fresh Start.--The First Camp.--Hartstene's Cairn.--Exploring a
Track.--A New Style of Snow-Hut.--An Uncomfortable Night.--Low
Temperature.--Effect of Temperature on the Snow.--Among the
Hummocks.--Sighting Humboldt Glacier.--The Track impracticable
to the Main Party.--Van Rensselaer Harbor.--Fate of the
_Advance_.--A Drive in a Gale
277
CHAPTER XXV.
Sending forward Supplies.--Kalutunah as a Driver.--Kalutunah
civilized.--Mr. Knorr.--Plan of my Proposed Journey.--Preparing
to set out.--Industrious Esquimau Women.--Death and Burial of
Kablunet.--The Start
290
CHAPTER XXVI.
The First Day's Journey.--A Fall of Temperature.--Its
Effect upon the Men.--Camped in a Snow-Hut.--The
Second Day's Journey.--At Cairn Point.--Character of
the Ice.--The Prospect.--Storm-stayed.--The Cooks in
Difficulty.--Snow-Drift.--Violence of the Gale.--Our Snow-Hut
297
CHAPTER XXVII.
The Storm continues.--At Work.--Among the Hummocks.--Difficulties
of the Track.--The Snow-Drifts.--Slow Progress.--The
Smith Sound Ice.--Formation of the Hummocks.--The Old
Ice-Fields.--Growth of Ice-Fields.--Thickness of Ice.--The
Prospect
307
CHAPTER XXVIII.
The Difficulties multiplying.--Sledge broken.--Reflections on
the Prospect.--The Men breaking down.--Worse and Worse.--The
Situation.--Defeat of Main Party.--Resolve to send the Party
back and continue the Journey with Dogs
315
CHAPTER XXIX.
The Main Party sent back.--Plunging into the Hummocks
again.--Advantages of Dogs.--Camp in an Ice-Cave.--Nursing
the Dogs.--Snow-Blindness.--A Chapter of Accidents.--Cape
Hawks.--Cape Napoleon.--Storm-stayed.--Grinnell Land looming
up.--Discovering a Sound.--Ravenous Disposition of Dogs.--A
Cheerless Supper.--Camping in the Open Air.--Prostration of Men
and Dogs.--Making the Land at last
322
CHAPTER XXX.
The Prospect Ahead.--To Cape Napoleon.--To Cape Frazer.--Traces
of Esquimaux.--Rotten Ice.--Kennedy Channel.--Mildness of
Temperature.--Appearance of Birds.--Geological Features of
Coast.--Vegetation.--Accident to Jensen
333
CHAPTER XXXI.
A New Start.--Speculations.--In a Fog.--Polar Scenery.--Stopped
by Rotten Ice.--Looking Ahead.--Conclusions.--The Open
Sea.--Climax of the Journey.--Returning South
343
CHAPTER XXXII.
The Open Polar Sea.--Width of the Polar Basin.--Boundaries
of the Polar Basin.--Polar Currents.--Polar Ice.--The
Ice-Belt.--Arctic Navigation and Discovery.--The Russian
Sledge Explorations.--Wrangel's Open Sea.--Parry's Boat
Expedition.--Dr. Kane's Discoveries.--Expansion of Smith
Sound.--General Conclusions drawn from my own Discoveries and
those of my Predecessors
353
CHAPTER XXXIII.
On Board the Schooner.--Review of the Journey.--The Return down
Kennedy Channel.--A Severe March in a Snow-Storm.--Rotten
Ice.--Effects of a Gale.--Returning through the Hummocks.--The
Dogs breaking down.--Adrift on a Floe at Cairn Point.--The
Open Water compels us to take to the Land.--Reaching the
Schooner.--Projecting a Chart.--The New Sound.--My Northern
Discoveries
363
CHAPTER XXXIV.
Inspection of the Schooner.--Method of Repairing.--The Serious
Nature of the Injury.--The Schooner unfit for any further
Ice-Encounters.--Examination of my Resources.--Plans for the
Future
376
CHAPTER XXXV.
The Arctic Spring.--Snow disappearing.--Plants show Signs of
Life.--Return of the Birds.--Change in the Sea.--Refitting the
Schooner.--The Esquimaux.--Visit to Kalutunah.--Kalutunah's
Account of the Esquimau Traditions.--Hunting-Grounds
contracted by the Accumulation of Ice.--Hardships of their
Life.--Their Subsistence.--The Race dwindling away.--Visit to
the Glacier.--Re-survey of the Glacier.--Kalutunah catching
Birds.--A Snow-Storm and a Gale.--The Mid-day of the Arctic
Summer
381
CHAPTER XXXVI.
The Arctic Summer.--The Flora.--The Ice dissolving.--A
Summer Storm of Rain, Hail, and Snow.--The Terraces.--Ice
Action.--Upheaval of the Coast.--Geological Interest
of Icebergs and the Land-Ice.--A Walrus Hunt.--The
"Fourth."--Visit to Littleton Island.--Great Numbers of
Eider-Ducks and Gulls.--The Ice breaking up.--Critical
Situation of the Schooner.--Taking Leave of the
Esquimaux.--Adieu to Port Foulke
396
CHAPTER XXXVII.
Leaving Port Foulke.--Effort to reach Cape Isabella.--Meet the Pack
and take Shelter at Littleton Island.--Hunting.--Abundance of
Birds and Walrus.--Visit to Cairn Point.--Reaching the West
Coast.--View from Cape Isabella.--Plans for the Future.--Our
Results.--Chances of reaching the Polar Sea discussed.--The
Glaciers of Ellesmere Land
416
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Leaving Smith Sound.--Crossing the North Water.--Meeting the
Pack.--The Sea and Air teeming with Life.--Remarkable
Refraction.--Reaching Whale Sound.--Surveying in a Boat.--The
Sound traced to its Termination.--Meeting Esquimaux at
Iteplik.--Habits of the Esquimaux.--Marriage Ceremony.--The
Decay of the Tribe.--View of Barden Bay.--Tyndall Glacier
426
CHAPTER XXXIX.
Homeward Bound.--Entering Melville Bay.--Encounter with a
Bear.--Meeting the Pack.--Making the "South Water."--Reaching
Upernavik.--The News.--To Goodhaven.--Liberality of the
Danish Government and the Greenland Officials.--Driven out
of Baffin Bay by a Gale.--Crippled by the Storm and forced
to take Shelter in Halifax.--Hospitable Reception.--Arrival
in Boston.--Realize the State of the Country.--The
Determination.--Conclusion
439
[Illustration]
INTRODUCTION.
PLAN OF THE EXPEDITION.--FIRST ANNOUNCEMENT.--APPEAL TO SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETIES.--AID SOLICITED.--PUBLIC LECTURES.--LIBERALITY
OF VARIOUS SOCIETIES AND INDIVIDUALS.--VESSEL PURCHASED
IN BOSTON.--INTEREST MANIFESTED IN THAT CITY.--DIFFICULTY
IN OBTAINING A PROPER CREW.--ORGANIZATION OF THE
PARTY.--SCIENTIFIC OUTFIT.--ABUNDANT SUPPLIES.
I purpose to record in this Book the events of the Expedition which I
conducted to the Arctic Seas.
[Sidenote: PLAN OF THE EXPEDITION.]
The plan of the enterprise first suggested itself to me while acting
as Surgeon of the Expedition commanded by the late Dr. E. K. Kane, of
the United States Navy. Although its execution did not appear feasible
at the period of my return from that voyage in October, 1855, yet I
did not at any time abandon the design. It comprehended an extensive
scheme of discovery. The proposed route was that by Smith's Sound. My
object was to complete the survey of the north coasts of Greenland
and Grinnell Land, and to make such explorations as I might find
practicable in the direction of the North Pole.
My proposed base of operations was Grinnell Land, which I had
discovered on my former voyage, and had personally traced beyond lat.
80°, far enough to satisfy me that it was available for my design.
Accepting the deductions of many learned physicists that the sea
about the North Pole cannot be frozen, that an open area of varying
extent must be found within the Ice-belt which is known to invest it,
I desired to add to the proofs which had already been accumulated
by the early Dutch and English voyagers, and, more recently, by the
researches of Scoresby, Wrangel, and Parry, and still later by Dr.
Kane's expedition.
It is well known that the great difficulty which has been encountered,
in the various attempts that have been made to solve this important
physical problem, has been the inability of the explorer to penetrate
the Ice-belt with his ship, or to travel over it with sledges
sufficiently far to obtain indisputable proof. My former experience
led me to the conclusion that the chances of success were greater by
Smith's Sound than by any other route, and my hopes of success were
based upon the expectation which I entertained of being able to push
a vessel into the Ice-belt, to about the 80th parallel of latitude,
and thence to transport a boat over the ice to the open sea which I
hoped to find beyond. Reaching this open sea, if such fortune awaited
me, I proposed to launch my boat and to push off northward. For the
ice-transportation I expected to rely, mainly, upon the dog of the
Esquimaux.
How far I was able to execute my design these pages will show.
It will be remembered that the highest point reached by Dr. Kane with
his vessels was Van Rensselaer Harbor, latitude 78° 37′, where he
wintered. This was on the eastern side of Smith's Sound. It seemed to
me that a more favorable position could be attained on the western
side; and from personal observations made in 1854, while on a sledge
journey from Van Rensselaer Harbor, it appeared to me probable that
the degree of latitude already indicated might be secured for a winter
station and a centre of observation.
[Sidenote: ANTICIPATED RESULTS.]
It would be needless for me to attempt to illustrate the value of
such a centre for the purpose of scientific inquiry. It was not alone
the prospect of the satisfaction to be achieved by completing our
geographical knowledge of that portion of the globe, nor that of
solving definitely the problem of an Open Polar Sea, that encouraged
me in the task which I had undertaken. There were many questions of
physical science to be settled, and I hoped to take with me a corps of
well-instructed observers. The movements of the currents of the air and
water, the temperature of these elements, the pressure of the former
and the tides of the latter, the variations of gravity, the direction
and intensity of the "magnetic force," the Aurora Borealis, the
formation and movement of the glaciers, and many important features of
Natural History remained to be solved by observations about the centre
indicated. Years of profitable labor might indeed be expended in that
locality by an enterprising force of skilled workers.
With these objects in view, I applied with great confidence to the
scientific men of the world and to the enlightened public sentiment of
my country-men.
The response, although in the end highly gratifying, was more tardy
in its coming than had been at first anticipated. There were indeed
many circumstances of discouragement, not the least of which was an
impression which then had possession of the public judgment, that any
further efforts toward the North Pole must be fruitless, and must
involve an unjustifiable loss of life. It was only after many endeavors
that here and there the influences favorable to the design began to
affect the community. The most important of these was, of course, the
sanction given to the project by those associations whose opinions
govern the mass of men in relation to scientific matters.
[Sidenote: FIRST ANNOUNCEMENT.]
The first public announcement of it was made to the American
Geographical and Statistical Society, before which body I read a paper
in December, 1857, setting forth the plan, and the means proposed for
its accomplishment. It was on this occasion that I first experienced
the discouragement to which I have already referred, and it became
evident to all who had thus far interested themselves in the subject,
that it would be necessary to instruct the public mind in relation to
the practicability of the proposed exploration, and its comparative
freedom from danger, before any earnest support could be anticipated.
To this task I at once addressed myself, although, indeed, I might
with some show of reason have abandoned the undertaking altogether;
but at twenty-five one is not easily discouraged. In concert with the
friends of the enterprise, I caused it to be understood that I was open
to invitations from any of the numerous literary societies and clubs
who were organizing popular courses of lectures for the winter. Such
lectures were at that time quite the fashion, and almost every little
town in the country could boast of its "course." The invitations which
reached me were very numerous, and I availed myself of them to the
full limit of my time. The scientific and literary journals and the
press, ever ready to aid in the advancement of liberal and enlightened
purposes, gave very cordial support; and, when the spring of 1858
opened, we had the satisfaction to perceive that we had dispelled some
of the popular illusions respecting the dangers of Arctic exploration.
Among the most important of the lectures given at this period was a
course which I delivered at the instance of Professor Joseph Henry, in
the fine lecture-room of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington.
These lectures were the more important, in that they secured to the
undertaking the friendship and support of Professor A. D. Bache, the
learned and efficient chief of the United States Coast Survey.
[Sidenote: SCIENTIFIC INTEREST.]
In April, 1858, I brought the subject before the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, at its annual meeting held in
Baltimore; and that body of representative men, at the suggestion of
Professor Bache, appointed sixteen of its leading members a committee
on "Arctic Exploration."
It remained now only to secure the necessary material aid. With this
object in view, committees were promptly appointed by the American
Philosophical Society, the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
the American Geographical Society, the Lyceum of Natural History of New
York, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Boston Society
of Natural History.
Subscription lists were at once opened by these several committees, and
Professor Bache, at all times foremost to promote scientific discovery,
headed the list with his powerful name.
The learned Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Professor Joseph
Henry, further strengthened the cause by the proffer of scientific
instruments, and this was followed by the earnest support of Mr. Henry
Grinnell, whose zealous efforts and sacrifices in behalf of Arctic
exploration are too well known to gain any thing from my commendation.
At a subsequent period I addressed the Chamber of Commerce in New
York, and the Board of Trade in Philadelphia. The latter promptly
appointed a committee with the same objects as those previously
appointed by the scientific societies. Still later I spoke to a large
audience in the lecture-room of the Lowell Institute, Boston, assembled
under the auspices of the committee of the Academy of Arts and
Sciences, on which occasion, after eloquent addresses by the chairman,
the late Hon. Edward Everett, and Professors Agassiz and W. B. Rogers,
a committee of citizens was appointed to coöperate with the committees
already named.
[Sidenote: PUBLIC LECTURES.]
The system of public lecturing which had been improved with such
satisfactory advantage in the beginning, was continued, and, in
addition to the increased public interest which the lectures created,
they proved a source of more substantial benefit. Two of them were
delivered under the auspices of the American Geographical Society.
The value of these last was derived from the circumstance that public
support was given to the project by Dr. Francis Lieber, the late
Rev. Dr. Bethune, Rev. J. P. Thompson, the late Professor (afterward
Major-General) O. M. Mitchel, and Mr. (now Brigadier-General) Egbert L.
Viele, who spoke on the occasion. The principal address was made by Dr.
Lieber, and it was characteristic of that able and learned writer.
[Sidenote: FOREIGN SUPPORT.]
The interest manifested among geographers abroad was scarcely less
than that shown by scientific men at home. The eminent President of
the Geographical Society of London, Sir Roderick Impey Murchison,
in announcing the proposed renewal of Arctic discovery to that
distinguished body, expressed the earnest desire of the society for the
success of the undertaking; and the enlightened Vice-President of the
Geographical Society of Paris, M. de la Roquette, promptly offered, as
an earnest of his good will, a liberal contribution to the fund.
The Masonic Fraternity in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia also gave
their assistance, and it was not the less appreciated that it was
spontaneous and unexpected.
Notwithstanding the unceasing efforts which were thus made in every
quarter, and the almost universal interest which the undertaking at
length excited, it was not until the beginning of June, 1860, that
I was able to commence my preparations. My plans of exploration had
been based upon the expectation of being able to start with two
vessels,--one a small steamer, to be taken out under sails, and the
steam-power only to be used when actually among the ice;--the other a
sailing vessel, to be employed as a tender or store-ship.
It now became evident to us that if my departure was deferred to
another year, the chances of my sailing at all would be diminished
rather than increased; and we therefore determined to do the best we
could with the means at hand. These means would enable us to fit out
and man only one small sailing vessel.
[Sidenote: VESSEL PURCHASED.]
To Mr. Richard Baker, Jr., the energetic chairman of the Boston
Committee, (aided by a sub-committee consisting of Mr. Warren Sawyer,
Mr. John Stetson, Mr. O. W. Peabody, and Mr. J. D. W. Joy,) was
intrusted the selection and purchase of such a craft as would best
compromise between the services to be performed and the state of our
finances; and the duty was accomplished with characteristic sagacity.
When I reached Boston, a few days after the purchase had been made, I
found the vessel lying at a wharf, heavily laden with a cargo brought
from the West Indies. She was a strong, snug, jaunty looking craft, and
appeared to be well adapted for the peculiar service to which she was
destined. Her "register" quaintly set forth that she was "A 1," that
she measured one hundred and thirty-three tons burden, that she was a
fore-and-aft schooner, drew eight feet of water, and was named _Spring
Hill_. For this name we at once substituted _United States_, which
change was, upon my memorial, subsequently confirmed by act of Congress.
The season was now growing very late. Before the vessel had been
purchased it was fully time that I should have been upon my voyage,
and every day's delay added to my anxiety lest I should be unable to
penetrate the Baffin's Bay ice, and secure a harbor before the winter
had shut out all access to the land. It was therefore with no small
degree of satisfaction that I saw the schooner on the ways in the
shipyard of Mr. Kelly in East Boston, and the work of refitting her
going rapidly forward.
As a protection against the wear and pressure of the ice, a strong
sheathing of two and a half inch oak planking was spiked to her sides,
and the bows were cased with thick iron plates as far aft as the
fore-chains. Internally she was strengthened with heavy beams, crossing
at intervals of twelve feet a little below the water-line, which,
as well as the deck-timbers, were supported by additional knees and
diagonal braces. For convenience of working; among the ice, her rig was
changed from a fore-and-aft to a foretop-sail schooner.
[Sidenote: PREPARATION.]
Owing to many unavoidable delays, the month of June had almost passed
before the schooner was brought to the wharf in Boston to receive her
cargo. Much of this cargo was made up of voluntary gift offerings, "in
the cause of science," and came from various places, and, as these
"offerings" arrived irregularly, there was naturally much confusion in
the storage. It will not therefore appear surprising that our departure
was several days delayed. One month was indeed a short time, even under
the most favorable circumstances, to fit a vessel, purchase and store a
complicated cargo, construct and get together sledges, boats, and other
equipments for travelling, obtain instruments and all the requisite
materials for scientific exploration,--in short, to accumulate the
various odds and ends necessary for so unusual and protracted a voyage.
It was a busy month, and into no equal period of my life did I ever
crowd so much labor and anxiety.
The selection of my ship's company gave me not a little concern. Of
material from which to choose there was quite an ample supply. In
numbers there were indeed enough to have fitted out a respectable
squadron; but it was not easy to find those whose constitutions and
habits of life fitted them for the service. The greater number of the
volunteers had never been to sea, and most of them were eager "to serve
in any capacity,"--a declaration which, too often on this, as on other
occasions, I have found to signify the absence of any capacity at all.
I esteemed myself fortunate in securing the services of my former
companion and friend in the Grinnell Expedition, Mr. August Sonntag,
who early volunteered to join me from Mexico, in which country he was
engaged in conducting some important scientific explorations. He
even proposed to me that he should abandon the work upon which he was
then employed, in order to aid me in the preliminary preparations.
Returning to the United States in 1859, he was appointed to the Dudley
Observatory, Albany, and, to accompany me, he sacrificed the fine
position of Associate Director of that institution.
[Sidenote: OFFICERS AND CREW.]
My party, when at length completed, numbered fourteen persons all told,
as follows:--
August Sonntag, Astronomer, and second in command.
S. J. McCormick, Sailing Master.
Henry W. Dodge, Mate.
Henry G. Radcliffe, Assistant Astronomer.
George F. Knorr, Commander's Secretary.
Collin C. Starr, Master's Mate.
Gibson Caruthers, Boatswain and Carpenter.
Francis L. Harris, Volunteer.
Harvey Heywood, Volunteer.
John McDonald, Seaman.
Thomas Barnum, Seaman.
Charles McCormick, Seaman.
William Miller, Seaman.
John Williams, Seaman.
[Sidenote: SCIENTIFIC OUTFIT.]
Our equipment for scientific observations was reasonably perfect.
The Smithsonian Institution furnished a good supply of barometers
and thermometers, besides other apparatus not less important, and
also spirits, cans, and other materials for the collection and
preservation of specimens of Natural History. In this latter department
I owe especial obligations to the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia, and also to the Cambridge Museum. From the skilful maker,
Mr. John Tagliabeau, of New York, I had a handsome present of spirit
thermometers. From the Topographical Bureau at Washington, through
the courtesy of its chief, I was supplied with two pocket-sextants,
instruments which could not have been obtained either by purchase or
loan elsewhere. I had hoped to secure from the National Observatory the
use of a deep-sea sounding apparatus, until it was made known to me
that the concession was not provided for by act of Congress. Outside
of the limits of nautical routine I fared better. The Chief of the
Coast Survey furnished me with a vertical circle, which contained the
double advantage of a transit and theodolite, a well-tested unifilar
magnetometer, a reflecting circle, a Wurdeman compass, and several
other valuable instruments. We had five chronometers,--three box and
two pocket, which last were intended for use in sledge travelling. We
had an excellent telescope, with a four and a half inch object-glass;
and, under the joint superintendence of the late Professor Bond, of
Cambridge, and Mr. Sonntag, I caused to be constructed a pendulum
apparatus after the plan of Foster's instrument.
I lacked not instruments, but men. My only well-instructed associate
was Mr. Sonntag.
Our outfit was altogether of the very best description, and our larder
contained every thing that could reasonably be desired. An abundant
supply of canned meats, vegetables, and fruits insured us against
scurvy, and a large stock of desiccated beef, beef soup, (a mixture
of meat, carrots, onions, &c.,) and potatoes, prepared expressly for
me by the American Desiccating Company of New York, gave us a light
and portable food for the sledge journeys. I preferred the food in
this form to the ordinary pemican. We were amply provided with good
warm woollen clothing, and four large bales of buffalo-skins promised
each of us the materials for a coat and protection against the Arctic
winds. A good stock of rifles and guns, and a plentiful supply of
ammunition, finished our guarantees against want. We had forty tons of
coal and wood in the hold, and a quantity of pine boards, intended for
housing over the upper deck when in winter quarters.
Our sledges were constructed after a pattern furnished by myself, and
the tents, cooking-lamps, and other camp fixtures, were manufactured
under my personal supervision. From numerous friends, whose names I
cannot here mention without violating the obligations of confidence,
we received books and a great quantity of "small stores" which were
afterward greatly appreciated during our winter imprisonment in the ice.
[Sidenote: READY TO SAIL.]
We had expected to sail on the 4th of July, and the friends of
the Expedition were invited by the Boston Committee, through its
secretary, Mr. O. W. Peabody, to see us off. Although the day was
dark and drizzly many hundreds of persons were present. Through some
unavoidable accident we did not get away. The guests, however, made us
the recipients of their best wishes, and when the members of my little
command (assembled together on that day for the first time) found
themselves addressed in turn by the Governor of the State, the Mayor
of the City, and the President of Harvard, and by renowned statesmen,
orators, divines and merchants of Boston, and by _savans_ of Cambridge,
the measure of their happiness was full. Inspired by the interest thus
so conspicuously manifested in their fortunes, they felt ready for any
emergency.
THE OPEN POLAR SEA.
CHAPTER I.
LEAVING BOSTON.--AT ANCHOR IN NANTASKET ROADS.--AT SEA.
Late in the evening of July 6th, 1860, the schooner _United States_ was
hauled into the stream, prepared to leave port the following morning.
The morning dawned clear and auspicious. Upon going on board, I found
that a number of friends whom I had invited to accompany us down the
bay had preceded me by half an hour. Among them were His Excellency the
Governor of the State, and representatives of the Boston, New York and
Philadelphia committees.
The fine, large steam-tug _R. B. Forbes_ soon came alongside, alive
with a gay party of well-wishers, and, taking the end of our hawser,
started us from our anchorage. As we passed Long Wharf we were honored
with a salute from a battery which the Mayor of the city had sent down
for that purpose, and numerous parting cheers greeted us as we steamed
down the bay.
The wind being unfavorable, we dropped anchor for the night in
Nantasket Roads. The tug took most of our friends back to Boston, and I
was left in my cabin with the official representatives of the promoters
of the enterprise, engaged in the last of our numerous consultations.
A handful of papers were put into my possession, and I became the sole
owner of the schooner _United States_ and the property on board of her.
The sun had set before our conference ended, and the wind promising to
hold from the eastward during the night, I returned to Boston with Mr.
Baker, in his yacht.
Upon arriving at the schooner next morning, I found that the executive
officer had availed himself of the delay to break out the ship's hold
and effect a better stowage of the deck cargo. Indeed, we were in no
condition for going to sea. Many of the stores were hurried on board
at the last moment, and the deck was literally covered with boxes and
bales, which, in the haste of departure, could not be stowed away. It
was long after nightfall when the hatches were closed and every thing
secured; but as the pilot did not come on board, we were compelled to
wait until daylight.
I passed the night on Mr. Baker's yacht, which lay near by, with some
kind friends who would not quit us until they saw us fairly off. The
pretty yachts _Stella_ and _Howard_, to whose gentlemanly owners I was
indebted for courteous attentions, also kept us company.
[Sidenote: LEAVING BOSTON.]
With the first gray streak of the dawning day, this little fleet
tripped their anchors and glided home, bearing our last good-byes,
while we, with a fair wind, stood out to sea.
[Sidenote: FIRST NIGHT AT SEA.]
Before the night closed in, the coast had sunk out of sight, and I was
once more tossing on the waves of the broad Atlantic. Again I saw the
sun sink beneath the line of waters, and I watched the changing clouds
which hung over the land I had left behind me, until the last faint
flush of gold and crimson had melted away into the soft twilight.
Creeping then into my damp, narrow bunk, I slept the first long,
unbroken sleep I had had for weeks. The expedition which had absorbed
so much of my attention during the past five years was now fairly on
its way. Trusting in Providence and my own energy, I had faith in the
future.
[Illustration]