THE PREPOSITION AND THE CONJUNCTION
Prepositions
IT is important in the study of prepositions to observe that there are
certain words that are followed by certain prepositions. To change the
preposition is to convey a different meaning from the one that the
speaker intended, or to convey no meaning at all. A partial list of such
words with their appropriate prepositions follows:
accompanied with anything having no life
accompanied by anything having life
acquit of
accuse of
adapted to a thing
adapted for a course, because of one's nature
adapted from an author
agree to a plan or proposition
agree with a person
agree upon something that must be decided
angry at a thing
angry with a person
compare with to bring out similar qualities
compare to without analyzing
comply with
confer on meaning to give to
confer with meaning to talk to
confide in meaning to put faith in
confide to meaning to commit to one's keeping
conform to
correspond to, with a thing, denoting similarity
correspond with meaning to write to
different from
dependent on a person
dependent for a thing
independent of
disappointed in
employed at a certain place or salary
employed in a certain kind of business
employed by a certain person or company
enter upon duties
enter at a door
followed by
influence over, upon
expect of
participate in
profit by
remonstrate against a thing
remonstrate with a person
=Exercise 125=
Insert the correct preposition in the following:
1. I shall comply ---- your request.
2. The chairman came upon the platform accompanied
---- the speaker.
3. He took a walk accompanied ---- his dog.
4. The lecture will be accompanied ---- stereopticon
views.
5. Strikes are usually accompanied ---- riots.
6. The years of prosperity were followed ---- years of
famine.
7. He was accused ---- theft, but was acquitted ----
the accusation.
8. She is well adapted ---- the position that is open.
9. An electric iron is especially adapted ---- summer
use.
10. The selection was adapted ---- Irving.
11. This cloth is well adapted ---- summer clothing
because it is very light in weight.
12. I agree ---- you that the plan is impracticable.
13. Let us agree now ---- a place to spend our summer
vacation.
14. That is not a proposition ---- which I shall
agree.
15. It is silly to be angry ---- an inanimate object.
16. Don't be angry ---- a person because he tells you
your faults.
17. His report corresponds in all respects --- yours.
18. Mr. Giles suggested that you would be glad to have
us correspond ---- you concerning our new bond issues.
19. I shall confer ---- my lawyer.
20. The public has conferred a great honor ---- him.
21. One should always profit ---- his experiences.
22. The new device is entirely different ---- the old.
23. I am employed ---- a fairly large salary ---- a
business that is growing daily.
24. All employees must conform ---- the rules.
25. I am confiding ---- you because I know that I can
trust you.
26. She confided her child ---- the care of her
brother.
27. She is dependent ---- her brother ---- support.
28. You can have an influence for good ---- him.
29. I have remonstrated ---- the change several times.
30. Perhaps he will change his plans if we remonstrate
---- him at once.
=Exercise 126--Prepositions Incorrectly Used=
Each of the incorrect sentences given below contains an unnecessary
preposition. When the meaning of "Where are you going?" is entirely
clear, there is nothing gained by saying "Where are you going _to_?"
Omit such superfluous prepositions.
_Wrong_ _Right_
1. I took it off _of_ the shelf. I took it off the shelf.
2. I shall accept _of_ your I shall accept your hospitality.
hospitality.
3. Where are you _at_? Where are you?
4. Where are you going _to_? Where are you going?
5. It is a building _of from_ It is a building twenty to thirty
twenty to thirty stories in stories in height.
height.
6. Look out _of_ the window. Look out the window.
7. John copies _after_ his father John copies his father
in everything. in everything.
8. I am wondering _about_ what I am wondering what I should do.
I should do.
9. I shall consult _with_ my I shall consult my lawyer.
lawyer.
10. He sat opposite _to_ me. He sat opposite me.
11. I shall leave later _on_. I shall leave later.
_and_ for _to_
12. I shall try _and_ go. I shall try _to_ go.
_of_ for _have_
13. I might _of_ gone. I might _have_ gone.
The wrong preposition
14. He fell _in_ the water. He fell _into_ the water.
15. She died _with_ diphtheria. She died _of_ diphtheria.
16. Divide the work _between_ the Divide the work _among_ the four
four of us. of us.
(_Between_ may be used in speaking of only two persons or things)
17. It will be done _inside_ of an It will be done _within_ an hour.
hour.
18. Are you angry _at_ me? Are you angry _with_ me?
Preposition must be used
19. It's no use to try. It's _of_ no use to try.
20. My sister stayed home. My sister stayed _at_ home.
21. Why do you act that way? Why do you act _in_ that way?
22. We left the third of June. We left _on_ the third of June.
=Exercise 127=
The object of a preposition is always in the objective case. Some people
have great difficulty in recognizing that in such expressions as _for
you and me_, the pronoun _me_ is as much the object of the preposition
_for_ as the pronoun _you_. Both words must be in the objective case.
It is incorrect to say _for you and I_.
In the following sentences omit the incorrect italicized form:
1. The invitation is for father and _I_--_me_.
2. Every one has finished his work except _he_--_him_
and _I_--_me_.
3. It's a question that you and _I_--_me_ must decide;
it refers to you and _I_--_me_ alone.
4. Girls like you and _she_--_her_ should have a good
influence over the others.
5. All but you and _I_--_me_ have left.
6. He did it for you and _I_--_me_.
7. No one objected but _they_--_them_ and _we_--_us_.
8. She sat opposite you and _I_--_me_.
9. They were sitting near you and _I_--_me_.
10. We expect you to return with mother and _I_--_me_.
11. He wanted my brother and _I_--_me_ to go into
business with his brother and _he_--_him_.
12. Neither _she_--_her_ nor her sister have I seen
for several months.
13. My companion and _I_--_me_ took up the trail of
the bear at once. For some distance it led _he_--_him_
and _I_--_me_ over the soft, yielding carpet of moss
and pine needles, and the footprints were quite easily
made out.
14. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ had, of course, to keep
a sharp lookout ahead and around for the grizzly.
15. All are going on the excursion except _he_--_him_
and _I_--_me_.
16. _He_--_him_ and _I_--_me_ went fishing.
17. The rule applies to _we_--_us_ all--the manager,
_they_--_them_ who keep books, you, and _I_--_me_.
18. She beckoned to my companion and _I_--_me_.
19. The letter was to be read by the president or
_I_--_me_.
20. He did it for the sake of my father and _I_--_me_.
21. We study Shakespeare with her sister and
_she_--_her_.
22. _She_--_her_ and her sister went to the lecture
with my sister and _I_--_me_.
23. They sent for _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_, not you
and _he_--_him_.
24. The program was arranged by the president and
_I_--_me_.
25. They found that his father and _he_--_him_ had
already left.
26. Mother is going to buy a birthday present to-day
for _she_--_her_ and _I_--_me_.
27. The play is interesting not only to you older
people but to _we_--_us_ younger ones also.
28. They expected the work to be done by _she_--_her_
and _I_--_me_.
29. The dispute between his neighbor and _he_--_him_
over their lot line was settled by the surveyors this
morning.
30. He wants to speak to you and _I_--_me_.
=Exercise 128--Than, as=
_Than_ and _as_ are not prepositions but conjunctions. They are used to
introduce subordinate clauses. Usually the clause is incomplete, but the
omitted part is easily understood from the preceding clause and must be
supplied to show the case of the noun or the pronoun that is expressed;
as,
_Right_: She is as tall as I [am].
_Right_: She is taller than he [is].
_Right_: I should invite you rather than her [than I should invite
her].
Use the correct one of the italicized pronouns in the following
sentences:
1. I'll agree that he is richer than _I_--_me_, but
riches are not everything.
2. I shall send her rather than _he_--_him_.
3. No one felt sorrier than _she_--_her_.
4. No one knows more about an automobile than
_he_--_him_.
5. You are more capable of doing the work than
_he_--_him_.
6. We were nearer the goal than you or _he_--_him_.
7. You finished the work almost as quickly as
_she_--_her_.
8. She writes fully as well as _he_--_him_.
9. The manager said he would rather send me than
_he_--_him_.
10. I secured a position sooner than _she_--_her_.
11. It seems to me that they ought to go rather than
_we_--_us_.
12. I am surprised that you arrived sooner than
_they_--_them_.
13. They should have elected him rather than
_I_--_me_.
14. I am not so well-fitted as _he_--_him_ to hold the
position.
15. You are more popular than _he_--_him_.
=Exercise 129--Correlatives=
There are certain conjunctions, called _correlatives_, that are used in
pairs. They are
both--and as--as, so--as
either--or not only--but also
neither--nor whether--or
so--that such--as
_Illustrations_
Both--and He has both skill and energy.
Either--or I shall leave either Monday or Tuesday.
Neither--nor I can neither sing nor play.
So--that It rained so hard that we stayed at home.
As--as We shall come as early as we can.
So--as She is not so tall as you are.
(Used in negative expressions.)
Not only--but also We saw not only Mr. Brown but his wife also.
Whether--or Whether I return to work or stay at
home depends on my mother's health.
Such--as We shall buy only such goods as we
think we can sell.
Be very careful not to use the correlative _so as_
incorrectly for _so that_. _So as_ is used in negative
expressions of comparison; _so that_ is used to
express result.
_Wrong_: We went early _so as_ we could get good seats.
_Right_: We went early _so that_ we could get good seats.
In the illustrations given above, notice that the correlatives always
join two similar or _coördinate_ expressions. It is important that they
be placed each immediately before one of the two coördinate expressions.
_Wrong_: I _neither_ can sing nor play.
_Right_: I can _neither_ sing nor play.
Recast the following sentences, placing the correlative conjunctions
before coördinate expressions:
1. Either you ordered it late or not at all.
2. He said he neither had money nor time.
3. We not only bought the books you wished but the
games also.
4. We like the place in which we live both on account
of its quietness and its pleasant surroundings.
5. I shall either go to Quebec or Montreal.
6. Either he must spray his trees or expect no fruit.
7. I neither like the appearance of the shop nor the
attitude of the clerks.
8. They did it both for the sake of your brother and
you.
9. This sample not only is much darker but heavier
also.
10. They are barred who neither can read nor write.
=Exercise 130--Either--or, Neither--nor=
These conjunctions are correctly used in speaking of two things only.
Care must be taken to use _or_ with _either_ and _nor_ with _neither_.
In comparing three or more things use _any of them_, _none of them_, or
_no_.
In the following sentences use only the correct italicized forms:
1. Neither effort _nor_--_or_ money was spared in the
undertaking.
2. I have considered planting maple, oak, and elm
trees, but _neither_--_none_ of them seems to grow
well in this climate.
3. We do not believe in _either_ enduring oppression
_nor_--_or_ killing the oppressor. We believe in
arbitration.
4. He has _no_--_neither_ time, patience, _nor_--_or_
energy.
5. If you ask me which of the three I prefer, I'll be
frank and tell you I like _neither_--_none_ of them.
6. Three courses will be given in the subject this
year; you may take _either_--_any_ one of them.
7. I had already passed three branch roads, but
_neither_--_none_ of them had looked familiar to me.
8. I hardly think he accepted _any_--_either_ of the
two offers he received.
9. Neither the doctor _or_--_nor_ his wife was at
home.
10. Both the books look shop-worn. I'll take
_neither_--_none_.
=Exercise 131--Except, Without, Unless=
_Except_ and _without_ are prepositions, and are used, therefore, to
introduce phrases; _unless_ is a conjunction, and is used to introduce a
clause.
In the following sentences insert the correct form, giving a reason for
your choice:
1. ---- you leave at once, you will miss your train.
2. I cannot learn to swim, ---- some one teaches me.
3. I cannot learn to swim ---- a teacher.
4. No one could do the work ---- me.
5. John expects to learn ---- studying.
6. John will discover that he cannot win promotion
---- he works hard.
7. No one can learn how to spell ---- first learning
how to observe.
8. No one will learn to spell ---- he learns to
observe.
9. No one will succeed ---- he has energy and
patience.
10. No one will succeed ---- energy and patience.
11. You cannot succeed in any way ---- by seizing each
opportunity as it comes.
12. It is impossible to grow beautiful flowers ----
the soil is good.
=Exercise 132--Like, as=
_Like_ is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. _As_ is a
conjunction and introduces a clause, and is therefore followed by a
verb. _Like_ is not a conjunction and therefore may not be substituted
for _as_ or _as if_.
_Wrong_: I wish I could play _like_ you can.
_Right_: I wish I could play _as_ you can.
Insert the correct word in the following sentences:
1. The picture looks just ---- you.
2. I haven't a voice ---- my brother's.
3. I cannot sing ---- my brother can.
4. He walks just ---- you do.
5. I hope you will all enjoy the trip ---- I did.
6. For pleasure and exercise I think there is no game
----tennis.
7. He said that the town looked just ---- it had when
he was a boy.
8. I cut the paper just ---- you said I should.
9. He talks ---- his father.
10. He has the same sort of drawl ---- his father
[has].
11. She was there ---- you said she would be.
12. They worked ---- beavers.
13. He looked ---- a tramp.
14. To give the stitch the proper twist throw the
thread over the needle ---- I do.
15. He walks ---- he were lame.
=Exercise 133--As--as, So--as=
Use _as_--_as_ in stating equality; use _so_--_as_ in negative
comparisons.
1. You will find the new clerks fully ---- courteous
as were the old.
2. You will not find the new clerks ---- courteous as
were the old.
3. Elms do not grow ---- well in this climate as do
poplars.
4. We did not carry ---- much advertising this year as
we did last year, and we find that our receipts are
smaller.
5. Under our system of individual instruction a
student may advance ---- rapidly as his ability
permits.
6. You are not ---- tall as your sister.
7. I do not seem to learn languages ---- easily as
mathematics.
8. This house is not ---- large as the other.
9. He is ---- active as he was twenty years ago.
10. He is not ---- active as he was twenty years ago.
=Exercise 134--Miscellaneous Blunders=
=To, Too, Two=
_To_ is a preposition; _too_ is an adverb, and means _excessively_ or
_also_; _two_ is a numeral adjective. Insert the correct form in each of
the following sentences:
1. The ---- sisters discovered that it was ---- late
for the 4:15 train.
2. It is ---- dark in that corner; come ---- the
light.
3. He spends ---- much time in dreaming, ---- little
in working.
4. He would have done better if he had not given ----
little heed ---- the advice of his ---- older
brothers.
5. ---- more hours were passed in the all ---- weary
task of waiting.
6. It was ---- cold ---- stay out more than ----
hours.
7. You may go ----, but don't stay ---- long.
8. ---- stay there for ---- weeks would be ----
tiresome.
9. The doctor said that the ---- men were ---- sick
---- go home alone, and I thought so ----.
10. About ---- hours ago I met Mary who said that she
was going ---- the country ----.
=There, Their=
11. ---- are seven brothers in ---- family.
12. ---- books are ---- on the table.
13. ---- is no doubt that ---- knowledge of
mathematics is greater than ---- knowledge of English.
=Were, Where=
14. ---- have you been?
15. ---- you ever on a farm ---- alfalfa is grown?
16. ---- ---- you when the report was read?
17. I was just ---- you ----.
=Of, Have=
18. You should ---- read more distinctly.
19. I could ---- done the work if I had had more ----
the necessary tools.
20. If I had tried harder, I might ---- done the work
better.
PART II--COMPOSITION: ORAL AND WRITTEN
CHAPTER X
ORAL ENGLISH
=Exercise 135=
RETELL a story that you know or one that the instructor has read to you.
See if you can tell the whole story in fairly long sentences without
using a single _and_. You will be allowed to use three _and's_. As soon
as you say the third, you must take your seat. Let the class keep count.
The story may be an anecdote, a fable, or any other short incident that
can easily be told in one or two minutes. You probably have read many
such or have heard your father and your mother tell them. A joke that
can be told in two or three sentences will not be long enough.
The excessive use of _and_ spoils the telling of many stories. It is a
mistake to think that the gap between the end of one sentence and the
beginning of the next appears as great to the listener as it does to us
as we are deliberating what to say next. To avoid the gap we bridge the
two sentences with _and_. Its use in this way is hardly ever necessary
if we think out a sentence to the end before we begin to speak it. When
we have finished the thought, we should finish the sentence without
trying to bind it artificially to the next one. The sentences will be
bound together if the thought of one grows out of the thought of the
preceding one.
If the unfolding of the idea does not seem sufficient to tie the parts,
there are better expressions to use than _and_. There are short
expressions like _in this way_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _thus_,
_therefore_, _besides_, _as might be expected_, and _too_. Another way
to avoid _and_ is to change the form of the sentence: (1) better than
the form, "I opened the window _and saw_," is, "_Opening_ the window, I
saw;" (2) better than "I am going to the store _and buy_ some sugar,"
is, "I am going to the store _to buy_ some sugar;" (3) better than
"There was a boy _and his name_ was John," is, "There was a boy _whose_
name was John;" (4) better than "I reached home _and found_ that my
cousin had arrived," is, "_When_ I reached home, I found that my cousin
had arrived." In place of _and_, therefore, we may use (1) participles,
(2) infinitives, (3) relative pronouns, and (4) subordinate
conjunctions.
Above all, avoid _and everything_, as in, "I washed the dishes and swept
the floor and everything." To try thus to complete an idea that is
already complete shows childishness.
=Exercise 136=
Very likely in telling the story as suggested above you found yourself
frequently using the word _so_ to connect two sentences. Perhaps, too,
you used _why_ to begin sentences.
Now tell one of your own experiences, being careful not to use _and_,
_so_, or _why_. Introduce as much conversation as possible. What, if
any, is the advantage of telling a story in the first person? Why is it
good to introduce conversation?
In your conversation make use of several of the following words:
replied whispered spoke inquired
answered agreed cried explained
asked exclaimed shouted remarked
questioned repeated continued suggested
promised maintained objected rejoined
interrupted quoted returned added
=Exercise 137=
Far too many boys and girls pay but little regard to the matter of
choosing the word that will give the exact meaning that they wish to
convey. In order to lend force to their words they have formed the habit
of speaking in superlatives; like the girl who said, "We had a perfectly
grand time, but I'm so beastly tired now that I'm nearly dead," and yet
she showed no evidence of suffering.
Isn't it a pity that our beautiful English language should be so
degraded in common usage that it loses all its force and meaning?
Instead of convincing people that she really was tired, the girl quoted
above made herself ridiculous by her exaggeration. Yet isn't the
quotation a fair example of the speech of many boys and girls? Surely
everything about us is not either grand or beastly. The habit thus
formed is difficult to break, but it must be broken if we wish to speak
our language correctly.
* * * * *
Make a list of the slang phrases that you have acquired. For each one
substitute a good English expression.
* * * * *
The reason we must watch our oral English closely is that it is in our
conversation that our habits of speech are formed. The expressions we
use then we unconsciously employ when we are writing or talking to the
class. If we are accustomed to use considerable slang when we speak, we
shall have difficulty in eliminating it from our writing or in finding a
good word to express the idea for which we usually use slang. As a rule,
slang and extravagant expressions of all kinds are used to serve such a
variety of meanings that the use of them tends to limit the vocabulary
to these expressions. Consider slang something undesirable and stop
using it.
=Exercise 138=
Look up the words in each of the following groups. You will notice that
there is a resemblance of meaning between all the words of each group,
but that there is also a shade of difference in meaning that
distinguishes each word from its companions. Discover that shade of
difference. Use each word in a sentence.
1. Lovely, beautiful, pretty, handsome.
2. Awful, terrible, horrible, dreadful, fearful.
3. Nice, pleasant, delightful, dainty, fine,
agreeable.
4. Grand, imposing, splendid, impressive.
5. Love, like, adore, admire, revere.
6. Smart, clever, bright, quick-witted.
7. Fierce, ferocious, wild.
8. Guess, think, suppose, imagine.
9. Hate, dislike, despise, abhor, detest.
10. Scholar, student, pupil.
=Exercise 139=
Carelessness in speaking frequently results in wordiness, since the
speaker in an effort to be clear or forceful repeats the idea two or
three times. Such speech is tiresome. In each of the following sentences
there are too many words to express the idea. See how many you can omit
and yet preserve the meaning. Sometimes the sentence needs revision.
1. I haven't got any time.
2. Where does he live at?
3. Don't stand up; there's a chair.
4. The woman she had an accident.
5. You had ought to take more exercise.
6. I was just going to go.
7. I excuse you because you are a new beginner.
8. I can finish the work in three days' time.
9. The offices are both alike in all respects.
10. He engaged the both of us.
11. We applied to Mr. Abbot, he being the manager.
12. My mind often reverts back to the time when I
began in business.
13. That high building that is going up on Twelfth
Street is going to be twenty stories high when it is
finished.
14. From his appearance he looked to be in very poor
circumstances.
15. He is afraid of the results that will ensue if he
follows the course that he has planned.
16. The present state of affairs that is now
confronting the public has become what it now is
because the citizens are not public spirited.
17. The reason why I was not at work yesterday was
because I was not feeling as well as I might.
18. I shall never forget the terrible sights that I
saw the time that I witnessed the street car
collision.
19. I have been debating in my mind whether I ought to
accept the offer.
20. He was a mere little child when he first began to
work in the mine.
21. Mix together both the butter and the sugar, and
rub the two of them to a cream.
22. The two pieces of cloth are just exactly the same
in every way.
23. You will find this chair equally as comfortable as
the other.
24. He said that when he started in his business that
he had almost no capital at all.
25. It was the office of Morgan & Son where I got my
experience.
26. China is undergoing a vast change at the present
time.
27. At about the age of fourteen years he left his
home town.
28. They did it gladly and willingly.
29. He always shows great deference and respect when
he speaks to those who are in authority.
30. He is the proprietor and owner of the News.
31. You can easily get the training that will make you
a competent and efficient high-salaried trained man.
32. For sale, a large, commodious house, arranged with
every convenience to make it comfortable.
33. We are making all the necessary improvements that
are needed.
34. I went to high school to take up stenography.
=Exercise 140--Making a Speech=
One of the most profitable exercises to cultivate clear thinking and
consequent clear expression is the making of speeches, usually spoken of
as oral themes. In this exercise a pupil stands before the class to talk
upon a subject about which he has thought, but upon which he has
written nothing. He has two objects in view. First, he must choose those
facts that will make his subject clear and interesting to his audience.
Second, he must deliver them well; that is, he must stand in a good
position before the class, use good grammar, no slang, and enunciate so
that every one in the room can understand him. If his speech is to be
longer than one paragraph, he should have an outline prepared, in which
each division is clearly indicated, as well as the important details
within each division.
In making a speech, the best way is to start with a clear statement of
the subject. Suppose you take (9) below. You might begin, "I am going to
talk of a street car transfer. First, I shall tell you how it looks; and
second, how it is used. Then first, a street car transfer--(describe it
fully). In the second place, it is used--(give details)." After you have
explained fully, to show that you have said all you intend to say,
finish with a sentence of conclusion. _Therefore_, _consequently_, _for
these reasons_, _thus we may see_, are instances of words which may be
used to begin a sentence of conclusion.
* * * * *
Use each of the following questions as the subject for a speech. Answer
each question clearly and completely. Use illustrations to show exactly
what you mean.
1. What does it mean to be a hero?
2. What does it mean to be successful?
3. What does it mean to be unfortunate?
4. What does it mean to be generous?
5. What does it mean to be lenient?
6. What does it mean to be mercenary?
7. What does it mean to be diffident?
8. What does it mean to be penurious?
9. What is a street car transfer? How does it look and
how is it used?
10. What occupation do you wish to follow, and why?
What preparations are you making?
11. Why do we have a smoke ordinance?
12. Why must buildings have fire escapes?
13. Why do the farmers of Kansas insure their barns
against cyclones?
14. What is fire insurance?
15. Why is ventilation important?
16. Why do so many immigrants come to this country?
17. Why do cities grow?
18. Why was the steam engine an important invention?
19. Why was the telephone an important invention?
20. What is the principle of vaccination?
21. What is the principle of anti-toxin?
22. Of what good is the trade union to the laborer?
23. Why does the employer object to the union?
24. What is a monopoly?
25. What is meant by a corner in wheat?
=Exercise 141=
In your neighborhood you have frequently noticed a lawn and a garden
that are very poorly kept, the garden needing weeding and the lawn both
weeding and mowing. Imagine that you go to the owner to make him a
proposition. You know the man slightly, and you have heard that he has a
quick temper. Know exactly what work you will offer to do and how often
you will do it. Be careful of your first sentences. Let them be
especially courteous, so that you may not offend the gentleman by
suggesting that he does not take care of his property. Tell him frankly
that you would like to earn some money.
In this exercise the class will represent the owner. Moreover, they will
watch carefully so that they may point out to the speaker wherein his
speech was not quite courteous or not quite clear.
=Exercise 142=
From one of the newspapers cut an advertisement of a position for which
you think you can apply. Bring the advertisement with you and convince
the class that you are fitted for the position.
In this exercise you must be exact. Choose an advertisement for a kind
of work about which you know something. If you have ever had any
experience that would fit you for the position, do not fail to tell of
it, since experience counts for much in the employer's estimate of an
applicant.
Let the class judge whether the speaker has been convincing and whether
he has shown the properly courteous attitude toward an employer. Let
them ask themselves such questions as: Is he alert in his manner? Does
he make one feel that he is capable? Does he stand and talk as if he has
confidence in himself? Is he too meek? Does he seem over-confident? Let
each be able to offer suggestions for improvement.
=Exercise 143=
Imagine that you are an agent. Choose an article that is especially
useful to housekeepers. Try to sell it to the class, or choose an
individual member to whom you wish to sell it. Bring a sample with you
for the purpose of demonstrating its usefulness.
As in the preceding exercise the speaker must strive to be convincing.
He must know all there is to be known about the article that he is
demonstrating. If it is at all possible, he should have used it in order
that he may explain exactly how it is operated and why it is better than
a similar article that the housekeeper probably is at present using.
=Exercise 144=
You wish to start a business and need a certain amount of money. Try to
convince the instructor or a selected pupil that you need it.
Be sure that you are able to tell definitely the kind of business for
which you wish the money, where you will start the business, why you
think that this particular location is good, when you will be able to
return the money, and what security you can give.
Don't make the mistake of choosing something too big for a boy or a girl
to carry through. Perhaps the following will be suggestive:
1. A newspaper stand.
2. A miniature truck farm in the empty lot next door.
3. A pop corn wagon.
4. A fruit cart or stand.
5. A shoe shining stand.
6. Raising ferns or flowers for sale.
7. Buying vegetables from a farmer and selling them to
housewives.
8. Printing business cards and blotters on a small
press.
9. Making place cards.
10. Making valentines.
11. Painting holiday postal cards or fancy cards for
Christmas, Easter, Thanksgiving, and the like.
12. Printing on postal cards pretty scenes that you
have photographed perhaps in your town or at a summer
resort.
13. Making and selling cakes, doughnuts, and the like.
14. Selling crocheted or embroidered articles.
=Exercise 145--Elements of Success=
Prepare a short speech on each of the following. Wherever possible make
your statements clear and forceful by using illustrations or examples.
1. Cheerfulness helps to bring success.
2. The habit of neatness is an asset.
3. The habit of punctuality is a necessity.
4. He was not promoted because he watched the clock.
5. He was not promoted because his excuse was always,
"I forgot."
6. He was not promoted because he learned nothing from
his mistakes.
7. He was not promoted because he was always
grumbling.
8. He was not promoted because he was content to be a
second-rate man.
9. He was not promoted because he ruined his ability
by half-doing things.
10. He was not promoted because he did not learn to
act on his own judgment.
11. One to-day is worth two to-morrows.
12. Experience is an expensive teacher.
13. Be not simply good--be good for something.
14. Not failure, but low aim, is crime.
15. To be successful one must have confidence in
himself.
=Exercise 146=
As in the preceding exercise prepare a speech on each of the following:
1. A dishonest person cannot succeed.
2. There is no excuse for discouragement.
3. You may secure a position through another's
influence, but you keep it through your own merit.
4. There is always room at the top.
5. There is no such thing as luck.
6. The proper attitude toward an employer is one of
deference.
7. A business woman should dress simply.
8. Perseverance is the key to success.
9. To accomplish much one must work systematically.
10. It is possible to cultivate a good memory.
11. The ability to converse is a business asset.
12. The habit of exaggeration is dangerous.
=Exercise 147--Successful Men and Women=
How can one measure the success of men or women? Is it by the money they
make? the land they acquire? the fame they win? the good they do? By
what means have they won success? Was it through favorable
circumstances? strength of character? favoritism? physical strength?
mental energy? daring? doing what they thought was right in spite of
opposition? or simply doing nothing and waiting for success to come?
Study the life and character of one or more of the following. Have they
gained what you consider success? What qualities of character do you
recognize in them? Would you care to be like any of them?
Make a list of the habits that you recognize in their life and in the
way they worked.
Make a list of the characteristics of the ones that you study.
Florence Nightingale Frances Willard Bismarck
David Maydole Ella Flagg Young Gladstone
R. L. Stevenson Helen Gould Shepard Marshall Field
Booker T. Washington Jane Addams Carnegie
Captain Scott Napoleon J. Pierpont Morgan
Mary Antin Franklin Edison
Daniel Boone Lincoln Roosevelt
Mary Lyon Nathan Hale Goethals
=Exercise 148--Debating=
A very great asset in business is the ability to see the truth or the
falsity of a statement, and to advance proofs for or against it. This
ability we shall try to acquire through the practice of debating; that
is, through the making of speeches in which students take opposite sides
of the same subject, trying by the presentation of facts and
illustrations to prove that the side which they represent is the correct
one. The statement that is thus argued is called a _proposition_.
Debating is excellent practice because it teaches not only clear-cut
reasoning, but also forceful expression. If a debater fails to make any
of his several arguments convincing, if he introduces irrelevant matter,
or, though he has prepared strong proofs, if he expresses them in
incorrect English, the result will be poor. In working out a debate,
therefore, observe the following carefully:
1. Know your subject thoroughly. If you have insufficient knowledge, you
cannot be convincing.
2. Understand your point of view exactly and explain it clearly. If you
and your opponent have different ideas of the word _trust_, for example,
you can never argue on a subject that concerns the trusts. Define your
position first of all.
3. After you have gathered your facts, study them as a whole. What three
arguments, let us say, stand out clearly in your mind as being
irrefutable because of the strong proofs you have to back them? These
are the ones that you should use; the rest will probably be of little
value. Plan to give the weakest of the three first, so that your
argument will gain force as you advance.
4. Work out the details of each argument. A mere statement of each is
not enough. It must be supported by many facts and illustrations.
5. Prepare an outline. It will show you whether your arguments follow
each other clearly, whether you have so arranged them as to secure
climax. (See Exercise 152.)
6. In talking, follow the plan explained in Exercise 140, being
especially careful in conclusion to summarize the proofs that you have
presented.
* * * * *
The conclusions that you reach in your arguments must be based upon
statements that are true. In the following, some of the statements are
false, and therefore the conclusions based upon them are false. Point
out wherein the falsity consists. In others of the following, irrelevant
matter has been introduced. Point it out, explaining why it is
irrelevant.
1. We shall forget a great many facts that we learn at
school. Therefore it is useless to learn them.
2. Oil should be used instead of water in sprinkling
our streets, because oil does not evaporate so quickly
as water, and so does not allow the dust to rise.
Moreover, as the street must be cleaned before the oil
is laid, there is less dust to rise. When the oil lies
on the streets, it is very sticky, and clings to
everyone's shoes. In this way it is tracked into the
houses and stores, making everything dirty. Therefore
I think the streets should be oiled instead of being
watered.
3. Half of the keys would not work on the typewriter
that I used yesterday. This machine will work no
better, as it is made by the same company.
4. Last year September was very warm, and the winter
was extreme. This year September has been very warm,
and therefore the winter will be extreme.
5. My cousin never went to high school, and when he
went to work he earned eight dollars a week. I have
gone to high school for one year. Therefore I shall
receive more than eight dollars a week when I go to
work.
6. When you are working, your employer will never ask
you the definition of a noun. Therefore it is
unnecessary to know any grammar.
7. Every one should be punctual in doing his work. If
he is punctual, he will be promoted and earn a larger
salary. Money is a very important item in this world,
but it is not everything. A person must be satisfied
with his work so that he can do it cheerfully;
otherwise he will not succeed. Therefore I think every
one ought to be on time.
8. The day is either sunny or it is not sunny. To-day
is not sunny; therefore it is sunny.
9. It always rains when I wear new shoes. I am wearing
new shoes; therefore it will rain to-day.
=Exercise 149=
Find three reasons for each of the following propositions. State them
concisely, reserving the strongest for the last.
As above, find three reasons against each of the following.
Expand one of the reasons that you advanced for one of the propositions
given below. Using your statement as the opening sentence, develop it
into a paragraph by explanations and illustrations.
1. The high school should have the same session as the
grades.
2. The high school session should begin at eight
o'clock and close at one, with no recess for luncheon.
3. Final examinations shall be abolished.
4. Every high school should teach manual training.
5. Every high school should offer business courses.
6. Every high school pupil should receive a business
training.
7. Stenography (or bookkeeping) is a more important
study than wood-working.
8. If a pupil fails in the first semester of a
subject, he should be allowed to try the second
without repeating the first.
9. A pupil should not be expected to learn a lesson
that he does not enjoy.
10. Moving picture shows do more harm than good.
=Exercise 150=
Let three or four pupils write upon the blackboard three arguments in
support of the same one of the following propositions. Then let the
class choose from all the arguments given those three or four that they
think are best, giving in each case reasons for their choice.
In the same way let them work out the negative of the same proposition.
1. Every city should have a public park in the
business district.
2. The large department stores should be abolished and
smaller stores, selling only one kind of commodity,
established.
3. The mail order house should be abolished.
4. It is bad business policy to conduct cut-price
sales.
5. The newspapers are the greatest educators of the
time.
6. Billboard advertisements destroy the beauty of a
city.
7. Women should be allowed to vote.
8. Labor unions are a benefit to the public.
9. All government should be conducted on the civil
service plan.
10. Underselling a competitor ruins trade.
=Exercise 151=
One or two weeks in advance let the class choose three members for each
side of one of the following propositions. On the day of the debate let
the rest of the class act as judges to decide which side has presented
the most convincing arguments in the best English.
1. It is better to be a farm hand than a factory
employee.
2. Every girl should prepare herself to earn her own
living.
3. Trusts should be regulated, not abolished.
4. Strikes should be considered illegal.
5. Advertising has increased the cost of living. (See
Exercise 152.)
6. Communism would lower the cost of living.
7. The business of a city should not be centralized.
8. Labor troubles are brought about because the poor
ape the rich.
9. Contentment is better than wealth.
10. Tariff increases the cost of living.
=Exercise 152--Outline for a Debate=
Choose two or four members of the class to develop each side of the
following debate. Wherever possible, definite figures should be used.
_Resolved_, THAT ADVERTISING HAS INCREASED THE COST OF LIVING.
_Affirmative_
I. Modern advertising is world-wide in extent.
(_a_) Practically all classes of articles are now extensively
advertised.
(1) Food stuffs; e.g., breakfast foods.
(2) Clothing; e.g., men's suits.
(3) Luxuries; e.g., automobiles.
(4) Investments; e.g., real estate.
(_b_) Every possible medium is used.
(1) Newspapers.
(2) Magazines.
(3) Billboards and street cars.
(4) Circulars and booklets.
II. An enormous amount of money is spent in advertising.
(_a_) The use of advertising agencies is growing more widespread.
(1) One agency has made the statement that it has nine men
whose salaries amount to $227,000 annually.
(_b_) More and more companies are engaging advertising managers.
(1) They draw large salaries.
(_x_) In many cases, $10,000 annually.
(_c_) Advertising rates are very high; for example,
(1) The rate for a certain magazine is $1000 a page per issue.
(2) Metropolitan newspapers charge as high a rate as $500
a page per issue.
(_d_) Many advertisers use each issue of a number of mediums,
making the cost run to an enormous total; for example,
(1) _Cream of Wheat_ is advertised in every issue of almost
every magazine.
III. The consumer pays for the advertising.
(_a_) The price that the consumer pays for an article must cover
the cost of production and the expense of distribution,
leaving fair margins of profit, since
(1) The manufacturer will no longer produce if his profit
ceases.
(2) He is not willing to take the cost of advertising from his
profit in manufacturing.
(3) The dealer will not take the advertising cost from his own
profit.
IV. Advertising increases prices.
(_a_) The cost of manufacture and the expense of distribution have
been steadily lowered, and yet prices of articles have
steadily advanced; therefore
(1) The rise is not due to the cost of manufacture.
(2) Nor to the expense of distribution.
(_b_) Competition necessitates an increased amount of advertising.
(1) If one firm begins to advertise, its competitors, for
self-protection, must follow suit.
(_c_) Competitive advertising raises expenses above the point where
there is a fair profit at the old price.
(1) For a given kind of goods there is usually a certain volume
of business, which grows with population.
(2) If all the firms competing in those goods increase their
expenses by advertising, they must raise prices to make the
same profit as previously.
(_d_) Advertised articles cost more than the unadvertised.
(1) Bulk rolled oats vs. package rolled oats.
(2) Bulk pickles and relishes vs. advertised brands.
(3) Bulk macaroni vs. package goods.
_Negative_
I. The present increased advertising is the result of normal growth.
(_a_) Multiplied manufactures necessarily multiply advertisements.
(1) Every day new products are being put on the market.
(2) No product has the chance of a sale until it is known.
(3) In the present scope of community life the advertisement
is the most convenient means of acquainting consumers with
new products.
(_b_) Any unusual increase in advertising has a reasonable
explanation.
(1) Automobile advertising has increased as the automobile
has replaced the wagon and carriage, because of
(_x_) Greater convenience.
(_y_) Lower operating cost.
(2) Prepared breakfast food advertising has increased
as these foods have replaced cooked foods, because of
(_x_) Greater convenience.
II. Increased advertising is done on the scale of old prices.
(_a_) Merchants dare not raise prices to make the consumer pay
for the advertising, since
(1) They must compete with manufacturers who do not
advertise and who have no overhead advertising expense.
(_b_) The most widely advertised articles are the inexpensive
necessary accessories.
(1) Food products.
(2) Soaps and soap powders.
(3) Toilet articles.
(_c_) They have not advanced in price.
(1) Quaker Oats.
(2) Ivory Soap; Sapolio.
(3) Mennen's Talcum Powder.
III. Widespread advertising works to the advantage, not the
disadvantage, of the consumer.
(_a_) It gives new opportunities
(1) To compare values.
(2) To buy to the best advantage; for example,
(_x_) In advertised bargain sales.
(_b_) It reduces the cost of production and the selling expense,
thus tending to lower the price.
(1) By increasing sales, it reduces the cost per article.
(_x_) Maximum purchasing power means minimum cost to the
manufacturer.
(2) In taking the place of salesmen, it reduces expenses, thus
lowering the price; for example,
(_x_) In mail order firms.
(3) Therefore the advertising expense is unimportant in
influencing a higher price.
IV. The most marked price advances have been in the unadvertised
necessaries of life.
(_a_) In breadstuffs.
(1) Less in quantity for higher prices than formerly.
(_b_) In meats and poultry.
(1) An advance of from 25 per cent to 100 per cent and more.
(_c_) In butter and eggs.
(1) An advance similar to that shown in meats and poultry.
=Exercise 153--Additional Subjects for Debates=
1. The wages of women should be the same as those of
men in the same occupation.
2. The government should grant old age pensions.
3. Employers should be liable for the life and health
of employees.
4. The boycott is a legitimate method of obtaining
employees' demands.
5. National expositions do not benefit the cities in
which they are held.
6. Railroad combination lowers rates.
7. Piece-work should be prohibited by law.
8. National party lines should be discarded in
municipal elections.
9. City governments should be allowed to decide their
problems without intervention of the state
legislature.
10. Municipal offices should be appointive and not
elective.
11. The commission form of government is best for
large cities.
12. Immigration is the cause of municipal evils.
13. A personal property tax cannot be levied with
fairness.
14. The United States should not further extend its
colonial dependencies.
15. The President should be elected by a direct vote
of the people.
16. Ex-presidents of the United States should become
life members of the Senate.
17. The President and the Vice-President should be
prohibited from taking part in political campaigns.
18. The United States should subsidize a merchant
marine.
19. Foreign-built ships, owned by Americans, should be
granted the privilege of American register.
20. The governors of states should not have the power
to pardon.
21. A three-fourths vote of a jury should be
sufficient to render a verdict in criminal cases.
22. The coast defenses of the United States should be
increased.
23. The farmer is to blame for the high prices.
24. The results of Arctic explorations have not
justified the cost.
CHAPTER XI
CHOOSING SUBJECTS
IN Chapter X definite subjects were assigned for talks. Getting a
subject for yourself sometimes seems difficult; you are likely to think
that there is no topic upon which you can say more than a few sentences.
Isn't it true that when you are talking to your friends you seldom are
at a loss for something to say? Of course, what your companion says
often suggests an idea on which you give your opinion. You speak about
things that interest you, and the words come fairly easily. Why not
apply the same principle to more formal composition, whether oral or
written? Unless a subject interests you, do not use it. But be careful
that you do not reject it as uninteresting until you have thought about
it carefully, considering it from all sides. Often one subject will
suggest another akin to it, but more interesting to you because you know
more about it. For this reason choose very simple subjects, and become
thoroughly familiar with them by thinking or reading about them, before
you attempt to explain them.
Sometimes, again, you will find that the subject you have chosen is not
good because it is not definite enough. You hardly know where or how to
begin to explain it, because it suggests no definite ideas. Perhaps, for
instance, you have decided to write on the automobile and can think of
nothing to say until you remember that you once saw an automobile race
about which you can tell several interesting details; or you have seen
an automobile accident and can write on the topic _A Runaway Electric_.
If you can speak or write on a topic taken from your own observation,
your composition will probably be good. You know the facts, you have an
interest in the subject, and you will very likely say something of
interest to others. Subjects taken from school life or neighborhood
happenings, especially such things as you yourself have seen, are
excellent. Perhaps on your way to school you noticed that several old
houses are being torn down. You remember that you heard that a candy
factory is to be erected. At once several suggestions for themes will
come to you; as, _Why the Factory is Being Erected in this
Neighborhood_, _How Neighborhoods Change in a Large City_, _The Work the
Wrecking Company Carries on_. Perhaps your father owns property in the
neighborhood, and you could write on _How Real Estate Values have
Changed in this Neighborhood_.
Next to your own experience, the best source from which to draw subjects
is your reading. This may be divided into (1) books, (2) magazines and
newspapers. Recall one of the books that you read in the grammar grades,
perhaps _The Courtship of Miles Standish_. Drawing your material from
this source, you can write _A Picture of Early Plymouth Days_, or a
sketch of Miles Standish's character, using the title _Practice What You
Preach_. But to try to tell the whole story to any one in two or three
minutes would result in failure, for it would be a subject entirely too
big to treat in so short a time. All the interesting details would have
to be omitted, and, if the details are omitted, the story loses its
vitality.
It is the newspaper or the magazine, however, that offers us the most
available source of subjects. Practically all that we know of the modern
world and of the wonderful progress being made in invention and
discovery, as well as of the accidents and disasters that take place, we
have learned first from the newspaper and have verified later by the
articles in magazines. Every issue of a newspaper or of a magazine
contains suggestions for many subjects. Such magazines as _The World's
Work_, _System_, _The Outlook_, _The Technical World_, and other
magazines that deal with technical subjects in a popular way are
excellent for this work.
A third important source of subjects is the studies that you are now
pursuing. Every new study affords a new point of view, which should
suggest many topics for oral and written themes. Sometimes a good
subject is the comparison of two of your studies by which you try to
show, perhaps, how the one depends on the other.
The subject, of course, is but the beginning of the composition.
Developing the subject is fully as important as having a subject to
develop. The ability to develop a subject clearly is very important in
the business world. A business man sells his goods either by talking or
by writing; by the salesman or by the letter and the advertisement.
Unless the salesman talks in a convincing way, he probably will sell few
goods. He must know not only what to say, but how to say it.
=Exercise 154--The Subject as a Whole=
First, you must see your subject in its entirety, as one thing. Ask
yourself, "Just what does my title mean?" and if you have not as yet
selected a title, study your subject from all sides until you can see
how to narrow it to certain definite dimensions. Now you have set a sort
of fence around your subject. Nothing outside must enter, but nothing
inside must escape. The length of the composition you are to write
usually helps you decide on the limits of your subject. If you are
writing a book on Africa, you might include all that the title suggests
to you of exploration, colonization, civilization, and Christianization.
But if you are writing a very short theme--not over three pages--it is
evident that the subject must be narrowed. Would _The Transvaal_ be
good? _The Jungles of Africa?_ _Roosevelt in Africa?_ _African Mission
Stations?_ _When I think of Africa I think of Stanley?_
* * * * *
Which of the following subjects would be good for short compositions,
either oral or written? The oral theme should occupy two or three
minutes, the written perhaps three pages. What is the objection to a one
word subject?
1. Manufacturing. 11. The dead letter office.
2. Household uses of electricity. 12. The clearing house.
3. The Constitution of the United 13. Business.
States. 14. Honesty in business.
4. Why we celebrate the Fourth of 15. Physicians should
July. advertise.
5. The destruction of our forests. 16. Paper.
6. Europe. 17. How an electric bell works.
7. The westernizing of China. 18. Electrifying the railroads.
8. How railroads build cities. 19. How to make candy.
9. The fire drill at school. 20. Vocational education in
10. Education. Germany.
=Exercise 155--The Divisions of the Subject=
After you have selected your subject, decide into what divisions it
naturally falls. If it is of the proper length, it probably will divide
itself into two or three divisions. Each of these will constitute
one-half or one-third of your composition, and within each division
illustrations, reasons, and explanatory details will appear. Arrange the
divisions in the order in which they naturally come, according to their
relative time of happening or according to their relative importance,
reserving the most important for the last.
Sometimes this sort of division is difficult to make, because a subject
can frequently be treated from different points of view, the point of
view deciding the divisions. Sometimes you will find that you have made
a number of small divisions, in each of which you can say only one or
two sentences. This will at once suggest that you have not found the
main parts of the subject, but have made unimportant divisions. Again,
it may seem that you cannot divide your subject into satisfactory parts.
In that case, you probably do not know enough about it. Think about it
again, and, if you find that you really cannot divide it, choose
another.
* * * * *
Choose one of the following subjects. Is the title definite and clear?
If it is not, change it so that it will be. For example, _Photography_
(5) is not a definite title. No one could attempt to explain the entire
subject of photography in a few minutes. A better title for a theme
would be one of the following: _How to Develop a Negative_; _How to
Intensify [_or_ reduce] a Negative_; _Our Camera Club_; _The Photography
Exhibit at the Art Museum_; _Kinematography_; _Flash Light Pictures
without Smoke or Odor_; _The Conditions Necessary for a Good Snap Shot
Picture_; _The Advantages of Using a Developing Machine_; _How My Camera
Helped Pay for My Vacation_. Can you suggest still others?
After having selected your title, decide into what divisions the subject
naturally falls. For example, let us take (2) below. _A Ball Game_ is
not a definite title. Instead, let us choose _Last Saturday's Football
Game_. As stated above, a subject may be treated from different points
of view, the point of view deciding the divisions. Thus, in treating
_Last Saturday's Football Game_, we may divide:
_a_
LAST SATURDAY'S FOOTBALL GAME
I. The first quarter.
II. The second quarter.
III. The third quarter.
IV. The fourth quarter.
_b_
LAST SATURDAY'S FOOTBALL GAME
I. The excitement for a week before the game.
II. The tension during the struggle.
III. The celebration after the game.
_c_
THE TWO DECISIVE PLAYS IN SATURDAY'S GAME
I. The long forward pass.
II. The end run to the five-yard line.
Still other divisions may be made if we consider the subject from the
point of view of the teams or the players themselves. Can you suggest
any such divisions?
In the same way choose one of the subjects given below. Change it, if
necessary. Then write out the topic of each division in as few words as
possible.
1. An important electrical device.
2. A ball game.
3. Getting dinner.
4. The aeroplane.
5. Photography.
6. How styles change.
7. The back-to-the-farm movement.
8. Why oriental rugs are expensive.
9. Wireless telegraphy.
10. The business course in this school.
=Exercise 156--The Outline=
If your theme consists of more than one division, before you begin to
speak or write you should prepare a definite working plan or outline. It
should include enough to suggest the first sentence of each division and
the more important details within each. The outline will help you in
speaking or writing to arrange the topics so that they will follow one
another clearly. If you have an outline, there will be much less danger
of including details which do not belong to the subject and of omitting
details which should appear.
In the following very simple outlines notice the use of indentation:
1
THE PROBLEM OF KEEPING OUR CITIES CLEAN
I. The cleaning of streets.
(_a_) In summer.
(1) The cost of sprinkling.
(_b_) In winter.
(1) The cost of removing snow.
II. The cleaning of alleys.
(_a_) The disposal of garbage.
III. The smoke nuisance.
(_a_) Smoke consumers.
(_b_) Smoke inspection.
2
PUBLIC GYMNASIUMS
I. Definition of a public gymnasium.
(_a_) Location.
(_b_) Equipment.
(_c_) Management.
II. Benefits to the public.
(_a_) Keeps children off the streets.
(1) Congested districts.
(_b_) Develops them physically.
(_c_) Affords them pleasure.
(1) Outdoor and indoor games.
(2) Bathing at beaches connected with gymnasiums.
One more suggestion is in place here. In writing an outline, be careful
that you express similar subdivisions of a topic by similar grammatical
elements. For example, in the first outline above, (_a_) under I is a
phrase; (_b_) under I should be a similar phrase. It would be
incorrectly worded _Winter_ or _What the winter problem is_. What is the
advantage of such similarity?
* * * * *
Using the divisions you made for one of the subjects under Exercise 155,
develop an outline for a theme.
=Exercise 157=
Choose one of the following subjects; restrict it or expand it, if
necessary; select a proper title; write an outline; and then write or
deliver your composition, following your outline closely. Notice that
the shorter your title the more it includes, and therefore the longer
your composition must be to deal adequately with the subject.
1. Giving talks before a class develops self-reliance.
2. Most inventors would not have succeeded without
perseverance.
3. The more training a man has, the better chance he
has to succeed.
4. Most rich men learned to save early.
5. The value of courtesy in a retail business.
6. The dangers of football.
7. The various methods of heating a house.
8. The sporting page often sells the newspaper.
9. Educational features of the modern newspaper.
10. Our national game.
11. Baseball is a better game than football.
12. The use of machinery has lowered the cost of
manufactured articles.
13. How to prevent taking colds.
14. Athletic contests develop courage.
15. Qualities essential to good salesmanship.
16. Our debate with ----.
17. The qualities of a good street car advertisement.
18. A good cartoon.
19. Learning to swim.
20. The trials of washing day.
21. Birds as money savers.
22. Birds as destroyers.
23. Open air as a cure for tuberculosis.
24. Making a raft.
25. Every one should open a savings account.
26. Laziness.
27. Tennis is better than baseball.
28. Our respiratory system.
29. The bad effects of ridicule.
30. The good effects of ridicule.
=Exercise 158=
Recall one of the books that you have read recently. Name two subjects
that it suggests to you and that you can talk about. Write a careful
outline for each of them, and be prepared to speak on one.
=Exercise 159=
Name a subject taken from one of your studies, history for example. Let
it be definite enough so that you can tell all the details that you know
about it in a speech lasting two or three minutes. Use examples and
illustrations to make the subject interesting and clear. Prepare an
outline.
=Exercise 160=
Reproduce an article that you have read in a current magazine. Be
careful that you make the material your own before attempting to retell
it. Do not under any circumstances try to memorize the article.
Understand fully what it says, make an outline of the facts that you
wish to reproduce, and then give them as if they were your own ideas. At
the beginning of your speech tell the name and date of the magazine from
which you are taking the facts.
=Exercise 161=
As has been said, most of us get our ideas of what is taking place in
the world from the articles that we read in current newspapers and
magazines. We cannot always form our opinion from what one newspaper on
one day says of a particular event. We must read what it says on
successive days and, if possible, consult other newspapers on the same
subject, for it is well known that not all newspapers are non-partisan.
If one in the city is known to be so, that is the paper to read for the
material for this exercise. Then, if we can read what one of the
magazines says on the same subject, our knowledge will probably be more
definite and more nearly true.
Let the class be divided into different sections, representing different
kinds of news; for example, national, local, foreign, and business news.
Under national news, you can perhaps find articles on national politics,
legislative measures being discussed at Washington, rumors of war,
immigration; under local news, anything pertaining to the city or the
state in which you live; under foreign news, anything of interest to any
of the other countries of the world; under business news, the prices of
food products, strikes, panics, and their effect on business conditions.
These are but suggestions. Such topics change so rapidly that nothing
more definite can here be given.
When you have been assigned to one of these divisions, prepare a talk on
a topic that you understand thoroughly. Begin your talk with a clear
statement of your subject, as explained in Exercise 140; amplify it by
details or illustrations; and end with a sentence of conclusion,
forecasting the future of your topic or restating what you have proved.
=Exercise 162=
For a week follow the same current event as recorded in the newspaper,
taking notes as you read. Then choose from all your material only those
facts that belong strictly to one topic. Write an outline, setting forth
the facts in logical order. Deliver the speech, following your outline
closely.
=Exercise 163=
Let the class choose four or six members one week in advance, who are to
prepare a debate on a topic of current interest. Let the other members
of the class act as judges or volunteer on either side, as the
instructor may see fit. Such debates should occur as often as possible.
=Exercise 164=
About once a month devote a day to the production of a class paper. Let
the class choose a name. During the first year let the items be
developed into paragraphs. Longer compositions should be reserved for
the second year.
SUGGESTIONS FOR ARTICLES FOR THE PAPER
1. A column of interesting business items clipped from leading papers.
2. An important news item that would make a good "story."
3. Original editorials on one or more of the following:
_a._ Needs or improvements in city, school, or home.
_b._ Recent city news.
_c._ Business news.
_d._ State news.
_e._ National news.
_f._ Foreign news.
4. Personal experiences, amusing incidents, or anecdotes, preferably
of the business world.
5. For sale advertisements, or "want ads" that the class would
understand.
=Exercise 165=
Criticise the following outlines. Each topic is supposed to represent a
division in thought.
1
THE WHEAT HARVEST
1. A group of reapers.
2. Their costumes.
3. The field.
4. Starting the harvest.
5. Carting the sheaves to the barn.
6. The stacks.
7. The field after the harvest.
2
THE TONGUE
1. What it is.
2. It is a good thing.
3. It instructs.
4. Evils done by the tongue.
5. Especially slander.
6. Conclusion.
3
THE NEWSPAPER STRIKE
1. The cause.
(_a_) Strikers want higher wages.
(_b_) Poverty of the families of the strikers.
(_c_) Police have to protect newsboys against strikers.
2. Disadvantages.
(_a_) Newspapers are losing business.
(_b_) Newsboys sympathize with strikers.
3. Riots.
(_a_) Newsboys hurt and newspapers burned.
(_b_) Police cannot watch all sections of city.
4. Conclusion.
CHAPTER XII
PUNCTUATION
WHEN we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression that we put
into our words and sentences. Some sentences we say all in one breath
and with not much change in emphasis from one word to the next. We may
be pretty sure that such a sentence is short and simple, with all its
elements arranged in their natural order. In this respect compare the
sentences given below.
Notice that the following sentence is spoken as one word group:
Steam and electricity are making one commercial
community of all nations.
A part that is subordinate in idea is subordinate in tone; as,
Steam and electricity, _which are the greatest of all
discoveries_, are making one commercial community of
all nations.
In the usual order of the sentence the subject comes first. Sometimes
for emphasis a participial phrase or an adverbial clause precedes the
subject. Such inversion is always indicated; as,
_If the grape crop is large_, the price of grapes is
low.
Sometimes a word or phrase is thrust into the sentence to give clearness
or force; as,
If, _on the other hand_, the season is poor, the price
of grapes is high.
What, _then_, determines the price of grapes?
We cannot become good speakers until we learn to subordinate in tone
those groups of words that are subordinate in idea, and to bring out
clearly those groups which, for one reason or another, are emphatic. The
same thing is true in music. We cannot become good musicians until we
learn phrasing; that is, until we learn to group the notes to form
distinct musical ideas. But when we write our thoughts, we cannot
indicate the tone in which the words are spoken. We must show in some
other way which groups of words belong together, which are important,
and which are subordinate in idea. For this purpose punctuation marks
have been invented. When we write, we unconsciously speak the thoughts
to ourselves; we hear the divisions between the parts of ideas; and, if
we understand punctuation, we indicate the divisions.
Questions
1. Why in writing and printing do we separate one word from the next? In
ancient writing this was not done.
2. Why do we separate one sentence from the next?
3. We use punctuation marks for the same reason. Explain.
4. The word to keep in mind in punctuation is _separate_. If two words
belong together in idea, the two making one idea, allow them to stand
unseparated. If they give two ideas, separate them by a mark of
punctuation. What is the difference in thought in the two sentences that
follow?
(_a_) She is a pretty, energetic girl.
(_b_) She is a pretty energetic girl.
=Exercise 166--The Apostrophe (')=
The _apostrophe_ (') is used--
1. To show the possessive case of nouns (See Exercise 82); as,
The _boy's_ writing is excellent.
2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters; as,
_I'll_ attend to the matter.
3. To show the plural of letters, figures, and words that usually have
no plural; as,
Your _3's_ are too much like your _5's_, your _a's_
like your _u's_.
Don't use so many _and's_.
Write sentences in each of which you use one of the following words
correctly:
you're we're who's they're
your were whose there
it's he's don't their
its his doesn't
Explain why the apostrophe is used in the following:
1. I've received no reply.
2. This month's sales exceed last month's by one
thousand dollars.
3. Politics doesn't affect the matter very much.
4. The mistake was caused by his making his 7's like
his 9's.
5. Have you received the treasurer's report? No, I
haven't.
Point out the mistakes in the following:
1. For sale, A ladies fur coat.
2. The boy's have gone skating.
3. We wo'nt worry over the political situation.
4. Lets decide now where were to spend our vacation.
5. Dot your is and not your us.
6. Is this book your's or her's?
=Exercise 167--Capitals=
_Capitals_ are used for--
1. The first word of every sentence.
2. The first word of every line of poetry.
3. The first word of a quotation (See Exercise 169).
4. The first word of a formal statement or resolution; as,
Resolved, That women shall be given the right to vote.
5. The first word of every group of words paragraphed separately in an
itemized list, as in an order for merchandise.
6. The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ (not _oh_).
7. The words _Bible_ and _Scripture_, the books of the Bible, all names
applied to the Deity, and all personal pronouns referring to Him.
8. All proper nouns, proper adjectives, and words that are considered
proper nouns; as,
_a._ Names of the days of the week, holidays, and
months of the year, but not names of the seasons.
_b._ North, South, etc., when they refer to sections
of the country, but not when they refer to a direction
or a point of the compass.
_c._ Official titles or titles of honor when they are
used in connection with names, but not when they are
used without names; as,
Vice-President Roosevelt, ex-President Roosevelt.
Nominations are now in order for vice-president.
_d._ Names of political parties.
_e._ Names of religious sects.
_f._ Names of important events or documents; as,
The Revolution, The Declaration of Independence.
_g._ The salutation in a letter; as,
Dear Sir, Gentlemen.
_h._ Words indicating relationship, when they are used
in connection with a proper name, or when used alone
as a name, but not when used with a possessive
pronoun; as,
We expect Aunt Ellen at four o'clock.
I expect my mother at four o'clock.
9. The important words in the title of a book, play, or composition.
Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are not capitalized; as,
The Call of the Wild.
10. Such words as _Paragraph_, _Article_, or _Section_, when accompanied
with a number; as,
Paragraph 26, Article 3.
11. See Exercise 75.
=Exercise 168=
The _period_ (.) is used--
1. To indicate the end of a declarative sentence; as,
The business is prosperous.
2. To indicate an abbreviation; as,
The firm of Clark Bros. has opened a new office at 144
Pleasant St., Erie, Pa.
The _interrogation mark_ (?) is used--
To indicate the end of a sentence that asks a question; as,
When did you order the goods?
The _exclamation mark_ (!) is used--
To indicate the end of a sentence or other expression that shows strong
feeling; as,
Such demands are inhuman!
Frequently, all that shows exactly how the writer wished his thought to
be understood is the punctuation. The same words may express different
ideas according to the mark of punctuation that follows them. Read the
following to show the meaning that the writer wished to convey by each.
Explain the circumstances under which each might have been spoken.
1. The price is too high.
2. The price is too high!
3. The price is too high?
4. The crop will not be good. There'll be no corn.
5. Corn! There'll be no corn!
6. You didn't tell him that.
7. You didn't tell him that!
8. You didn't tell him that?
9. You are enjoying yourself.
10. You are enjoying yourself?
11. You are enjoying yourself!
=Exercise 169--Quotation Marks (" ")=
1. When a speaker's words are quoted exactly, they should be enclosed in
quotation marks. This is called a _direct quotation_.
He said, "The business is growing."
Notice that the word _said_ is followed by a comma, and that the
quotation begins with a capital letter.
2. If the quotation itself is a question, although it forms part of a
declarative sentence, it requires an interrogation mark before the
quotation mark; as,
Have you been waiting long?
She opened the door and said, "Have you been waiting long?"
3. The same applies to a quotation that requires an exclamation mark;
as,
Look!
He cried, "Look!"
4. When the words of explanation follow the quoted words, the
punctuation is as follows:
(_a_) When the quotation is a declarative sentence, put a comma after
the quotation and begin the words of explanation with a small letter;
as,
"The business is growing," he said.
(_b_) When the quotation is a question, conclude it with an
interrogation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small
letter; as,
"Have you been waiting long?" she asked.
(_c_) When the quotation is an exclamation, conclude it with an
exclamation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small
letter; as,
"Look!" he cried.
5. When the author's words of explanation interrupt the speaker's words,
the punctuation is as follows:
(_a_) When the interrupted parts are not naturally separated by any
punctuation mark, the comma is used as follows:
I do not believe that the report is true.
"I do not believe," he said, "that the report is true."
Notice in what way the quotation marks show that the words _he said_ do
not belong to the quoted words.
(_b_) Whatever mark of punctuation would naturally appear between the
interrupted parts must be used; as,
(1) I shall buy the Boston ferns; they seem to require
but little care.
"I shall buy the Boston ferns," she said; "they seem
to require but little care."
(2) Oh! The flames are higher!
"Oh!" she cried. "The flames are higher!"
4. Division into sentences is made within a quotation just as elsewhere.
When the thought ends, the sentence must end. The different sentences,
however, must not be divided by quotation marks; as,
"The train came in," said he, "half an hour ago. I do
not see them in the waiting room. I think they did not
come."
5. When a quotation is very long, consisting of several paragraphs,
quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of the quotation, at
the beginning of each succeeding paragraph, and at the end of the
quotation--not at the end of each paragraph.
6. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the one within is
distinguished by single marks; as,
John explained, "After I had told Mr. Brown how I
thought the work could be done more easily, he said,
'Thank you for your suggestion.'"
7. Any words quoted from a book or article, or any words quoted with a
special significance, such as slang, should be enclosed in quotation
marks; as,
The day of the salesman who is satisfied with the
"good old way" is fast passing.
8. A formal question, statement, or resolution for a debate is not
enclosed in quotation marks; as,
The question we are to discuss is, Shall women vote?
=Exercise 170=
Punctuate the following, dividing into sentences wherever the sense
demands division:
1. Thank you for your suggestion said Mr. Brown
2. Mr. Brown said thank you for your suggestion
3. Thank you said Mr. Brown for your suggestion
4. If you will ask the shipping clerk I volunteered I
think you can get definite information
5. How can we enforce the law asked the man
6. The law cried the man how can we enforce the law
7. Tell me said the man how we can enforce the law
8. Tell me this said the man how can we enforce the
law
9. The question before us is how can we enforce the
law
10. John whispered did you hear his mother say yes you
may go
11. As I was walking along the river he continued I
heard a voice cry help
12. Halt shouted the captain the bridge is down
13. The captain shouted halt the bridge is down
14. We cannot cross said the captain the bridge is
down
15. The bridge is down said the captain and I fear
there is no other way to cross
16. Is the bridge down asked the captain does no one
know another way to cross
17. The captain said the bridge is down do you know
another way to cross
18. What shall we do asked a soldier if the bridge is
down
19. Do cried the captain swim that's what we'll do
20. As we were riding along spoke up one of the
soldiers I heard a farmer shout you fellows better try
the bridge lower down
=Exercise 171--Indirect Discourse=
In the preceding exercise we saw different forms of direct quotations,
or direct discourse. In each case, the speaker's words were quoted
exactly. When the substance of the thought is given in slightly
different form, we have an indirect quotation, or indirect discourse, in
which no quotation marks are used. An indirect quotation is usually a
subordinate clause depending on a word of _thinking_, _saying_,
_telling_, or the like. Indirect statements are usually introduced by
_that_, and indirect questions by _when_, _where_, _why_, _whether_,
_if_, _who_, _which_, _what_, and the like. When a sentence is changed
from direct to indirect discourse, the person and usually the tense of
the direct quotation are changed; as,
_Direct_: He said, "I do not believe the report."
_Indirect_: He said that he did not believe the report.
_Direct_: He said, "Germany is over-populated."
_Indirect_: He said that Germany is over-populated. (See Exercise 107.)
_Direct_: She said, "I did my work before I went to school."
_Indirect_: She said that she had done her work before she went to
school.
_Direct_: "I have finished my work," said the girl.
_Indirect_: She says that she has finished her work.
_Direct_: "Why didn't he succeed?" I asked.
_Indirect_: I asked why he had not succeeded.
_Direct_: "When may I go?" she inquired.
_Indirect_: She inquired when she might go.
In the following change the italicized parts to direct quotations. Do
not change the paragraphing.
1
THE SEAL'S LESSON
The baby seal said _that he could not swim_.
His mother answered _that he could try_.
The little fellow persisted _that he could never
learn_.
His mother looked at him sternly, and said _that every
seal must learn to swim_.
He replied _that the water was cold and that he liked
the sand better_, but because his mother insisted, he
slid into the water whimpering.
After he had gone a short distance, he turned around
and called out _that the water was much pleasanter
than the sand_.
His mother said _that she knew that it would be so_.
She said _that young people must do as they are told
because they have not had enough experience to judge
for themselves_.
2
A FAITHFUL SERVANT
A certain old time king said _that he needed a servant
who could be depended upon_. He said he knew _that
such a man is difficult to secure, and in the hope of
getting the right one, he would hire two_.
When he had engaged them, he took them to a well and,
showing them a large basket, told them _to fill it
with water_. He said _that he would return at night to
see what they had done_.
The men were very much in earnest when they began the
work, but, after pouring five or six bucketfuls of
water into the basket, one of them stopped and said
_that he did not see any use in doing that because, as
soon as he poured the water in, it ran out again, and
his time was lost_.
His companion replied _that the kind of work that
their master gave them was no concern of theirs; that
they were paid to do the work; and, whether it seemed
useful to them or not, they ought to do it_.
The first speaker said _that the other man could do as
he pleased, but, as for him, he did not expect to
waste his time on such foolish work_. Throwing his
bucket down, he walked off.
The one that was left continued at the work until
about sunset, when he had nearly emptied the well.
Looking into the basket, he saw something glittering.
Stooping to look more closely, he found in the basket
a ring of great value which his bucket had scooped up
from the mud at the bottom of the well. He said _that
now he knew why the king had wanted the water poured
into the basket_.
Shortly afterward, when the king came up with some of
his officers and saw the ring in the basket, he knew
that the man had obeyed him, and he said _that he knew
he could trust him, and as a reward for obedience he
would make him master over other servants_.
=Exercise 172--The Paragraph in Dialogue=
In conversation the words of each speaker, together with the author's
words of explanation, form one paragraph. Whenever the speaker changes,
the paragraph changes; as,
"Mimer," boldly said the god Odin to the gray old
guardian of the well where wit and wisdom lie hidden,
"Mimer, let me drink of the waters of wisdom."
"Truly, Odin," answered Mimer, "it is a great treasure
that you seek and one which many have sought before
but who, when they knew the price of it, turned back."
Then replied Odin, "I would give my right hand for
wisdom willingly."
"Nay," rejoined the remorseless Mimer, "it is not your
right hand, but your right eye, you must
give."--Keary: _The Heroes of Asgard_.
However, when one speaker talks at length, what he says is formed into
paragraphs according to the divisions into which it falls. (See Chapter
XIV.)
When a short quotation is simply part of a paragraph, it is punctuated
as follows:
This, however, was of use to me, the impression
continuing on my mind. Often when I was tempted to buy
some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, "Don't give
too much for the whistle," and I saved my money.
Paragraph the following:
1
On the next morning we had gone but a mile or two when
we came to an extensive belt of woods, through the
midst of which ran a stream, wide, deep, and of an
appearance particularly muddy and treacherous. In
plunged the cart, but midway it stuck fast. Then
approached the long team and heavy wagon of our
friends, but it paused on the brink. "Now my advice
is,--" began the captain, who had been anxiously
contemplating the muddy gulf. "Drive on!" cried R. But
Wright, the muleteer, apparently had not as yet
decided the point in his own mind. He sat still in his
seat on one of the shaft-mules, whistling in a low,
contemplative strain to himself. "My advice is,"
resumed the captain, "that we unload; for I'll bet any
man five pounds that if we try to go through, we shall
stick fast." "By the powers, we shall stick fast!"
echoed Jack, the captain's brother, shaking his large
head with an air of conviction. "Drive on! drive on!"
petulantly cried R. "Well," observed the captain,
turning to us as we sat looking on, "I can only give
my advice; and if people won't be reasonable, why,
they won't, that's all!"--Parkman: _The Oregon Trail_.
2
Rebecca walked up the lane and went to the side door.
There was a porch there. Seated in a rocking-chair,
husking corn, was a good-looking young man. Rebecca
was a trifle shy at this encounter, but there was
nothing to do except explain her presence; so she
asked, "Is the lady of the house at home?." "I am the
lady of the house at present," said the stranger with
a whimsical smile. "What can I do for you?" "Have you
ever heard of the--would you like--er I mean, do you
need any soap?" queried Rebecca. "Do I look as if I
do?" he responded unexpectedly. Rebecca dimpled. "I
didn't mean that; I have some soap to sell; I mean I
would like to introduce to you a very remarkable soap,
the best now on the market. It is called the--" "Oh! I
must know that soap," said the gentleman genially.
"Made out of pure vegetable fats, isn't it?" "The very
purest," corroborated Rebecca. "No acid in it?" "Not
a trace." "And yet a child could do the Monday washing
with it and use no force?" "A babe," corrected
Rebecca. "Oh! a babe, eh? That child grows younger
every year, instead of older--wise child!"--Wiggin:
_Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm_.
Change the following from indirect to direct discourse and paragraph:
When Whittier went on his first fishing trip, it was a
day in early summer. The long afternoon shadows lay
cool on the grass. The boy said that the flowers
seemed brighter and the birds merrier than ever
before. When they came to a bend in the river, his
uncle said that this was a good place to try. He told
the boy to throw out his line as he had seen others do
and move it on the surface of the water in imitation
of the leap of a frog. The boy did as he was told, but
he caught no fish. His uncle said that he should try
again. Suddenly the bait sank out of sight, and the
boy cried out that he had caught a fish at last. As he
spoke, he pulled up a tangle of weeds. His uncle said
that he should try again, because fishermen must have
patience. In a moment the boy felt something tug at
his line, and as he jerked it up, he saw a fine
pickerel wriggling in the sun. In uncontrollable
excitement he called out to his uncle, telling him to
look at the big pickerel. His uncle said that the boy
didn't have it yet, and as he spoke there was a splash
in the water, and the boy's hook hung empty. His uncle
assured him that there were more fish in the river,
but the boy would not be comforted. His uncle smiled
shrewdly and told Whittier to remember never to brag
of catching a fish until it was on dry land. He said
that he had seen older people doing that in more ways
than one, and so making fools of themselves. He said
that it was better not to boast of doing a thing until
it was done.
=Exercise 173--The Comma (,)=
=Rule 1.--The comma is used to separate a direct quotation from the
words of explanation.=
For illustration see the foregoing exercises.
Write the following from dictation; then compare your version with the
original:
Literature, the ministry, medicine, the law, and other
occupations are hindered for want of men to do the
work. To test this statement thoroughly you need only
hunt up a first-class editor, reporter, business
manager, foreman of a shop, mechanic, or artist in any
branch of industry and try to hire him. You will find
that he is already hired. He is sober, industrious,
capable, reliable, and always in demand. He cannot get
a day's holiday except by courtesy of his employer, or
of his city, or of the great general public. But if
you need idlers, shirkers, half-instructed,
unambitious, and comfort-seeking editors, reporters,
lawyers, doctors, and mechanics apply anywhere.--_Mark
Twain._
=Rule 2.--The comma is used to separate the members of a series.=
=Exercise 174=
Divide the following into sentences and supply the necessary commas:
Abraham Lincoln was a tall strong powerfully built boy
he could lift a load cut down a tree or build a fence
more quickly than any one else in the neighborhood his
perseverance in his boyhood helps us to appreciate the
firm true steady hand that guided our country through
its great crisis Lincoln unceasingly showed his wise
brain his great courage and his kindness of heart his
character was not made in a day nor a month nor a year
it was built up after years of yearning years of
striving and years of hard work.
In the above point out the instances where the comma is used--
1. When several nouns follow one another, all being in the same case.
2. When several adjectives follow one another, all modifying the same
noun.
3. When a succession of phrases modifies the same noun.
This kind of succession is called a _series_. Each new member gives a
new idea, the comma being used to help the reader to separate one from
the next with ease. Notice that the comma is used between the last two
members before the coördinate conjunction as well as between the other
members.
2
Dear Sir:[1]
You can make no mistake in buying BCL Power Co. bonds
now the company supplies power to mines and towns of
Colorado Utah and Idaho it furnishes electric light
and power to Ophir Ouray Ames Pandora and other towns
in Colorado in Utah it supplies light to Mescal Eureka
Provo Logan and Bingham it also furnishes power for
the street railway systems of Salt Lake City
Farmington and Ogden.
The bonds offer such good security good interest and
ready convertibility that we expect our allotment to
be heavily oversubscribed will you therefore send us
your order before Monday.
Yours truly,
3
Imagine the scene: a little hollow in the prairie
forming a perfect amphitheater the yellow grass and
wild oats grazed short a herd of horses staring from
the slope I myself standing in the middle like a
ring-master in a circus and this wonderful horse
performing at his own free will. He trotted powerfully
he galloped gracefully he thundered at full speed he
lifted forelegs to welcome he flung out hind legs to
repel he leaped as if springing over bayonets he
pranced and curvetted as if he were the pretty
plaything of a girl and finally he trotted up and
snuffed about me--just out of reach.
4
Dear Madam:[4]
Our Style Book shows you the best of the season's
styles for ladies misses and children it contains
illustrations of the latest kinds of long coats of
skirts in the most fashionable cuts and materials of
hats that are new and particularly becoming and of
dresses with the newest sleeves and collars we are
especially sure that you will like our waists they are
artistic in design stylish in cut and excellent in
workmanship they are selected from the leading fashion
centers are the creations of the best costumers and
always have individuality twenty years of selling
goods by mail have given us experience skill and
knowledge that make it certain we can please you.
The enclosed coupon is good for fifty cents on a five
dollar order one dollar and twenty-five cents on a ten
dollar order and two dollars on an order for fifteen
dollars or more this offer expires September 30.
Yours truly,
5
Increased wages shorter hours and perhaps lower
efficiency for the hours worked have done more to
raise the cost of living than almost anything else
this higher cost of production we see on the farm in
the factory in transportation in merchandising and
even in domestic service we cannot double the cost of
excavating brick-laying plumbing and decorating and
expect not to double the rents that we must pay the
cost of building has increased as the demands of
laborers increased as their hours of work decreased
and as their wages advanced the materials that go into
a building the transportation of that material the
labor of assembling it and the labor of fashioning it
into a building have all advanced in price.
Moreover, high living has a great deal to do with the
high cost of living because it has made most of us
think that we must have more conveniences more
luxuries more clothes and more amusements than our
fathers had with a return to the thrift of our fathers
with a return to their desire for work we shall no
longer feel the grip of the high cost of living there
is a real danger to our nation in our extravagance in
our indifference to cost in our sweep toward ease and
idleness and in our growing antipathy for work.
=Exercise 175=
Write five sentences illustrating series of words; five illustrating
series of phrases; and five illustrating series of clauses.
=Exercise 176=
Write the following from dictation:
1
THE GOVERNMENT'S LAUNDRY
Some of the paper money in circulation is so dirty
that one feels the need of gloves in handling it, and
the suspicion that it is germ laden might well be
verified. It has often been said that money spreads
contagious diseases, nor can such a statement be
questioned when one remembers that money goes into
every kind of home and is handled by many infected
persons. The government has long felt that something
should be done to lessen this means of spreading
disease, and a machine has finally been invented that
will wash and iron the dirtiest bills until they look
almost as fresh as new ones. The entire cost of
operating the device is hardly fifty cents for each
thousand bills, but it is estimated that it will save
the government as much as a million dollars a year.
2
LUCK AND LABOR
Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up; labor
with keen eyes and strong will turns something up.
Luck lies in bed and wishes the postman would bring
him news of a fortune; labor turns out at six o'clock
and with busy pen or ringing hammer lays the
foundation of a competence. Luck whines; labor
whistles. Luck relies on chance; labor on
character.--_Cobden._
The selections given above illustrate the compound sentence. Notice the
thought expressed in these sentences. There is usually an idea of
balance or contrast, and the two halves of the sentence express the two
halves of the idea. The two members are usually distinct enough to
require a comma before the conjunction. If the conjunction is omitted, a
semicolon must separate the two members, as in the second selection
above.
=Rule 3.--The comma is used before the coördinate
conjunction in a compound sentence. If the conjunction
is omitted, a semicolon must be used.=
=Exercise 177=
Separate the following into compound sentences and punctuate:
1
Sawdust as a fire extinguisher sounds absurd but
recent experiments in Boston have proved it to be
successful in quenching fires in tanks of oil and
other inflammable liquids the Boston experiments were
conducted with tanks of burning varnish but the same
principles seem to apply to tanks of burning oil the
floating sawdust forms a blanket that shuts off the
air from the flames and the lack of oxygen causes the
fire to die out the experiments were tried with both
wet and dry sawdust and the dry material seemed to
extinguish the fire as quickly as the wet.
2
Select the kind of business that suits your natural
inclination and temperament some men are naturally
mechanics others have a strong aversion to machinery
because they do not understand it some men are
imaginative others are purely practical some prefer
active work others like sedentary employment all
should select those occupations that suit them best.
3
Certain Western railroads have long felt the need of a
new material for sleepers and they have been
experimenting for some time past with cocobolo or
Japanese oak the wood is so hard that it is almost
impossible to drive spikes into it and screwed spikes
in bored holes are used these sleepers will cost a
trifle more than those made from American oak but they
are expected to last twenty-five or thirty years the
reason for experimenting with foreign woods is that
native oak is becoming scarce and it is deemed wise to
search in time for a substitute.
4
Dear Sir:
We wrote you on the third but as yet no word has come
of your decision in regard to the investment you were
considering at 475 Second Avenue let us have your
order and we shall at once prepare the contract of
sale the building is an especially attractive offering
at $9,500 and we feel sure that you will find the
return from it unusually large.
Yours very truly,
=Exercise 178=
When an adverbial clause or a participial adjective phrase is put at the
beginning of a sentence to secure emphasis, it is called an _initial_
clause or participial phrase. A comma separates it from the independent
clause to help the reader to see where the subordinate idea ends and
where the main idea begins. Rewrite the following from dictation,
noticing the punctuation of initial elements:
If a city is to be kept in good condition, every
citizen must pay his share of the expense. If the
dreadful epidemics are to be exterminated, there must
be a good board of health to see that everything is
kept sanitary. When the health officers do their work
well, the health of the city improves. In order that
the decrees of the health department and of the courts
may be enforced, there must be a good police
department. Besides having these advantages, cities
need good streets and good schools. Because all of
these good things cost a great deal of money, high
taxes must be levied to pay for them.
=Rule 4.--An initial clause or participial phrase must be set off from
the rest of the sentence by a comma.=
=Exercise 179=
Punctuate the following:
1
Although cotton seed used to be considered worse than
rubbish there now come from it every year millions of
dollars in profit. Formerly if it was not hauled away
to rot it was usually dumped into a neighboring stream
and there it did much harm even if we had the space it
would be impossible to explain all the products now
made from the seed paper and an excellent meal for
cattle may be made from the hulls but the most
important products are made from the kernels besides
making meal for cattle they are readily converted into
crude oil according to the degree of refining that it
receives this oil may appear as oil for miner's lamps
lard compounds or salad oils as an illustration of the
way in which modern manufacturers utilize former waste
products the cotton seed is supreme.
2
When you sell your old clothes to the ragman do you
know that they come back to you as writing paper
because the metal buttons buckles and hooks that are
often left on the garments cannot be converted into
paper they used to be a source of annoyance to the
papermaker although the cloth sorters tried to remove
them before the garments went into the pulp vats some
were overlooked if any found their way into the pulp
they tore holes in the paper and often damaged the
rollers in order that such danger may be avoided the
pulp is now passed through a series of magnetized
rakes as the rakes are passed to and fro every bit of
metal clings to them when a quantity of such bits of
iron is collected it is sent to the foundry to return
to us in many new forms.
3
Dear Sir:
Investigating your complaint of the fifth instant we
found that the furniture which you ordered on the
tenth of last month left our factory on the fifteenth
if all had gone well you would have received the
articles on or about the twentieth as you surmised the
delay in the arrival of the goods is due to a mistake
on the part of the railroad company although the goods
were properly billed to you they were allowed to go on
to Columbus if you do not receive them within ten
days' time let us hear from you again.
Yours truly,
4
Dear Sir:
Complying with your request of the 10th inst. I am
sending you particulars of the property which I wish
to sell as I told you when I was in your office last
week the price at which I am holding the building is
$20,000 if the buyer prefers not to assume the
mortgage of $10,000 I think I can get the mortgagee to
agree to accept present payment for the note that he
holds against me unless the buyer agrees to pay the
unpaid taxes for last year and the assessments levied
for improvements already made I shall not consider a
sale.
After all preliminary arrangements are made if you
will prepare a contract of sale and forward it to me I
will have the abstract brought down to date and
secured by a guaranty policy.
Since I presume that the prospective purchaser has
examined the property and is satisfied to pay the
price for it in its present condition I would suggest
that you do nothing more toward securing bids for
rebuilding the porches.
Yours very truly,
=Exercise 180=
Write five sentences containing initial participial phrases.
Write five sentences containing initial adverbial clauses.
=Exercise 181=
The comma is used to separate the month from the year, the city from the
county or state, the company from the place in which it is operated, or
the like; as,
In December, 1912, I wrote to you from Seattle,
Washington.
This use of the comma indicates that words have been omitted, the
sentence above really meaning,
In December of the year 1912 I wrote to you from
Seattle in the state of Washington.
The same use is shown in such sentences as,
Of the three stenographers Mary received fifteen
dollars a week; Ellen, twelve; Susan, ten.
=Rule 5.--The comma is used to indicate the omission of words.=
Supply the necessary commas in the following:
1. The bonds will be taken over on or before October 1
1934.
2. On January 1 1913 the company had outstanding
$4,000,000 of stock of the par value of one dollar a
share.
3. The offices are at Salt Lake City Utah.
4. The transaction was officially conducted between
the Power Bond & Share Co. New York and the Pacific
Power Co. Tacoma Washington.
5. A late announcement of the Census Bureau tells us
that the center of population of the United States is
four and one-quarter miles south of Unionville Monroe
County Indiana.
6. Many mechanical devices in common use may be traced
to the patterns furnished by nature. Thus the hog
suggests the plow; the butterfly the ordinary hinge;
the toadstool the umbrella; the duck the ship; the
fungus growth on trees the bracket.
7. The per capita saving in the banks of the United
States in 1820 was twelve cents; in 1830 fifty-four
cents; in 1840 eighty-two cents; in 1850 $1.87; in
1860 $4.75; in 1870 $14.26; in 1880 $16.33; in 1890
$24.75; in 1900 $31.78; in 1910 $45.05; and it is
still increasing.
8. The population in 1820 was 10,000,000 and in 1910
90,000,000.
9. Mexico draws about 55% of her imports from the
United States; Nicaragua about 50%; the other Central
American states from 35 to 75%; Venezuela 31%; Cuba
52%.
10. In one decade Germany's exports to Latin-America
have shown an increase of 222%; those of the United
Kingdom an increase of 115%; and those of the United
States an increase of 130%.
Write five sentences illustrating Rule 5.
=Exercise 182--Explanatory Expressions=
There are a number of expressions--words, phrases, and clauses--which
are inserted into the sentence for clearness or emphasis. They add a bit
of explanation but are not absolutely necessary. In other words, they
might be omitted, and the sentence would still be clear. These may be of
various kinds but are all similar in use. They should be set off by
commas so that the reader will easily see that they are subordinate to
the main idea of the sentence.
A. The _appositive_ is a word or a group of words inserted lo explain
the noun that it follows. (See Exercise 80.)
Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences:
1. William E. Curtis, _one of the world's ablest
newspaper correspondents_, in his will expressed the
hope that his grandson would continue his life-work,
_a recital of the good that men had done and not of
the crimes they had committed_.
2. The new device, the adding machine, has greatly
lessened office drudgery.
3. Wall street, the great center of business life,
fixes stock prices.
4. The people in moderate circumstances, the excellent
middle class of a country, suffer most from the strain
of high prices.
5. The Montreal Tramways Company, the first company to
introduce pay-as-you-enter cars, started its business
in the winter of 1861 with a very simple equipment,
two horse-drawn sleighs.
6. The Early Gem musk melon, one of the best shipping
melons grown, is a cross between the Rocky Ford and
the Emerald Green varieties.
7. In making up our collections and bargain offers for
this year, we have arranged to put up a "Surprise
Box," one hundred packages of selected vegetable and
flower seeds.
8. The Chinese Giant, a new variety of sweet pepper,
produces branching plants about two feet in height.
9. Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole, is a
native of Norway.
=Rule 6.--The comma is used to separate an appositive from the rest of
the sentence.=
Write five sentences illustrating the use of the comma to set off an
appositive.
=Exercise 183--Explanatory Expressions=
Similar in use to appositives are--
B. Words, phrases, or clauses that separate the subject from the
predicate verb, the verb from its object, or the like.
In the natural order of the sentence the verb immediately follows the
subject and the object follows the verb. When, for the purpose of
explanation, something is inserted between the two, it should be set off
from the rest of the sentence by commas. Words that are thus inserted
are called appositive or parenthetical expressions and are illustrated
in the following:
In Ohio and Kentucky enterprising individuals,
_evidently taking the suggestion from the popular
rural delivery service_, have established ice cream
routes. Ice cream wagons travel the country roads at
stated times so that, _with no more trouble than is
required to answer the postman's whistle_, dwellers on
the farms can now secure the hot weather luxury at
reasonable prices. The plan, _so far as one can tell
from present indications_, gives promise of meeting
with great success.
=Rule 7.--Parenthetical expressions should be set off by commas.=
Punctuate the following:
1
The politics of the city as well as those of the
nation must be kept clean. The most intelligent men of
the community not the least intelligent should make
our political speeches and be our political leaders.
The very opposite we must confess is what we see too
often. Many business men steadily pursuing their own
ends during the day feel that they cannot devote time
to politics. We need not search far to discover that
too many of them even if they have the time do not
care to give it. At election the most influential
business and professional men either through lack of
interest or through laziness stay at home instead of
going to the polls. The men who are elected in nine
cases out of ten are not fit to hold office. The blame
belongs every one will agree to those who do not vote.
2
England as most people know is becoming vastly
interested in the production of cotton in the Soudan.
This state of affairs for more reasons than one is a
matter of interest to the American manufacturer as
well as to the American cotton planter. Egyptian
cotton ranking next to our own sea-island in length
and strength of fiber is wanted because of the
brilliant finish it gives. For the manufacture of fine
goods including sateens India linens and mercerized
goods as well as for mixing with silk it has been
found very valuable. Cotton growers expect that the
enlargement of the Assouan dam will eventually redeem
about a million acres from the desert in Lower Egypt
and although not more than half will probably be
planted to cotton it will increase Egypt's output
about twenty-five per cent. Our Department of
Agriculture after having experimented for years has
developed and acclimated in California a variety of
Egyptian cotton superior several experts say to the
real Egyptian. It now rests with the planters any one
can see to decide whether American manufacturers will
get their fine cotton at home or abroad.--_The Wall
Street Journal._
3
For several reasons some of them certainly unworthy
people on both sides of the Atlantic are talking of
the perils of a "yellow" invasion. It is true that in
the past various invasions have been attended with
evil but civilization has passed on into an age when
migrations even the mightiest that the world has seen
are taking place silently and steadily for the good of
all. There is no reason to suppose that the overflow
and interflow of nations heretofore synonymous with
the progress of humanity should bring to us anything
but good. Commerce is to lead the van in the new
movement of the nations as it has in the past and the
merchant consciously or unconsciously is going to
anticipate and guide the statesman.--_The Commercial
and Financial Chronicle._
4
The prevailing spirit at least among a certain class
of young business men seems to be that the saving of
little things in the course of the day consumes time
entirely out of proportion to the value of the things
saved but like all general rules it is carried too far
by young men who could hardly employ their time to
better advantage than in saving good though minor
materials that would otherwise be lost. The man who
originated the idea probably found it correct for
himself but like all principles catering to
indifference regarding details the idea is too readily
adopted by many young men who can ill afford its
practice. No one wishes a man to be parsimonious but
he should not allow anything to be wasted which can
with a reasonable exercise of effort be saved.
=Exercise 184--Explanatory Expressions=
C. _Independent elements_ are words, phrases, or clauses that have no
direct grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. They
are really a kind of parenthetical expression, but have less connection
with the sentence than those given under B.
The following is an argument against the trusts. The italicized
expressions are independent elements. What different kinds do you
discover?
_Gentlemen_, the big problem before us to-day,
_therefore_, is the trusts. Shall the people control
the trusts, or shall the trusts control the people?
_To state the question differently_, shall we all
continue to keep a voice in government, or shall we
turn our power over into the hands of a few and let
their word be law? This centralizing of power, _by the
way_, was the evil men tried to remedy by forming
republics, and shall we Americans, _do you think_, be
willing to sacrifice all that has been gained for us
of liberty? _The answer being self-evident_, let us
proceed. It seems that the little violator of law can
be punished; the big violator cannot be, or, _at any
rate_, is not punished. The trusts, _most people
know_, are formed to destroy competition. Their reason
for destroying competition, _evidently_, is to swell
profits by charging all that the trade will bear. The
trust, _finally_, is not a method of doing business,
but a scheme for levying tribute.
=Rule 8.--Independent elements are separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas.=
Punctuate the following:
1
NEW YORK, May 12, 19--.
Mr. Thomas R. Stevenson,
5010 Prospect Ave.,
Milwaukee, Wis.
Dear Sir:
You are no doubt now planning your summer vacation
before you make any new plans however consider the
opportunity that we are offering you to see a new and
marvelously beautiful world for little more very
likely than the cost of an ordinary vacation at the
summer hotel to which you usually go.
The idea of summer travel in the Tropics it may be is
new to you comparatively few people unfortunately have
yet awakened to its possibilities they do not realize
at least not fully that the climate in Jamaica Panama
and the Central and South American countries is
practically the same throughout the year moreover the
transportation rates are much lower than they are in
the North and the incidental expenses of travel such
as carriage fare and the cost of curios are
considerably less rough weather too is almost unknown
in the summer.
Possibly as you live on the shores of Lake Michigan
you have been considering a week's cruise of the great
lakes at an expense certainly of $40 or more and along
coasts that you have seen doubtless many times before
we offer a number of trips varying in length from
twelve to twenty-four days and in cost from $50 to
$130 to Jamaica Panama and Central and South America
thus for ten dollars more you may sail twice as long
pass shores much more beautiful visit cities far more
strange and return with a new almost magical store of
memories.
You are wondering perhaps how it is that we can offer
these remarkably low rates the reason briefly told is
that our ships carry an exceptionally large amount of
freight however do not think merely because our ships
carry freight that they are not splendidly equipped
for passenger travel on the other hand they are so
luxuriously furnished that they are especially fitted
for tropical cruises you are missing an unusual
opportunity we assure you if you do not more fully
investigate our offer.
Yours very truly,
2
We are learning year by year that as a rule financial
independence cannot be secured by most men except by
saving the savings bank is of course the first place
to invest savings because it will receive small sums
and pay an interest on them when a man's savings
however have reached $1000 for example what shall he
do with his money he has not the time or the knowledge
probably to watch his investments he wishes therefore
to put his money where it will be safe where it will
earn a fair rate of interest and if possible where he
can on short notice convert it into cash.
3
A man is an investor usually at least by virtue of his
savings a woman on the other hand invests because she
has received a legacy this may take the form of course
of property securities cash or life insurance it is
the function of sound investment most people know to
surround funds of this nature with strong security the
selection of conservative investments it is evident
must be made with care those companies naturally that
deal in conservative securities are the ones a
prospective investor should consult.
4
Not long ago the editor of a financial journal
received a letter of inquiry from a woman she had she
said only two thousand dollars if she invested it as
some of her friends had advised her to do in a
well-known security she could not live on the
proceeds she had consequently made a connection with
a brokerage house and was making a living by buying
and selling speculative stocks her list by the way
showed a profit of $500 in four months what she wanted
to know of course was how she could make the gain a
second time in effect she was told to take her profits
and run as fast as she could she will not in all
probability take the advice and in a few months
possibly weeks she will write again for help in
rescuing her last few hundred dollars she will have
learned at last that the way to keep her money is to
save it but she will not by that time in all
likelihood have any money to save.
=Exercise 185--Explanatory Expressions=
D. The _explanatory relative clause_.
Similar to the appositive is the explanatory relative clause. Like an
appositive, it is inserted into the sentence for the purpose of
explanation and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Because of this similarity, it is sometimes called an appositive
relative clause.
Great care must be taken in punctuation to distinguish a clause that may
be omitted from the sentence without destroying the meaning from one
that may not be omitted. The appositive clause may be omitted. A
restrictive clause, because it restricts the meaning of the word it
modifies, may not be omitted. Because it is needed for the sake of
clearness, it is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
To distinguish an appositive clause from a restrictive clause, the
former is called a non-restrictive clause.
Notice the difference between the following:
1. The Commonwealth Edison Company, _which controls
the electric light and power supply of Chicago_, was
organized in 1907 by the consolidation of the Chicago
Edison Company and the Commonwealth Electric Company.
The sentence makes complete sense without the relative clause.
2. The concern _that controls the electric light and
power supply of Chicago_ is the Commonwealth Edison
Company.
The relative clause must be used to understand the sentence.
In (1) the relative clause gives an additional idea. In (2) it limits or
restricts the meaning of _the concern_. The non-restrictive clause is
shown in (1), the restrictive clause in (2).
Dictation to illustrate non-restrictive clauses:
It is estimated that Chicago annually uses 93,450,000
gallons of milk, for which it pays over $28,000,000.
To supply this amount 120,000 cows are needed, which
are owned by 12,000 dairy farms. Health officers
conduct a systematic dairy farm inspection, which has
for its purpose the exclusion of diseased milk. Farm
owners, who formerly objected to the inspection, now
see that cleanliness is profitable. Authorities have
discovered that milk, which easily absorbs germs, is
dangerous except when produced under sanitary
conditions, and now dairies are allowed to sell only
clean, pure milk, which is milk given by a healthy
cow.
Phrases as well as clauses may be restrictive. In the following
sentences decide whether the italicized expressions are restrictive or
non-restrictive. State whether they are phrases or clauses. Do any of
the sentences need commas?
1. The man _wearing the brown coat_ is my brother.
2. My brother bought a new coat _which is brown_.
3. The lesson _that I take at nine o'clock_ is
English.
4. In English _which I take at nine o'clock_ we are
studying punctuation.
5. I am going to work in every city _that I visit_.
6. I am going to work in any city _where I can find
employment_.
7. I am going to work in Denver _where my uncle
lives_.
8. The house _on the hill_ is the oldest in town.
9. The house _that is the oldest in town_ is used as a
museum.
10. The Franklin Museum _which occupies the oldest
house in town_ is a very interesting place.
11. The town museum is the place _that I like to
visit_.
12. The chimney _that was blown down last night in the
storm_ should have been mended long ago.
13. The old ruined tower _which has long been a
picturesque sight in the village_ was blown down last
night.
14. We counted ten chimneys _that were blown down last
night_.
15. The stenography system _that I studied_ is
Munson's.