For more than five hundred years previous to the discovery of America,
the territory which now constitutes the Republic of Chile was inhabited
by bands of nomadic, barbarous Indians. The indigenous races of Chile
possessed none of the arts of civilization. They had no knowledge of
cultivating the soil, and the rich mineral resources of the country
remained undisturbed and undeveloped during all the centuries in
which they were left in undisputed possession. They had no system
of government, no recognized social or moral laws, no commerce, no
medium of exchange, no occupations. The nearest approach they had to
houses were rude huts “rucas,” made from the branches of trees, which
afforded little protection against rain or cold; neither had they
clothing with which to cover their bodies or protect them from the
elements. They were nomadic, cannibalistic savages, living like the
beasts of the forests, subsisting upon wild fruits, berries, nuts, and
such animals as they could capture or kill with crude weapons, made
from wood and bamboo. There being few animals and birds indigenous to
the country, the Indians were often driven to the extremity of eating
insects, mollusks, lizards and reptiles, as a means of sustaining life.
The absolute lack of civilization, the low level of the intellectual
standard, depraved moral condition, vicious habits and disgusting
customs that prevailed among the indigenous races of Chile previous
to the peaceful conquest of portions of the territory by the Incas,
finds few parallels in the history of the world. Might was right; there
was no law, no restraint, no incentive or encouragement to progress or
improvement; no punishment provided for those who committed murder and
outrage. When one person killed another, he feasted upon the flesh of
his vanquished adversary, eating it raw, the formality of cooking being
dispensed with.
When the character of the aborigines of Chile is taken into
consideration; the conditions out of which the Republic was evolved,
a century ago--1810; the elements amalgamated into the present
homogeneous population, inherited peculiarities, traditional customs
and superstitions taken into account, the wonder is that progress has
been so rapid along the road of national advancement, commercial and
intellectual development.
More than one hundred years before Columbus discovered America; before
the flood-tide, which carried in its current a curious collection of
ambitious adventurers and the poor and oppressed of all the European
nations, set in towards the western world, making the Atlantic Ocean
the “Path of Empire;” before the advance guard of Spanish adventurers
and despoilers drifted from the Antilles to tropical America, and
crossing the Isthmus of Panama started in quest of gold--a mission of
robbery and butchery of the defenseless inhabitants of the west coast
countries; before Francisco Pizarro despoiled Peru and destroyed the
Inca Empire, where existed the only material evidences of an advanced
civilization in South America, created and maintained by a native
race; long before Diego Almagro, friend and ally of Pizarro, who was
refused a share of the spoils secured in the conquest of Peru, went to
Chile, the Incas had invaded the territory and made peaceful conquest
of portions of the country which now constitutes the northern part of
the Republic.
In the early part of the fifteenth century the Inca of Peru sent
a small army to explore the country to the south, with a view to
increasing the territorial limits of his Empire. The expedition went
as far south as the valley of the Aconcagua, a rich, fertile country,
where later was established the city of Quillota, the first capital of
Chile. An attempt was made to explore the country further south, but
the advance was resented by the Araucanians, and the Incas returned
to Peru to report the success of the undertaking. A few years later
another army was sent by the Inca into Chile, which explored the
country as far south as the River Bio Bio, which is now the northern
boundary of the Araucanian territory.
The Incas being much more advanced in civilization than the Indian
tribes of Chile, introduced ideas and customs that furnished the
foundation upon which was later erected the superstructure of the
Republic. They taught the Indians how to irrigate and to cultivate the
soil, the value of precious metals, how to weave fabrics from the fur
of the vicuña and guanaco, and the art of manufacturing pottery. They
also introduced maize, beans and vegetables of various kinds, in the
cultivation and uses of which they instructed the natives. In fact, the
first advance made by the Chilean Indians from a state of absolute
barbarism towards a condition of semi-civilization was due to the
teachings and example of the Incas, the most intelligent, progressive
and highly civilized of the numerous indigenous races in America,
North or South. With a view to making Chile a part of the Peruvian
Empire, the Incas built a magnificent military road across the desert
of Atacama, which was later partially destroyed by the Spaniards, but
portions of which still remain as evidence of the genius and creative
skill of that wonderful people.
In 1535, one hundred years after the peaceful conquest of Northern
Chile by the Incas, Diego de Almagro, one of the Spanish freebooters
and Pacific pirates, started from Peru with five hundred adventurous
soldiers on an expedition of conquest of Chile, hoping to repeat
there Pizarro’s experience in the spoliation of the Inca Empire. The
expedition of Almagro, to whom history generally accords the honor
of the discovery of Chile, was attended with many hardships and much
suffering. After leaving the road constructed by the Incas across the
desert, they had to cross the Cordillera of the Andes, the higher
ranges of which were covered with snow and over which there was no road
and where the cold was intense. After a voyage lasting six months, in
which innumerable difficulties were encountered, Almagro arrived at a
point where Copiapo is now situated, with less than one half of his
followers, the others having died from cold and starvation in crossing
the mountains. It was on this expedition that Almagro manifested
characteristics which later gave him the reputation of being one of
the most cruel and inhuman of the many adventurers who invaded Chile.
When animals used in transporting provisions and equipment for the
expedition died, Indians encountered on the way were impressed into
service as beasts of burden. They were compelled to live with the pack
animals, with which they served in common, and when unable to longer
support the burdens under which they struggled across deserts and over
mountains, they were brutally murdered, or maimed and left to suffer
the tortures of a slow death by the wayside.
When Almagro reached the valley of the Aconcagua, where he had been
preceded more than a century by the Incas, who established friendly
relations with the Araucanians, he was kindly received by the Indians.
But the natives who had been enslaved and cruelly treated by the
Spaniards enroute, related their experiences to the friendly Indians,
who became suspicious and fled into the forests for protection. This
angered Almagro who ordered his soldiers to go in search of them and
to kill all who refused to return to their places of habitation.
The Spaniards who were provided with horses and arms pursued the
defenseless natives and slaughtered hundreds of them.
Having gone to Chile in search of gold, with no other motive than to
sack and rob, and finding only poor, ignorant, miserable Indians in
possession of the country, Almagro soon returned to Peru, disappointed
and disgusted with what he described as the poverty of the territory
he had explored. Because of this disappointment, previous to his
departure, he committed outrages and atrocities upon the helpless
natives, by whom he had been received as a friend, which have few
parallels in the record of cruel deeds, with which the early history
of South America is so replete. The acts of treachery and outrage
committed by Almagro and his followers created a feeling in the minds
of the Araucanians that ultimately led to hostilities which lasted
for over three hundred years; hostile feelings that have never been
removed, and prejudices that will remain so long as a representative of
that brave, obstinate race survives.
Almagro’s unfavorable report and the miserable appearance of his
soldiers on their return to Peru, together with the stories of
suffering, created in the minds of the Spaniards the impression that
Chile was the poorest of all the South American countries. But in
1540, Pedro de Valdivia, a young Spanish captain, apparently more
ambitious for fame than riches, organized an expedition for the purpose
of exploring Chile and taking possession of the territory in the name
of the King. Writing to his sovereign concerning the undertaking he
said: “I have no desire but to discover and add territory to your
Majesty’s Kingdom, and fame to my memory.” With one hundred and fifty
men the intrepid young officer, who had gained distinction for valor
in European wars, started on a journey from Peru over deserts and
mountains to Chile, where he was to lay the foundations for a future
Republic. On reaching the beautiful valley of the Mapocho, surrounded
by a wall of mountains, and from the center of which rises the Santa
Lucia, one of the most remarkable natural formations in the world,
Valdivia laid out and established the first city in Chile, which is
now the splendid capital of the Republic, Santiago, on February 12,
1541.
On the arrival of Valdivia and his soldiers, the Indians remembering
the deception and cruelty practiced by Almagro, abandoned the country
near where the Spaniards located. But on being informed by Valdivia
that he desired to live on terms of peace with them, they returned to
their “rucas” and resumed the cultivation of their “sitios.”
The beautiful city of Santiago of to-day, with its palatial residences,
magnificent Alameda, grand cathedral, splendid public buildings and
miles of fine business blocks, bears little resemblance to the pioneer
village of 1541. The first houses were built of the trunks of trees,
plastered with mud and thatched with maize stocks. One of the first
buildings erected was a little temple at the corner of the Plaza de
Armas, on the site of which now stands the cathedral of Santiago,
the corner-stone of the Catholic church in Chile, which is to-day a
potent political factor, and exercises a far-reaching influence in the
Republic, through its representation in Congress and in the press of
the country.
The friendly relation first established with the Indians by Valdivia,
and by which means he hoped to take peaceful possession of the country,
did not long continue. The necessity of means and greater resources for
carrying out his schemes of conquest encouraged Valdivia to prospect
for gold, and some mines were opened near the port of Valparaiso. In
these mines Indians were placed by force and worked as slaves. In
return for the gold secured the Spaniards incurred the enmity of the
Indians, who determined to kill all their persecutors as a means of
ending the tyranny to which they were subjected. With that cunning and
strategy which has always characterized the Araucanians in war, they
waited to make the attack until Valdivia was absent on an exploring
expedition in the south with some of his followers, leaving only
thirty mounted and twenty foot soldiers to guard the little garrison
at Santiago. For fifteen hours the fifty men held the fort which was
besieged and assaulted by a force of Indians numbering six thousand.
Finally Captain Alonso de Monroy, who was in charge of the Spanish
forces changed his tactics from defensive to the offensive, and leading
his little band of soldiers attacked the Indians with such courage and
ferocity that, notwithstanding their great numbers they were driven
off. A great number of Indians and several of the soldiers were killed,
but the greatest loss suffered by the Spaniards was the destruction by
fire of the entire village, except the fort. When Valdivia returned he
found himself and his men without houses in which to live, and without
provisions or supplies, everything except the clothing they wore having
been burned or destroyed during the battle.
After several years of indecisive warfare, in which the Spaniards made
no progress in the way of conquering the Indians, or the undisputed
occupation of the territory, Valdivia decided to return to Peru for
the purpose of enlisting a more formidable force of men and arms with
which to prosecute the war against the Araucanians. He started on
this mission in 1547, leaving the depleted forces in Chile in charge
of Francisco Villagran, returning two years later with two hundred
infantry and a troop of one hundred cavalry, all well armed and
equipped. Feeling secure with this army, Valdivia began an aggressive
warfare against the Araucanians immediately after his arrival. Soon
after the beginning of this war several important battles took place,
chief among which was that of Concepcion, in which over two thousand
Indians were killed and two hundred taken prisoners. The Spaniards also
lost a number of men in the engagement. Following his cruel instincts,
and with a view to terrorizing the Indians, Valdivia cut off the right
hand and the nose of each of the prisoners captured in the battle, and
then released them to return to their people, maimed and disfigured.
This act of cruelty, instead of having the desired effect, incensed
the Araucanians to greater hostilities. So persistent became their
pursuit and attack that the Spaniards were given no time to sleep or
rest from the strife. Day and night they were harassed by the Indians
who finally collected their forces for a decisive battle at Tucapel.
In this encounter Valdivia employed the same tactics used in other
engagements, charging the enemy with his cavalry. But on this occasion
the Indians seemed to be innumerable and invincible, and after being
almost annihilated, the heroic little band of soldiers were forced to
submit to superior numbers, and those who were not killed in battle
were taken prisoner, Pedro de Valdivia being among the latter. When
brought into the presence of the Araucanian chief, Valdivia said: “If
you will give me my liberty I will promise to retire with my soldiers
from the country.” Painful experience had taught the Indians to place
no value upon the promises of the Spaniards, and desiring to avenge
the cruelties inflicted upon their people, they refused to release the
prisoners. Valdivia was tortured with all the horrible cruelties he
had practiced upon the Indians, and all the soldiers taken at Tucapel
were put to a tortuous death.
Soon after the death of Valdivia, the colonial government in Chile
was organized by the worst class of Spanish Bohemians,--men who had
not even a cheap or spectacular glory to their credit, and who lacked
the capacity or disposition to engage in work of any character, or
to develop the resources of the country. It was a sad and calamitous
existence the people led under the despotic and ruinous misrule of
Spain. Nothing flourished or savored of goodness. The only landmarks
of civilization left from that period are various towns, some of which
from geographical positions have grown into important cities.
All traces of progress lay buried beneath bigotry and tyranny. The
sovereign and his representatives retarded development and advancement,
evincing only selfish and unpatriotic ambition for personal gain,
treacherous deception and cruel oppression. Chilean officials under
Castilian rule had to be Spanish born, and with impunity they plundered
the colony of all that was worth possessing. For nearly three centuries
Chile lived with modest labor in honest poverty. Those conditions
served as antecedents to the special characteristics of economy,
industry, independence and love of liberty so manifest in the Chileans
of to-day.
Then there was little communication with the outside world. Colonists
suffered and endured without encouragement, hope of relief, or promise
of better things. But during those turbulent times, those years of
oppression and Spanish misrule, when the Republican idea was growing,
there was one powerful force in operation, resenting and resisting the
authority of those who were plundering and robbing the country in the
name of law and civilization. That force was the courageous, valiant,
unconquered Araucanians who maintained their independence for over
three hundred years, preferring annihilation to subjugation.
A great majority of the colonists in Chile lived in poverty and
ignorance, apparently resigned to their unfortunate condition. For two
hundred and fifty years there had been transmitted from parents to
children the idea of obedience to the king, believing that person to be
of divine origin, and that his power was omnipotent. They also believed
that the Spanish-American colonies would always remain subject to the
authority of Spain. Fortunately, however, there was a small minority
that entertained a hope of relief from the rule of oppression. This
hope was encouraged, and the idea of independence implanted in the
minds of the people, by the revolution of the English colonists, the
declaration of independence of the United States, and the establishment
of the first American Republic. The success of the North American
patriots encouraged the revolutionary idea in Chile to such an extent
that in 1810, when Spain was involved in the turmoil of a general
European war, the opportunity was seized by the colonists to secure
their independence, which was declared September 18, 1810.
The new Republic, born of patriotism and christened in war, was
destined to struggle through its first years of existence in poverty,
and afflicted with that most fatal of national maladies, internal
strife. The people, long subject to despotic rule, filled with
doubt and distrust of those who promised better things, had little
experience, training or knowledge to fit them for the political liberty
they had been so anxious to secure, and in possession of which they
found themselves. Inexperienced in self-government, depressed with
poverty, disturbed with internal dissensions and burdened with exploded
theories, Chile began to set her national house in order without
example or precedent to guide her in the experiment.
The government of Chile, organized in Santiago, September 18, 1810,
was provisional and experimental, consisting of a “junta” (committee)
of sixty persons, with Mateo de Toro y Zambrano as president of the
junta, and in fact the first president of independent Chile. On July
4 of the following year an election was held at which congressional
deputies were selected. A month later the national congress appointed
a government junta, composed of three persons. The first laws of the
new government were promulgated in August, 1811, among which was one
prohibiting the importation of slaves, and declaring freedom to the
children of all slaves then in the country. Thus did the young Republic
place her seal of disapproval upon slavery, thereby setting an example
for other nations, including the United States, after which the Chilean
Republic was modeled.
For more than twenty years after the organization of the government
the country was rent by jealousy, dissension, revolution and general
disorder. The patriots who were struggling for national life and
independence, and who were confident that out of chaos would come
order, peace and prosperity, had to contend not only with an
aggressive foreign foe, but to encounter intrigue and disloyalty at
home. During the first decade of national life, numerous able and
courageous men endeavored to direct the Ship of State through the
turbulent sea of strife and discord to a safe and secure harbor. None
succeeded, but many contributed materially to the final solution of the
problem of government by the people. Among those who were conspicuous
in the service of the country during its formative period may be
mentioned Juan Martinez de Rozas, Camilo Henriquez, Manuel Salas,
Admiral Blanco Encalada and Lord Cochrane. But the two characters that
stand out most conspicuously, the names that are inscribed first upon
the roll of honor of Chilean patriots, the men who contributed most
to the establishment of order and law in the government, are Bernardo
O’Higgins, the first capable, courageous Governor of Chile, and the
brave, patriotic San Martin, who united the forces of the Argentine
with those of Chile, Bolivia and Peru, for the purpose of putting an
end to Spanish rule, and establishing independent government in the
several colonies.
O’Higgins was Governor from 1817 to 1823, during which time he used
his splendid executive ability in an honest effort to establish law
and order, and to introduce some kind of system into the government.
After six years of vain endeavor, and believing that the people were
unprepared for self-government, he resigned, asked permission to leave
the country, and went to Peru. General O’Higgins was succeeded as
Governor by Ramon Freire, who held the position for three years, 1826.
Then followed a period of several years during which the country was
in a state of political anarchy. Changes of government were so frequent
that it was impossible to maintain anything like law and order.
Revolutions, conspiracies and intrigue were organized and practiced by
political combinations and individuals. Independent government was a
theory only, and many sincere patriots doubted the wisdom of further
effort to establish and maintain a Republic, believing that existing
conditions were even worse than Spanish rule.
The theory that if the seed of independence is once planted in the soil
of public opinion, it will ultimately bring forth a harvest of good
national results, holds true in the case of Chile. For notwithstanding
the political disorder, frequent changes of government and the
sanguinary revolutions that prevailed from the first, the declaration
of independence produced beneficent results. The greatest of these
benefits was the liberty of trade and freedom of commerce. People were
permitted to buy and sell merchandise when, where and to whom they
pleased, while under the colonial system all commercial privileges were
controlled by the crown; and while Chile was under the authority of
Spain, foreigners were not permitted to engage in trade in the colony.
Under the influence of approaching peace, the gradual amalgamation of
political factions into united parties, the expansion of trade and the
development of the country’s natural resources, the young Republic
developed national life to such an extent that a political constitution
was promulgated on May 25, 1833. The independence of the Republic was
not recognized by Spain, however, until 1846. The constitution gave to
the president authority as ample as that possessed by the king, over
the colonies, authorizing him to use in certain cases and emergencies
extraordinary powers even to the suspension of the constitutional
authority. These provisions were embodied in the constitution for the
purpose of suppressing political anarchy and revolution, which had so
often interrupted the progress and threatened the life of the Republic
from the time of its organization, without waiting for congressional
approval. The constitution as adopted in 1833 remained unchanged until
1868. Since that date various amendments have been adopted, limiting
the powers of the executive, and adjusting constitutional authority and
law to meet the changed conditions of the times and the country.