THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS
In the preceding chapters we have seen words as they are used singly. We
studied their pronunciation and the way in which they were formed to
express a definite meaning. In this chapter we shall begin a review of
grammar, a study of words not according to their pronunciation or their
definition, but according to their use as they are arranged with other
words to express complete ideas. The simplest group into which words are
thus arranged is the sentence, consisting of two important parts, the
subject and the predicate. The subject is the part about which something
is told, and the predicate is the part that tells about the subject; as,
_Subject_ _Predicate_
The sun shines brightly
There are several different kinds of sentences, named according to the
meaning which they express. They are as follows:
The _declarative_ sentence states a fact.
The _interrogative_ sentence asks a question.
The _imperative_ sentence commands or entreats.
The _exclamatory_ sentence expresses deep feeling.
_Illustrations_
_Declarative_: John closed the door.
_Interrogative_: Did John close the door?
_Imperative_: Close the door.
_Exclamatory_: What a noise the door made!
Sentences are classified, also, according to their structure or form. If
a sentence has one subject and one predicate, it is a _simple_ sentence.
If it is made up of two independent parts, it is a _compound_ sentence.
If it has one independent part and one or more dependent parts, each of
which contains a subject and a predicate of its own, the sentence is
_complex_. The independent part of the sentence is called a _principal
clause_, and the dependent part is called a _subordinate clause_. A
_phrase_ is also a dependent part of a sentence, but it differs from a
subordinate clause in that it contains no subject or predicate. Both
phrases and subordinate clauses are used as parts of speech, as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs. Thus we have the following definitions:
A _simple_ sentence contains one principal clause.
A _compound_ sentence contains two or more principal clauses.
A _complex_ sentence contains one principal clause and one or more
subordinate clauses.
A _phrase_ is a group of related words used as a part of speech. (See
Exercises 68 and 69.)
A _clause_ is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. A
subordinate clause is used as a part of speech. It usually has an
introductory word to distinguish it from a principal clause. (See
Exercise 71.)
_Illustrations_
_Simple sentence_: To-day most of the world's big
questions are business questions.
_Complex sentence_: The view _that_ business is only
humdrum routine and sordid money-making needs
revising, _since_ most of the world's big questions
are business questions.
_Compound sentence_: Many people still belittle
business, calling it humdrum routine and sordid
money-making, _but_ this view needs revising.
_Phrase_: (_a_) _of_ the world's big questions.
(_b_) _calling_ it humdrum routine and sordid
money-making.
_Subordinate clause_: (_a_) _that_ business is only humdrum routine and
sordid money-making.
(_b_) _since_ most of the world's big questions
are business questions.
=Exercise 59=
Write two of each of the following kinds of sentences:
_a._ Declarative, _b._ Interrogative, _c._ Imperative, _d._ Exclamatory.
Examine each of the sentences below and tell
_a._ Whether it is simple, complex, or compound.
_b._ Its subject and its predicate.
_c._ Its phrases and its subordinate clause (if there are any).
1. Your subscription expires with this issue.
2. This special offer will continue until the tenth of
November.
3. The last shipment of castings that you made to us
is decidedly unsatisfactory.
4. Your imitation typewritten letters have greatly
assisted us in the sale of our property, and we thank
you for calling our attention to them.
5. The advertised poster was sent to you to-day in a
special tube.
6. Without doubt you will be interested in the booklet
which we enclose.
7. The machine which is standing there has just been
repaired.
8. The wheel that holds the type may be changed in an
instant by the operator.
9. Whenever he wishes, the operator may write in
different sizes of type on the same sheet of paper.
10. Many of our styles have been copied exactly from
the best designs that have recently been displayed in
the Parisian exhibits.
11. Why are the department stores acquiring motor
wagons?
12. One reason is the economy of the motor wagon.
13. Economy does not entirely explain the keenness
which department stores are displaying in acquiring
motor wagons.
14. In such establishments the quick delivery of
merchandise is a necessity.
15. The best means of transportation must be employed,
or a loss of trade will follow.
16. Any one can cite examples that prove that faults
in delivery cause a loss of trade.
17. Machine service develops fewer errors than horse
service (develops).
18. The area which department stores serve is being
greatly increased from year to year, and not even the
establishment of the parcel post has avoided the
necessity for sending package merchandise too far
distant for conveyance by horses.
19. Electric machines usually make the house-to-house
package deliveries, and gasoline trucks, besides
hauling furniture, transfer large loads from the store
or warehouse to the distributing stations.
20. In one store each transfer truck is loaded twice
daily with fifty trunks containing parcels.
=Exercise 60--Sentence Errors=
=S. 1.= THE BABY BLUNDER.--In writing, one of the most elementary forms
of correctness is shown in the proper division into sentences. The
ability instinctively to end a sentence at the right place is called the
"sentence sense." Students who do not possess it or who have not learned
the difference between sentences, subordinate clauses, and phrases
frequently make the mistake of setting off too much or too little for
one sentence. For example, they run two sentences together as one; as,
_Wrong_: Motor wagons are economical, department stores of all large
cities are acquiring them.
The sentence, as written above, contains one form of the sentence
error--one of the worst possible mistakes in writing. It is sometimes
called the _comma fault_ or the _baby blunder_. For brevity we shall
call it _S 1_ (sentence error number one). _Motor wagons are economical_
is a principal clause. _Department stores of all large cities are
acquiring them_ is also a principal clause. Two such clauses may not
stand in the same sentence separated only by a comma. To correct,
divide into two sentences; as,
_Right_: Motor wagons are economical. Department stores of all large
cities are acquiring them.
Sometimes the thought in the two principal clauses is closely connected.
In that case they may be put into the same sentence, provided they are
properly connected or separated. Use a comma _plus_ a coördinate
conjunction (as _and_, _or_, _but_) to connect them, or a semicolon (;)
to separate them.
Be particularly careful of the conjunctive adverbs _so_, _then_,
_therefore_, _thus_, _also_, _still_, _otherwise_, _however_, _hence_,
_consequently_, _moreover_, _nevertheless_. When they are used to join
the principal clauses of a compound sentence, a comma is not sufficient
punctuation between the clauses. A semicolon or a comma and a coördinate
conjunction must be used.
_Wrong_: He had been a good customer, so they were sorry to lose his
trade.
_Right_: He had been a good customer; so they were sorry to lose his
trade.
_Right_: He had been a good customer, and so they were sorry to lose his
trade.
=S. 2.=--The first form of the sentence error (_S 1_) is made by using
too much for one sentence. The second form (_S 2_) is made by using too
little. It consists in writing a subordinate clause or a phrase as a
sentence; as,
1. _Wrong_: I told her I would attend to the matter at my earliest
convenience. _Probably on my way from work in the evening._
2. _Wrong_: His doctor advised him to go to Arizona. _Which he decided
to do._
=Exercise 61=
Each sentence should express one complete thought. Some of the following
are really two sentences (_S 1_), and some are only parts of sentences
(_S 2_). Correct each, naming the mistake.
1. You will find the booklet interesting it is also
instructive.
2. Up to last January he was a salesman for Colgate &
Co. since then he has opened a business of his own.
3. I didn't know you had come, when did you arrive?
4. Did any one take the newspaper, I left it here only
a moment ago.
5. I shall take my vacation in September have you had
yours?
6. I must go now good-bye I'll see you on Saturday.
7. The opening sentence held the man's attention, he
read it again and again.
8. I'll have to run to catch the train, otherwise I
shall be late for work.
9. The advertisement is attractive, still it has not
paid well.
10. We wished to reduce office drudgery therefore we
installed adding and addressing machines.
11. These problems all require a knowledge of square
root for example, take the fourth.
12. Do you expect to come home for Christmas or shall
you stay in New York I don't remember now which you
said.
13. First I read a statement that recommended the
bonds then I read an article that condemned them
without question the result was that I didn't know
what to do.
14. One-half of the statements are here, the others
are in the safe.
15. If your name is not correct on this envelope,
please notify us we wish to insure your receiving our
bulletin regularly.
16. The supply of fruit was greater than the demand,
that is why fruit was cheap.
17. Flies are dangerous. Especially in a sick room
from which they carry germs to others.
18. In the country the trees were loaded with fruit,
their branches had to be propped so that they would
not break.
19. When he was twenty-three years of age, Richard T.
Crane, the late millionaire head of the immense Crane
Manufacturing Company, came to Chicago, he started a
brass foundry, which grew into the present giant
establishment.
20. We spent last summer in the Bitter Root Valley we
camped within view of Willoughby Falls.
21. I want to congratulate you on your appointment I
heard of it only yesterday.
22. It surely was not I whom you saw I wonder who it
could have been.
23. Not one of us has a salary of three thousand
dollars so we do not worry over the income tax.
24. Please send me the booklet you offered in the
Business Magazine, I'd also like particulars of your
advertised discount sale of typewriters.
25. Sooner or later shingles are sure to warp and
curl, thus they pull out the nails and allow the rain
to beat in, furthermore, shaded shingles soon rot and
allow the water to soak through.
26. This sealing and stamping machine is endorsed by
business men in all our large cities nevertheless it
is not expensive.
27. If you wish to prove the excellence of our paper,
just tear off a corner of this sheet then tear off a
corner of your present letterhead with a magnifying
glass examine both torn edges.
28. The superior paper will show long, linen fibers
the poorer, on the other hand, will have short, woody
fibers.
29. When a German army is on the march, it stops every
twenty minutes for a rest. Experiments having shown
that a soldier can cover more ground when he is given
this period of relaxation.
30. Two thousand convicts will be released according
to a plan worked out by the governor; five hundred
will be given their freedom at once, and, if the plan
is a success one thousand five hundred others will be
released. One-half their wages of fifty cents a day to
go to their families and one-half to the penitentiary
fund. If they leave the state or commit any crime
while they are on parole, to serve the balance of
their term and an extension of time. They will be put
to work on roads and bridges the counties need several
thousand such laborers but cannot pay union prices.
=Exercise 62=
Rewrite the following, dividing into sentences:
1
Dear Sir:
There is no safer way to invest money than in a good
first mortgage on city real estate by a good mortgage
we mean one that is properly drawn and with such
security as absolutely insures the holder against loss
we have made a specialty of first mortgage loans, and
we offer investors the benefit of our wide experience
in such matters we investigate properties frequently
and keep investors informed on their investment we
look after all details and collections without extra
charge you will find it to your interest to consult
us.
Yours truly,
2
Stick to your legitimate business do not go out into
outside operations few men have brains enough for more
than one business to dabble in stocks, to put a few
thousand dollars into a mine, a few more into a
manufactory, and a few more into an invention is
enough to ruin any man be content with fair returns do
not become greedy do not think that men are happy in
proportion as they are rich and therefore do not aim
too high be content with moderate wealth make friends
a time will come when all the money in the world will
not be worth to you as much as one staunch friend.
3
Sacramento City is a great commercial center its
wholesale and jobbing business extends hundreds of
miles to the north, south, west, and east it is fast
becoming a substantial manufacturing center large six
and eight story buildings are rapidly taking the place
of the old two story structures a new city hall has
just been completed which cost $150,000 and a new
court house $1,000,000 the city has recently issued
bonds amounting to $800,000 for new schools scarcely a
week passes without recording some new enterprise all
the main highways are macadamized so that automobile
travel is possible every day of the year and the
farmer can haul his produce to market at a minimum
cost market conditions are good and any class of
produce finds ready sale at remunerative
prices.--(From an advertisement.)
Classify the sentences that you have formed in the foregoing exercise:
1. According to meaning.
2. According to form.
=Exercise 63--Parts of Speech=
There are eight different kinds of words called parts of speech, which
are used to make sentences. They are as follows:
_Noun_: The _horse_ is brown.
_Pronoun_: _He_ is the best horse of all.
_Verb_: He _galloped_ to town.
_Adjective_: The _brown_ horse is my favorite.
_Adverb_: He runs _swiftly_.
_Preposition_: We shall ride _to_ town.
_Conjunction_: The night is clear _and_ cold.
_Interjection_: _Oh!_ My horse stumbled.
Thus a _noun_ names something. A word that stands for a noun is a
_pronoun_. Sometimes a different part of speech is used like a noun, and
for the time being it becomes a noun. The _verb_ is a very important
part of speech, since without it there can be no sentence. The verb
makes an assertion, asks a question, or gives a command. _Adjectives_
are words that belong to or describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs go with
or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. _Prepositions_ and
_conjunctions_ connect. Prepositions join their objects to other words
in the sentence; conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. An
_interjection_, such as the exclamation _oh_, is used without having
grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. A preposition
always takes an object, the preposition and its object making a
_phrase_. Grouping this information, we have:
{_Nouns_ are names of persons and things.
{_Pronouns_ are substitutes for nouns.
{_Verbs_ make assertions, ask questions, or give
{ commands.
{_Adjectives_ modify nouns and pronouns.
PARTS OF SPEECH {_Adverbs_ modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
{ They usually answer the questions _how?_ _when?_
{ _where?_ _why?_ _to what degree?_
{_Prepositions_ join object nouns or pronouns to
{ other words in the sentence.
{_Conjunctions_ join words, phrases, and clauses.
{_Interjections_ are independent words used as
{ exclamations.
A word is not always the same part of speech. We may say, "Did you
_starch_ the clothes?" in which case _starch_ is a verb. A grocer may
say, "The _starch_ in these packages is always clean." In this sentence
_starch_ is a noun. The part of speech depends entirely on the way the
word is used.
In the following, name the part of speech of each word in italic. Judge
by the way the word is used in the sentence.
1. The desks have _green_ pads.
2. _Green_ is a restful color.
3. In the valley is a _mill_, which grinds _flour_. It
is a _flour_ mill.
4. I saw him _stretch_ out his hand.
5. The _stretch_ of _waste_ land amazed him.
6. Europeans say that Americans _waste_ more than they
use.
7. One of our great problems is how to lessen _waste_.
8. After the stormy _night_, the _day_ dawned bright
and clear.
9. He has been working _night_ and _day_.
10. The old man went _home_ sad and weary.
11. _Home_ is the best place in the world.
12. We must _fine_ you for such an offense.
13. Your _fine_ is five dollars.
14. We use _fine_ sand in our concrete.
15. I can talk _better_ than I can write.
16. John wrote the _better_ circular.
17. Talking will not _better_ the matter.
18. Young people should learn to respect their
_betters_.
19. Suddenly there was a _pause_ in the music.
20. Did you see those men _pause_?
21. He was our guide for he knew the _ins_ and _outs_
of the place.
22. Have you ever been _in_ the house?
23. Where are you going--_in_ or _out_?
24. _Good_ apples are expensive.
25. The _good_ of the people is our first
consideration.
26. I shall not go _if_ it rains.
27. What is the use of saying _if_?
28. I _like_ to see her just _like_ this, for in
_like_ mood I do not know her _like_.
29. _Little_ drops of water make the mighty ocean.
30. I can do _little_ of the work until the typewriter
is repaired.
31. Do not _belittle_ your work.
32. She studies too _little_.
=Exercise 64=
Each of the following may be used as different parts of speech. Write
sentences illustrating as many uses as possible for each word.
sound paper dress ring
light shoe box dawn
ride long ink curb
iron warm walk use
hear cold rule cement
=Exercise 65=
Tell which of the words in italic are adjectives and which are adverbs.
Remember that an adjective goes with a noun or pronoun; an adverb with
another adverb, an adjective, or a verb, and usually answers the
question _how?_ _when?_ _where?_ _why?_ _how much?_ or _how long?_
1. You are walking too _fast_.
2. Send perishable articles by _fast_ freight.
3. He has been a _well_ man since he has stopped working indoors.
4. He writes very _well_.
5. The fire is _bright_.
6. It burns _brightly_.
7. That is a _very poor_ reason.
8. The berries look _good_, but they taste _sour_.
9. They are not _good_ berries.
10. The sun shone _brilliant_ above us. (Compare with
_brilliantly_.)
11. The bookkeeper looks _angry_.
12. He looked at us _angrily_.
13. The flowers are _sweet_.
14. They smell _sweet_. (May we say, _The flowers
smell sweetly?_)
15. Act _frankly_, speak _gently_.
16. Let your actions be _frank_, your speech _gentle_.
17. Laborers complain that they have to work _too
hard_.
=Exercise 66=
Change the following adjectives to adverbs. In each case use both parts
of speech in sentences.
cold sure polite courteous
smooth exact precise easy
bitter bad extreme nice
loud general honest glad
=Exercise 67=
Tell which of the Words in italic are prepositions and which are
adverbs. Remember that a preposition begins a phrase. It must be
followed by an object.
1. He is the best man _in_ the office.
2. John was leaving as I came _in_ this evening.
3. He did not have his coat _on_.
4. It was hanging _over_ his arm.
5. He stood _on_ the top step several minutes,
wondering whether he should wear the coat.
6. The handle fell _off_ as I took the cup _off_ the
shelf.
7. The aeroplane flies _over_ the city.
8. I am going _over_ to the factory.
Write sentences using _above_, _across_, _down_, _up_, _underneath_ both
as adverbs and as prepositions.
=Exercise 68--Prepositional Phrases=
_Illustrations_
_Adjective_: The opinions _of some people_ must be
taken with caution.
_Adverb_: We shall return _within a year_.
_Noun_: _From New York to San Francisco_ is a long
trip.
What part of speech is each of the italicized phrases below? Remember
that an adjective modifies a noun; an adverb modifies a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb.
1. The waves are rolling in, white _with foam_.
2. A million dollars was invested _in the business_.
3. I will abide _on thy right side_ and keep the
bridge _with thee_.
4. _In summer_ milk soon turns sour.
5. I have come _for help_.
6. The people _on the bridge_ cheered _for hours_.
7. He threw up his hat _for joy_.
8. _On the table before them_ stood a deer roasted
whole.
9. We shall stay here _until spring_.
10. We came _in sight of the king's palace_.
11. We drove _to the factory_ today _with the
superintendent_.
12. He works _from sunrise to sunset_.
=Exercise 69=
The phrase introduced by a preposition is the most common. A list of
prepositions follows. They should be learned.
about before except toward
above behind for under
aboard below from underneath
across beneath in until
after beside into up
against between of upon
along betwixt on with
amid beyond over within
amidst but (except) past without
among by through to the extent of
around concerning throughout from under
athwart down till according to
at during to except for
Write three sentences containing prepositional _adjective_ phrases.
Prepositional _adverbial_ phrases may express the following ideas:
Time, telling _when_ something happened.
Place, telling _where_ something happened.
Manner, telling _how_ something happened.
Means, telling _how_ something happened.
Cause or purpose, telling _why_ something happened.
Degree, telling _how long_ something lasted; _how far_
it went; _how much_ it cost, etc.
Agent, telling _by whom_ it was done.
Accompaniment, telling _with whom_ it was done.
Write a sentence containing a prepositional phrase telling:
1. when 6. how far
2. where 7. how much
3. why 8. by whom
4. in what way 9. with whom
5. how long 10. by what means
=Exercise 70=
Name all the prepositional phrases in Exercise 179, explaining whether
they are adjective or adverbial.
=Exercise 71--The Clause=
A _subordinate clause_, like a phrase, is a group of words used as a
part of speech, the chief difference being that a clause must have a
subject and a predicate. Clauses are introduced
1. By _relative pronouns_:
who, whose, whom, which, what, that
2. By _subordinate conjunctions_:
when because than unless
where since provided till
while if whereas until
as as soon as wherever before
as if as long as whether after
though in order that why for
although lest that whenever
_Illustrations_
{ A lamp that _smokes_ }
ADJECTIVE: { } is a torture to a student.
{ A _smoking_ lamp }
{ _When she was good_ }
{ } she was very, very good.
{ _Sometimes_ }
ADVERB: { }
{ _When she was bad_ }
{ } she was horrid.
{ _Sometimes_ }
Does the clause or the simple adverb give the more definite idea?
{ _where he lives_.
NOUN: I know {
{ _the house_.
Write three sentences illustrating adjective clauses, three illustrating
adverbial clauses, and three illustrating noun clauses.
=Exercise 72=
Name all the clauses in Exercises 179, 185, and 186. Explain the use of
each.
=Exercise 73=
Write sentences using each of the following words to introduce a phrase,
and to introduce a clause.
1. after 3. for 5. until
2. before 4. since
Remember that just as a preposition must be followed by an _object_ to
form a phrase, a conjunction must be followed by a _subject_ to form a
clause.
_Illustration_
{ _Christmas_.--OBJECT.
I have not seen him _since_ {
{ _he_ went away.--SUBJECT.
=Exercise 74=
Name the complete subject in the following. Then name the simple
subject, explaining by what elements--words, phrases, or clauses--it is
modified.
Name the complete predicate. Then name the simple predicate, explaining
by what elements the verb is modified.
1. Modern business cannot be carried on by
old-fashioned methods.
2. When a man engages in business, he buys or sells.
3. The great routes of trade have changed from time to
time.
4. Your order will be filled within a few days.
5. Both blanks were properly filled out at the time.
6. Means of travel have developed from the slowly
moving caravan to the palatial railway coach.
7. Commerce originated when one human being demanded
something which had to be supplied by some one else.
8. The latest American and European styles will be
displayed in our new millinery department, which will
be formally opened on the first of March.
9. The prosperity of nations rests very largely on the
six inches of soil between the surface and the subsoil
of the territory.
10. One of the greatest losses to the Ohio farm lands
in the floods of 1913 came about because the water
took off the top soil from the hillside and valleys
and carried the vegetable material with it.
11. The conserving of the top soil is one of the
greatest problems in national prosperity.
12. We trust that shipment about September 8 will be
satisfactory to you, as it is the best that we can do
under the circumstances.