[Illustration: frontispiece]
MRS. LOUDON’S
ENTERTAINING NATURALIST,
BEING
POPULAR DESCRIPTIONS, TALES, AND
ANECDOTES
OF MORE THAN
FIVE HUNDRED ANIMALS.
_A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED_.
BY
W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S.
LONDON:
BELL & DALDY, 6, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN,
1867.
LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET
AND CHARING CROSS.
_PREFACE._
MRS. LOUDON’S _Entertaining Naturalist_ has been so deservedly popular
that the publishers, in preparing a new edition, have striven to render
it still more worthy of the reputation it has obtained. For this
purpose, it has been very thoroughly revised and enlarged by Mr. W. S.
Dallas, Member of the Zoological Society, and Curator of the Museum of
Natural History at York, and several illustrations have been added.
In its present form, it is not only a complete Popular Natural History
of an entertaining character, with an illustration of nearly every
animal mentioned, but its instructive introductions on the
Classification of Animals adapt it well for use as an elementary Manual
of the Natural History of the Animal Kingdom for the use of the Young.
INTRODUCTION.
ZOOLOGY is that branch of Natural History which treats of animals, and
embraces not only their structure and functions, their habits,
instincts, and utility, but their names and systematic arrangement.
Various systems have been proposed by different naturalists for the
scientific arrangement of the animal kingdom, but that of Cuvier, with
some modifications, is now thought the best, and a sketch of it will be
found under the head of the Modern System in this Introduction. As,
however, the System of Linnæus was formerly in general use, and is still
often referred to, it has been thought advisable to give a sketch of it
first; that the reader may be aware of the difference between the old
system and the new one.
_LINNÆAN SYSTEM._
According to the system of Linnæus, the objects comprehended within the
animal kingdom were divided into six classes: Mammalia or Mammiferous
Animals, Birds, Amphibia or Amphibious Animals, Fishes, Insects, and
Worms, which were thus distinguished:
CLASSES.
{ With vertebræ { Hot Blood { Viviparous I. MAMMALIA.
{ { { Oviparous II. BIRDS.
Body { { Cold red Blood { With lungs III. AMPHIBIA.
{ { With gills IV. FISHES.
{ Without vertebræ Cold white Blood { Having antennæ V. INSECTS.
{ Having tentacula VI. WORMS.
ORDERS OF MAMMALIA.
The first class, or Mammalia, consists of such animals as produce living
offspring, and nourish their young ones with milk supplied from their
own bodies; and it comprises both the quadrupeds and the cetacea.
This class was divided by Linnæus into seven Orders: viz. _primates_,
_bruta_, _feræ_, _glires_, _pecora_, _belluæ_, and _cetacea_ (this order
was called Cete by Linnæus) or whales. The characteristics of these were
founded, for the most part, on the number and arrangement of the teeth;
and on the form and construction of the feet, or of those parts in the
seals, manati, and cetacea, which supply the place of feet:
I. PRIMATES.--Having the upper front teeth, generally four in
number, wedge-shaped, and parallel; and two teats situated on the
breast, as the apes and monkeys.
II. BRUTA.--Having no front teeth in either jaw; and the feet armed
with strong hoof-like nails, as the elephant.
III. FERÆ.--Having in general six front teeth in each jaw; a single
canine tooth on each side in both jaws; and the grinders with conic
projections, as the dogs and cats.
IV. GLIRES.--Having in each jaw two long projecting front teeth,
which stand close together; and no canine teeth in either jaw, as
the rats and mice.
V. PECORA.--Having no front teeth in the upper jaw; six or eight in
the lower jaw, situated at a considerable distance from the
grinders; and the feet with hoofs, as cattle and sheep.
VI. BELLUÆ.--Having blunt wedge-shaped front teeth in both jaws;
and the feet with hoofs, as horses.
VII. CETACEA.--Having spiracles or breathing-holes on the head;
fins instead of fore feet; and a tail flattened horizontally,
instead of hind feet. This order consists of the narvals, whales,
cachalots, and dolphins.
ORDERS OF BIRDS.
The second class, or Birds, comprises all such animals as have their
bodies clad with feathers. Their jaws are elongated, and covered
externally with a horny substance, called a bill or beak, which is
divided into two parts called mandibles. Their eyes are furnished with a
thin, whitish, and somewhat transparent membrane, that can at pleasure
be drawn over the whole external surface like a curtain. Their organs of
motion are two wings and two legs; and they are destitute of external
ears, lips, and many other parts which are important to quadrupeds. That
part of Zoology which treats of Birds is called Ornithology.
Linnæus divided this class into six Orders:
1. _Land Birds._
I. RAPACIOUS BIRDS (_Accipitres_).--Having the upper mandible
hooked, and an angular projection on each side near the point, as
the eagles, hawks, and owls.
II. PIES (_Picæ_).--Having their bills sharp at the edge, somewhat
compressed at the sides, and convex on the top, as the crow.
III. PASSERINE BIRDS (_Passeres_).--Having the bill conical and
pointed, and the nostrils oval, open, and naked, as the sparrow and
linnet.
IV. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS (_Gallinæ_).--Having the upper mandible
arched, and covering the lower one at the edge, and the nostrils
arched over with a cartilaginous membrane, as the common poultry.
2. _Water Birds._
V. WADERS (_Grallæ_).--Having a roundish bill, a fleshy tongue, and
the legs naked above the knees, as the herons, plovers, and snipes.
VI. SWIMMERS (_Anseres_).--Having their bills broad at the top, and
covered with a soft skin, and the feet webbed, as ducks and geese.
ORDERS OF AMPHIBIA.
Under the third class, or Amphibia, Linnæus arranged such animals as
have a cold, and, generally, naked body, a lurid colour, and nauseous
smell. They respire chiefly by lungs, but they have the power of
suspending respiration for a long time. They are extremely tenacious of
life, and can repair certain parts of their bodies which have been lost.
They are also able to endure hunger, sometimes even for months, without
injury.
The bodies of some of them, as the turtles and tortoises, are protected
by a hard and horny shield or covering; those of others are clad with
scales, as the serpents, and some of the lizards; whilst others, as the
frogs, toads, and most of the water-lizards, are entirely naked, or have
their skin covered with warts. Many of the species shed their skins at
certain times of the year. Several of them are furnished with a poison,
which they eject into wounds that are made by their teeth. They chiefly
live in retired, watery, and marshy places; and, for the most part, feed
on other animals, though some of them eat water-plants, and many feed on
garbage and filth. None of these species chew their food; they swallow
it whole, and digest it very slowly.
The offspring of all these animals are produced from eggs, which, after
they have been deposited by the parent animals in a proper place, are
hatched by the heat of the sun. The eggs of some of the species are
covered with a shell; those of others have a soft and tough skin or
covering, not much unlike wet parchment; and the eggs of several are
perfectly gelatinous. In those few that produce their offspring alive,
as the vipers and some other serpents, the eggs are regularly formed,
but are hatched within the bodies of the females.
This class Linnæus divided into three Orders:
I. REPTILES.--Having four legs, and walking with a crawling pace,
as the tortoises, toads, and lizards.
II. SERPENTS.--Having no legs, but crawling on the body.
III. NANTES.--Living in the water, furnished with fins, and
breathing by means of gills. These are true Fishes, principally of
the group termed _Chondropterygii_, or Cartilaginous Fishes, by
Cuvier.
ORDERS OF FISHES.
Fishes constituted Linnæus’s fourth class of animals. They are all
inhabitants of the water, in which they move by certain organs called
fins. Those situated on the back are called dorsal fins; those on the
sides, behind the gills, pectoral fins; those below the body, near the
head, are ventral; those behind the vent are anal; and that which forms
the tail is called the caudal fin. Fishes breathe by gills, which, in
most species, are situated at the sides of the head. Fishes rise and
sink in the water, generally by a kind of bladder in the interior of the
body, called an air-bladder. Some of them do not possess this organ, and
consequently are seldom found but at the bottom of the sea, from which
they can only rise by an effort. The bodies of these animals are usually
covered with scales, which keep them from injury by the contact of the
water.
The fishes were divided by Linnæus into four Orders:
I. APODAL.--Having no ventral fins, as the eel.
II. JUGULAR.--Having the ventral fins situated in front of the
pectoral fins, as the cod, haddock, and whiting.
III. THORACIC.--Having the ventral fins situated directly under the
pectoral fins, as the perch and mackerel.
IV. ABDOMINAL.--Having the ventral fins on the lower part of the
body below the pectoral fins, as the salmon, herring, and carp.
ORDERS OF INSECTS.
The fifth class of Linnæus comprised the Insects; and the branch of
Zoology which treats of them is called Entomology. Nearly all insects go
through certain great changes at different periods of their existence.
From the egg is hatched the larva, which is a grub or caterpillar, and
destitute of wings; this afterwards changes to a pupa, or chrysalis,
wholly covered with a hard shell, or strong skin, from which the perfect
or winged insect bursts forth. Spiders and their allies, which were
included by Linnæus in the insects, issue from the egg in nearly a
perfect state.
Linnæus divided his class of insects into seven Orders:
I. COLEOPTEROUS.--Having elytra, or crustaceous cases covering the
wings; and which, when closed, meet in a straight line along the
middle of the back, as the cockchafer.
II. HEMIPTEROUS.--Having four wings, the upper ones partly
crustaceous, and partly membranous; not divided straight down the
middle of the back, but crossed, or incumbent on each other, as the
cockroach.
III. LEPIDOPTEROUS.--Having four wings covered with fine scales
almost like powder, as the butterflies and moths.
IV. NEUROPTEROUS.--Having four membranous and semi-transparent
wings, veined like network; and the tail without a sting, as the
dragon-fly and ephemera.
V. HYMENOPTEROUS.--Having four membranous and semi-transparent
wings, veined like network; and the tail armed with a sting, as the
wasp and bee.
VI. DIPTEROUS.--Having only two wings, as the common house-flies.
VII. APTEROUS.--Having no wings, as the spiders.
ORDERS OF VERMES, OR WORMS.
The sixth and last Linnæan class consisted of Worms, or Vermes. These
are slow of motion, and have soft and fleshy bodies. Some of them have
hard internal parts, and others have crustaceous coverings. In some of
the species, eyes and ears are very perceptible, whilst others appear to
enjoy only the senses of taste and touch. Many have no distinct head,
and most of them are destitute of feet. They are, in general, so
tenacious of life, that parts which have been destroyed will be
reproduced. These animals are principally distinguished from those of
the other classes by having tentacula, or feelers, and are divided by
Linnæus into five Orders:
I. INTESTINA.--Are simple and naked, without limbs; some of them
live within other animals, as the ascarides and tape-worms; others
in water, as the leeches; and a few in the earth, as the
earth-worm.
II. MOLLUSCA.--Are simple animals, without shells, and furnished
with limbs, as the cuttle-fish, medusa, star-fish, and sea-urchin.
III. TESTACEA.--Are animals similar to the last, but covered with
shells, as oysters, cockles, snails, and limpets.
IV. LITHOPHYTA.--Are composite Polyps, dwelling in cells in a
calcareous base which they produce, as corals and madrepores.
V. ZOOPHYTA.--Are usually composite animals, but do not reside in
stony cells. The coral, sponge, and polyps are instances of this
order, which also includes the Infusorial Animalcules.
_MODERN SYSTEM._
It will be found by reading the following sketch of the Modern System
that the greatest change has taken place in the latter two classes. The
others remain nearly the same in effect, though their distinctions are
different, and the classes are not arranged in the same order.
According to Cuvier, all animals are arranged in four great divisions,
which are subdivided into classes and orders, as follows:--
Divisions Classes No. of Orders
I. VERTEBRATA. } 1. Mammalia Nine.
Four Classes. Twenty-seven Orders. } 2. Aves Six.
} 3. Reptilia Four.
} 4. Pisces Eight.
II. MOLLUSCA. } 1. Cephalopoda One.
} 2. Pteropoda One.
Six Classes. Fifteen Orders. } 3. Gasteropoda Nine.
} 4. Acephala Two.
} 5. Brachiopoda One.
} 6. Cirrhopoda One.
III. ARTICULATA. } 1. Annelides Three.
} 2. Crustacea Seven.
Four Classes. Twenty-four Orders. } 3. Arachnida Two.
} 4. Insecta Twelve.
IV. RADIATA. } 1. Echinodermata Two.
} 2. Entozoa Two.
Five Classes. Eleven Orders. } 3. Acalephæ Two.
} 4. Polypi Three.
} 5. Infusoria Two.
THE VERTEBRATED ANIMALS
Have a backbone divided into vertebræ or joints, whence they take their
name. They have also separate senses for hearing, seeing, tasting,
smelling, and feeling; a distinct head, with a mouth opening by two
horizontal jaws; a muscular heart, and red blood. The four classes of
Vertebrata and their orders are as follow:--
I. THE MAMMALIA are all furnished with mammæ, or teats, through
which they give milk to their young, which they bring forth alive.
They have warm blood, which all circulates from the heart through
the lungs, and returns to the heart before it passes through the
body. Their skins are naked, or covered with wool or hair, and
their mouths are generally furnished with teeth. There are eleven
orders, which are thus distinguished:--
SECTION I.--_Unguiculated Animals, or Mammalia having Nails or Claws._
I. _Bimana_, or two-handed. This order contains only the human
species.
II. _Quadrumana_, or four-handed. This order contains the apes,
baboons, and monkeys, and the lemurs.
III. _Cheiroptera_, the bat family.
IV. _Carnivora_, or beasts of prey. This order is divided into the
following three tribes:--
1. _The Insectivora_, consisting of those animals which live upon
insects, as the hedgehog, the shrew, and the mole.
2. _The Carnivora proper_, consisting chiefly of the cat family,
including lions, tigers, and their allies; the bear family,
including the badger, the coati-mondi, the racoon, &c.; the dog
family, including the wolf and the fox; the weasel family; the
civet-cats; and the hyæna.
3. _The Amphibia_, consisting of the seals, and other allied
animals.
V. _Marsupialia_, including the opossums and the kangaroos.
VI. _Monothrema_, containing the Echidna and Ornithorhynchus of
Australia.
VII. _Rodentia_, or gnawing animals. The principal of these are the
squirrel family, mice and rats, hares and rabbits, the beaver, the
porcupine, and the guinea-pig.
VIII. _Edentata_, or toothless animals, that is, without front
teeth. The principal of these are the sloths, the armadillos, and
the ant-eaters.
SECTION II.--_Ungulated or Hoofed Mammalia._
IX. _Pachydermata_, or thick-skinned animals. The principal of
these are the elephant, the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros; the horse
family, including the ass, the mule, the zebra, and the quagga; the
wild boar family, and the tapir.
X. _Ruminantia_, or ruminating animals, the principal of which are
the camel family, the deer family, the giraffe, the antelope
family, the goat family, the sheep family, and the ox family.
SECTION III.--_Aquatic Mammalia, having no Hind Limbs, and the Fore
Limbs converted into Fins._
XI. _Cetacea_, or sea mammalia, the principal of which are the
whale family, the dolphin family, the manati, the porpoise family,
and the narwhal, or sea-unicorn.
THE AVES, OR BIRDS,
Lay eggs from which their young are hatched by what is called
incubation. Their skins are covered with feathers; and their jaws are
horny, without teeth. Their blood is warm, and circulates like that of
the mammalia. The six orders of Aves are as follow:--
1. _Raptores_, or birds of prey. These birds are distinguished by a
very strong and sharp bill more or less curved, but always hooked
at the extremity of the upper mandible, which is covered at the
base with a kind of skin called the cere. The nostrils are usually
open. The legs are very strong, the feet are large, and the toes,
which are four in number, are armed with very strong, sharp, curved
claws. The principal raptorial birds are the vultures, including
the condor; the falcon family, including the eagles, hawks, kites,
and buzzards; and the owls.
2. _Insessores_, or perching birds. These birds have all feet
formed for perching, the hind toe springing from the same place as
the other toes, which gives them great power of grasping. Their
legs are of moderate length, and their claws not sharply curved.
This order includes the thrushes, nightingales, and all the finest
songsters of our groves, with the robin-redbreast, the sparrow, and
other birds seen about dwellings, the swallows, the larks, the crow
family, the kingfishers, the birds of paradise, and the humming
birds.
3. _Scansores_, or climbers. These birds have two toes before and
two behind. This construction gives them such great power of
climbing, that they can ascend the perpendicular trunk of a tree.
The principal birds in this order are the parrots, the cuckoos, and
the woodpeckers.
4. _Rasores_, or gallinaceous birds. These birds have the head
small in proportion to the body. The bill is generally short, with
the upper mandible somewhat curved. The nostrils have usually a
protecting fleshy membrane. The tarsus, or lower part of the leg,
is long and bare, and there are four toes, those in front being
united by a slight membrane, while that behind is generally higher
up the leg, and smaller than the others. This order comprises most
of the birds used as food, and includes the peacock, the turkey,
the common cock and hen, the partridge, the pheasant, and the
pigeon family.
5. _Grallatores_, or Waders. These birds are characterised by their
long and slender legs, and by the thighs being more or less bare.
There are three anterior toes, more or less united at the base by a
membrane, or rudimentary web. The hind toe is wanting in some
members of the order. This order contains the ostrich family, the
bustards and plovers; the cranes, herons, and storks; and the
snipes and woodcocks.
6. _Palmipedes_, or web-footed birds. These birds have the legs and
feet short, and placed behind, with their fore toes united by a
thick and strong membrane. The neck is much longer than the legs,
and their bodies are covered with a dense layer of down beneath the
outer plumage, which is close, and imbued with an oily fluid that
repels the water. The principal birds in this order are the grebes,
the auks and penguins, the petrels, the pelican and cormorant and
the swans, ducks, and geese.
By many ornithologists the pigeons and ostriches are considered to
form distinct orders, called respectively _Columbæ_ and _Cursores_.
THE REPTILIA,
Or Reptiles, have neither hair, wool, nor feathers, and their bodies are
either naked, or covered with scales. Some lay eggs, and some bring
forth their young alive. Some have gills, and others lungs, but the
latter have only a portion of the blood passing through them; and thus
the blood of reptiles is cold, as it is respiration which gives the
blood heat. The senses of reptiles are dull, and their movements are
either slow or laborious. The following are the four orders into which
this class is divided:--
1. _Chelonian Reptiles._ These animals have four legs. The body is
enclosed in an upper buckler, called the carapace, and an under
one, called the plastron. They have lungs which are much expanded;
but they have no teeth, though they have hard horny jaws. The
females lay eggs covered with a hard shell. The principal animals
belonging to this division are the tortoises, which live on land or
in fresh waters, and the turtles, which inhabit the sea.
2. _The Saurian Reptiles._ These animals have also expanded lungs,
and generally four legs, but some have only two. Their bodies are
covered with scales, and their mouths filled with teeth. This order
includes all the crocodiles and lizards. The crocodiles have broad
flat tongues, attached throughout to the jaws, and the lizards have
long narrow tongues, which many of them can extend to a great
distance from the mouth.
3. _The Ophidian Reptiles_ are the snakes and serpents. The body is
covered with scales, but it is destitute of feet. The lungs are
generally well developed, only on one side. Serpents are frequently
furnished with poison-bags at the base of some of their teeth.
4. _The Batrachian Reptiles_ include the frogs and toads. The body
is naked. The greater part of these reptiles undergo a transition
from a fish-like tadpole furnished with gills to a four-legged
animal with lungs. Others never lose their gills, though they
acquire lungs, and of this kind are the siren and the proteus.
THE PISCES,
Or Fishes, are defined by Cuvier to be vertebrated animals with red
blood, breathing through the medium of water by means of their branchiæ
or gills. To this definition may be added, that fishes have no neck, and
that the body generally tapers from the head to the tail; that most of
the species are furnished with air-bladders which enable them to swim;
and that their bodies are generally covered with scales. The heart has
only one auricle, and the blood is cold. The gills require to be kept
moist to enable the fish to breathe, and as soon as they become dry, the
fish dies. Thus fishes with large gill openings die almost as soon as
they are taken out of the water; while those with very small openings,
like the eel, live a long time. Fishes have no feet, but are furnished
with fins. The scientific knowledge of Fishes is called Ichthyology.
Fishes are first divided into two great series, viz. the Bony Fishes,
and the Cartilaginous Fishes, and these are again subdivided into nine
orders, as follows:--
OSSEOUS OR BONY FISHES.
1. _Acanthopterygii_, or fishes with hard fins.
2. _Malacopterygii abdominales_, or soft-finned fishes, with the
ventral fins on the abdomen behind the pectorals.
3. _Malacopterygii sub-brachiati_, or soft-finned fishes, with the
ventral fins under the gills.
4. _Malacopterygii apodes_, or soft-finned fishes, without ventral
fins.
5. _Lophobranchii_, or fishes with tufted gills.
6. _Plectognathii_, or fishes with the upper jaw fixed.
CHONDROPTERYGII, OR CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.
7. _Cyclostomi_, or fishes with jaws fixed in an immovable ring,
and with holes for the gills.
8. _Selachii_, or fishes with movable jaws and holes for the gills.
9. _Sturiones_, with the branchiæ in the usual form.
Of the bony fishes the _Acanthopterygii_, or fishes with hard spiny
fins, are divided into fifteen families, the principal of which are the
perch family, the mailed cheek fishes, including the gurnards, the
flying fish of the Mediterranean, and the sticklebacks, or jack
banticles; the mackerel family, including the tunny, bonito, and
sword-fish; the pilot-fish, the dolphin of the Mediterranean, so
celebrated for the beauty of its dying tints, and the John Dory. Among
the _Malacopterygii abdominales_, or soft-finned fishes, that have their
ventral fins suspended from the abdomen, the most interesting are the
carp family, the pike family, the flying-fish of the ocean, the salmon
family, and the herring family, including the sprat, pilchard, and
anchovy.
_The Malacopterygii sub-brachiati_ are soft-finned fishes, with the
ventral fins beneath the pectorals; the principal of which are the cod
family, including the haddock, whiting, and ling; the flat-fish family,
including soles, turbots, plaice, and flounders; and the suckers or
lump-fish.
_The Malacopterygii apodes_ are confined to the eel family.
_The Lophobranchii_ include the pipe fish, and other fishes of similar
form.
_The Plectognathi_ comprise the very singular forms of the balloon-fish,
the sun-fish, and other similar fishes.
_The Chondropterygii, or Cartilaginous fishes_, are divided into three
orders, viz. _the Sturiones_, or sturgeon family; _the Selachi_, or
sharks and rays, including the torpedo; and _the Cyclostomi_, or lamprey
family. The last two orders were included by Cuvier in a single one.
THE MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS
Have no bones except their shells. Their sense of feeling appears to be
very acute, but the organs for the other senses are either wanting or
very imperfect. The blood is cold and white, and the heart often
consists of only one ventricle; a few of them have imperfect lungs, but
the greater number breathe through gills. They have all the power of
remaining a long time in a state of rest, and their movements are either
slow or violently laborious. Some of them appear incapable of
locomotion. They produce their young from eggs, but some lay their eggs
on a part of their own body, where the young are hatched. The following
are Cuvier’s six classes:--
1. _Cephalopoda, or Head-footed Mollusca._ These animals are
furnished with long fleshy arms or feet, proceeding from the head,
which is not distinct from the body, and on which they crawl. There
is only one order, which includes the cuttle-fish, nautilus, and
belemnites.
2. _Pteropoda, or Wing-footed Mollusca._ These animals have two
membranous feet or arms, like wings, proceeding from the neck.
There is only one order, which contains six genera, the best known
of which is the Hyalæa, the shell of which is commonly called
Venus’s chariot.
3. _Gasteropoda, or Body-footed Mollusca._ All these animals crawl
with the flat part of the body, which acts as a kind of sucker.
There are nine orders in Cuvier’s system. The common snail will
give an idea of the habits of the class.
4. _Acephala, or Headless Mollusca._ These animals have no apparent
head, and breathe by means of branchiæ, which are generally
ribbon-shaped. Most of them are enclosed in a bivalve shell, but
some are naked; the former are the _Testacea_ of Cuvier, and the
_Conchifera_ of Lamarck; the latter are the _Tunicata_ of Lamarck.
They form two orders.
5. _Brachiopoda, or Arm-footed Mollusca._ These animals also have a
bivalve shell; but they have no true branchiæ, and their
respiration is effected by the agency of the mantle. They have two
spiral arms.
6. _Cirrhopoda, or Curled-footed Mollusca._ These are generally
attached, and enclosed in a shell of several pieces; they are
furnished with a mouth, armed with jaws, and with several pairs of
jointed and fringed organs, called cirri, by the protrusion and
retraction of which they capture their prey. Examples of this class
are the Barnacles and Acorn shells. These animals have long ceased
to be regarded as Mollusca, the investigations of modern
naturalists having proved them to be true articulated animals most
nearly related to the Crustacea.
THE ARTICULATED ANIMALS
Have no back-bone. The covering of the body is sometimes hard and
sometimes soft, but it is always divided into segments by a number of
transverse incisions. The limbs, when the body is provided with any, are
jointed; and they can be separated from the body without any serious
injury being sustained by the animal, new limbs being shortly after
formed to replace them. The senses of tasting and seeing are more
perfect than those of the Mollusca, though that of feeling seems much
less acute. In other respects the four classes differ considerably from
each other.
[_The Entozoa, or Intestinal Worms_, placed by Cuvier and others among
the Radiata, are now arranged amongst the lowest forms of articulated
animals, as are also those animalcules known as _Rotifera_.]
I. _The Annelida, or Red-blooded Worms_, have no heart, properly so
called, but have sometimes one or more fleshy ventricles. They
breathe through branchiæ. Their bodies are soft, and more or less
elongated, being divided into numerous rings or segments. The head,
which is at one extremity of the body, can scarcely be
distinguished from the tail, except by having a mouth. These
animals have no feet, properly so called, but they are furnished
with little fleshy projections, bearing tufts of hairs or bristles,
which enable them to move. They are generally of carnivorous
habits. They lay eggs, but the young are frequently hatched before
exclusion, and hence these creatures are said to be ovoviviparous.
Their study is called Helminthology. As examples of the three
orders of this class may be mentioned the serpulæ or worm-like
animals, often found on shells, the common earthworm, and the leech
family.
II. _The Crustacea_ comprise the shell-fish commonly called crabs,
lobsters, shrimps, and prawns. They have a distinct head, furnished
with antennæ, eyes, and mouth; and their bodies are covered with a
crust or shell, divided into segments by transverse incisions, the
segments being united by a strong membrane. Once a year the larger
species of these animals moult, throwing off their old crust or
shell, and forming a new one, the animal remaining in a naked and
greatly weakened state during the intermediate time. Many of the
Crustacea swim with great ease, but on land their motions are
generally cramped and awkward; and they are confined to crawling,
or leaping by means of the tail. When a limb is injured they
possess the extraordinary power of throwing it off, and forming a
new one. The Crustacea lay eggs, and the young of some of the
species undergo a transformation before they attain their full
size. The Crustacea were divided into two sections and seven orders
by Latreille, which are as follow:--
SECTION I. _Malacostraca._
Shell solid, legs ten or fourteen, foot-jaws six or ten, mandibles two,
maxillæ four; mouth with a labrum.
Sub-section I. _Podophthalma_, eyes on foot-stalks.
ORDER 1. _Decapoda_, legs ten.
Sub-order 1. _Brachyura_, the crabs.
Sub-order 2. _Macroura_, the lobsters.
ORDER 2. _Stomapoda_, legs more than ten.
Sub-section II. _Edriophthalma_, eyes not on foot-stalks.
ORDER 3. _Amphipoda_, body compressed; mandibles palpigerous.
ORDER 4. _Læmodipoda_, abdomen rudimental, with only the rudiments
of one or two pairs of appendages.
ORDER 5. _Isopoda_, body depressed; abdominal appendages flat;
mandibles not palpigerous.
SECTION II. _Entomostraca._
Shell not solid; legs variable in number; mouth variable.
ORDER 6. _Branchiopoda._ Integuments horny, branchiæ feathery,
forming part of the feet.
It is to this division of the Crustacea that the Cirrhopoda are now
referred.
ORDER 7. _Pæcilopoda_, mouth suctorial.
Sub-order 1. _Xiphosura_, or king-crabs.
Sub-order 2. _Siphonostoma_, or fish parasites.
III. _The Arachnida_ are defined by Lamarck to be oviparous
animals, provided with six or more articulated legs, not subject to
metamorphosis, and never acquiring any new kinds of organs. It is
now known, however, that some mites undergo a sort of
metamorphosis, having only six legs when first hatched, and passing
through a quiet pupa stage before acquiring their perfect form.
Their respiration is either by means of air-sacks, which serve for
lungs, or of a kind of tube with circular openings for the
admission of air. There is a rudimentary heart and circulation in
most of the species. There are two orders; those with lungs, and
those without.
ORDER I. _Pulmonariæ._ The Arachnides comprised in this division
have air-sacks, which serve for lungs, a heart with distinct
vessels, and from six to eight simple eyes. There are two distinct
families: viz. _Araneides_, comprising all the spiders and
spinners; and Pedipalpi, comprising the tarantula and scorpions.
ORDER II. _Tracheariæ._ These Arachnides are distinguished by their
respiratory organs, which consist of radiated or branched tracheæ,
receiving air by two circular openings. Their eyes vary from two to
four. The principal animals belonging to this division are the
long-legged spiders (_Phalangium_), and the mites (_Acarus_),
including the gardener’s pest, the little red spider (_Acarus
telarius_), the cheese mite (_Acarus Siro_), and the harvest bug
(_Acarus_ or _Leptus autumnalis_).
IV. _The Insecta_ form the fourth and last class of articulated
animals, and they derive their name from the Latin word _insectum_,
which signifies “cut into,” in allusion to the distinct divisions
of head, thorax, and abdomen in the true insects: and in
contradistinction to the Annelides, the bodies of which present no
such divisions. The true insects are defined as animals without
vertebræ, possessing six feet, with a distinct head furnished with
antennæ, and breathing through stigmatic openings, which lead to
interior tracheæ. The Myriapoda have, however, more feet. The
following are the twelve orders into which this class is divided.
SECTION I. _Insects undergoing Metamorphosis._
1. _Coleoptera_ (from two Greek words signifying sheathed wings).
These are the beetles, which are all furnished with membranous
wings, with which they fly, and which are protected by horny upper
wings, or wing-cases, called elytra. They are all masticators, and
are all provided with mandibles or projecting jaws, and maxillæ.
2. _Orthoptera_, or straight-winged insects. This order comprises
the crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, and similar insects. They have
their upper wings of the consistence of parchment, and have
mandibles and maxillæ.
3. _Hemiptera_, or half-winged insects, have frequently half the
upper wing membranous, like the under ones, while the other half is
leathery. To this division belong the bugs, the water-scorpions,
the cicadæ or froghoppers, and the aphides. These insects have
neither mandibles nor maxillæ, but in their place have a sheath and
sucker.
4. _Neuroptera_, or nerved-winged insects, such as the
dragon-flies, have both pairs of wings membranous, naked, and
finely reticulated. The mouth is adapted for mastication, and
furnished with mandibles and maxillæ.
5. _Hymenoptera_, membranous winged insects, such as bees, wasps,
ichneumon flies, &c. All the four wings are membranous, but they
have fewer nervures, and are not reticulated like those of the
preceding order. The mouth is furnished with mandibles and maxillæ,
and the abdomen is terminated either by an ovipositor or a sting.
6. _Lepidoptera_, or scaly-winged insects. These are the
butterflies and moths, which are characterised by the farinaceous
or scaly aspect of their wings, and the tubular or thread-like
extension of the parts of the mouth.
7. _Strepsiptera_ or _Rhipiptera_, with twisted wings. These
creatures resemble the ichneumon, in laying their eggs in the
bodies of other insects, though they generally attack wasps and
bees. The principal genera are Xenos and Stylops. They are
generally considered to be closely allied to the Beetles.
8. _Diptera_, or two-winged insects, including the flies. The mouth
is furnished with a proboscis, and there are two small wings called
_halteres_ placed behind the true wings, which act as balancers.
9. _Suctoria_, or sucking insects, such as the flea, which have no
wings, but are furnished with an apparatus for sucking blood.
SECTION II. _Insects not undergoing Metamorphosis._
10. _Thysanoura_, or spring-tail insects. These creatures are of
small size, and without wings; they are found in crevices of
woodwork, or under stones. The principal genera are Lepisma and
Podura.
11. _Parasita_, or parasitical insects, such as the louse. They are
also without wings.
12. _Myriapoda._ This order is made a separate class by many
naturalists, as the creatures contained in it are distinguished
from the true insects by the great number of their feet; by the
want of distinct divisions into thorax and abdomen; and by the
great number of segments into which the body is divided. The
principal insects in this order are included in the Linnæan genera
_Julus_ and _Scolopendra_, commonly called centipedes.
The term larva is applied to the young of all insects, included in the
first nine orders, when first hatched. The different kinds have,
however, other names; that is to say, the larva of a butterfly, or moth,
is called a caterpillar; that of a beetle, a grub; and that of a fly, a
maggot. The larva changes its skin several times, and at last goes into
the pupa state, when it is called a chrysalis, an aurelia, or a nymph.
Sometimes the pupa is wrapped up in a loose outer covering called a
cocoon. From the pupa in time bursts forth the imago, or perfect insect.
The Apterous, or wingless true insects, and the Myriapoda, which are
also without wings, do not undergo any metamorphosis.
THE RADIATED ANIMALS
Are so called because their organs of locomotion, and even their
internal viscera, are generally arranged in a circle round a centre, so
as to give a radiated appearance to the whole body. The animals included
in this class are the very lowest in the scale; they have scarcely any
external senses; their movements are slow, and almost their only sign of
life is a craving for food. Some of them, however, have a distinct mouth
and alimentary canal, with an anal orifice; others have a bag-like
stomach with a kind of mouth, through which they both take their food
and reject their excrements; while others have no mouth, and appear only
to absorb nourishment through pores. In the like manner, though some are
oviparous, others may be propagated by division into plants. Of these
Cuvier makes five classes:
I. _Echinodermata_, or sea-urchins. These animals have a leathery
or crustaceous skin or shell, commonly covered with numerous
tubercles. The mouth is generally in the centre of the animal, and
is often armed with five or more pieces of bone, which serve as
teeth; the stomach is a loose bag; the organs for respiration are
vascular; and the animals are oviparous. They are furnished with
tentacular tubes, which serve as arms or feet, and which they can
push out and draw back at pleasure; and they have yellowish or
orange-coloured blood, which appears to circulate. Cuvier divides
this class into those with feet, and those without; but Lamarck,
whose arrangement has been more generally followed, divides them
into three orders; viz.:
1. _The Fistuloides_, or _Holothurida_, which have cylindrical
bodies, leathery skins, and mouths surrounded by tentacula. These
creatures live in the sea, or in the sands on the sea-shore; the
trepang, or eatable worm of the Chinese, is one of them.
2. _The Echinides._ These are the sea-urchins, properly so called,
and the shells, when the animals are out of them, are called
sea-eggs. The Echinides live in the sea. They lay eggs, and the
roe, or imperfect eggs, occupy a large portion of the space within
the shell when the animal is still alive.
3. _The Stellerides_, or _Asterias_, are the star-fish. The mouth
in these creatures is in the middle of the lower surface, and it
has a membranous lip, capable of great dilation, but furnished with
angular projections for capturing its prey. The skin is soft, but
leathery, and it is covered on the back with spongeous tubercles,
or scales. The rays are hollow beneath, and furnished with
tentacula, by the aid of which the star-fish manages to crawl
backwards, forwards, or sideways, as the case may be, any of the
rays serving as a leader. These animals are found on the sea-shore,
forming large beds, which are washed over by the sea. _The
Crinoidea_, or stone-lilies, of which such curious fossil specimens
have been found, are nearly allied to the star-fish.
II. _The Intestina_, or _Entozoa_. The intestinal worms were
divided into two kinds by Cuvier, viz. the _Cavitaires_, including
the worms of children, and other cylindrical worms; and the
_Parenchymateux_, or flat worms; such as the fluke in sheep and the
tape-worm in human beings. The Entozoa are now universally regarded
as belonging to the Articulated or Annulose division of the animal
kingdom.
III. _Acalephæ_, or _Sea-Jellies_. These creatures are of a soft
and jelly-like substance, with a thin skin, and an unarmed mouth.
The Medusides are very numerous, and produce that beautiful
phosphorescent light noticed by voyagers in the Australian seas.
The most interesting of the Acalephes is the Portuguese man-of-war,
or Physalia.
IV. _Polyps_, or _Anthozoa_, according to Cuvier, were divided into
three orders; namely:
1. _Fleshy Polyps_ (Sea anemones);
2. _Gelatinous Polyps_ (_Hydra_); and
3. _Polyps with Polyparies_, the latter including all the various
compound zoophytes, with the Sponges. Of these the _Flustræ_, or
_Sea Mats_, and numerous allied species, have since been
recognised as belonging rather to the Mollusca, and the Sponges to
a distinct and lower group of animals than the Radiata; the
remainder have generally been divided into the following three
orders:--
1. _Helianthoida._ This order includes the actinia, or sea-anemone;
and the madrepores, sea-mushrooms, and brainstones, which live in
communities, and possess the power of secreting calcareous matters,
which they emit to form these stony substances.
2. _Asteroida._ Some of the animals belonging to this division are
called sea-pens, and others form some of the different kinds of
coral, particularly that used for necklaces, &c.
3. _Hydroida._ This order includes the fresh-water polypi, which,
it is well known, by the experiments that have been tried, may be
cut in pieces and even turned inside out without destroying life.
It must be observed that the contents of this group in Cuvier’s
system consisted of all those forms of animals which he could not,
in accordance with the knowledge possessed in his day, conveniently
place anywhere else. Within the last few years, however, great
progress has been made in the arrangement of the animals placed in
this group by Cuvier. One of the most important changes has been
the establishment of a fifth group of animals for the Infusoria and
Sponges, together with certain other creatures of very low
organisation. To these the name of PROTOZOA has been given. The
_Entozoa_ have been removed amongst the articulate animals, and
there is a growing conviction that the _Echinodermata_ will have to
be transferred to the same section. There remain, consequently, the
_Acalephæ_ and _Polyps_ of Cuvier, which form a group characterised
by their soft and generally gelatinous texture; by the existence of
peculiar cells, called thread cells, in the skin; and by their
possession of an alimentary cavity with only a single orifice. To
these the name of CŒLENTERATA has been given. They are divided
into two classes: I. The ANTHOZOA, or Polyps, including the orders
_Helianthoida_ and _Asteroida_; and II. The HYDROZOA, composed of
the Hydroid Polyps and Acalephæ, the connection between which, as
indicated in the text (p. 609), is very intimate.
V. _The Infusoria_, or _Animalcula_, are so small as to be
invisible to the naked eye, and they are all inhabitants of
liquids. Cuvier arranged them in two orders, one of which he called
_Les Rotifères_, and the other _Les Infusories homogènes_, but the
first of these divisions is now included among the Articulata. The
remainder of the Infusoria of Cuvier, with the exception of some
which are now known to be of vegetable nature, are arranged, with
the Sponges and some other animals, in a separate division, called
Protozoa, the classification of which is still in a somewhat
uncertain state. The three principal classes are those of the
_Infusoria_, the _Sponges_, and the _Rhizopoda_; but there are
other forms which will not admit of being brought under any of
these denominations. Nearly all the Protozoa are microscopic,
except when, as in the case of the Sponges, they form an
aggregation of individuals. They are very numerous, and, although
exceedingly simple in their structure, their history often
possesses much interest.
EXPLANATION
OF
TERMS USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
_Abdomen._ The part of the body containing
the organs of digestion.
_Abdominal._ Pertaining to the abdomen.
_Amphibious._ Capable of living both on the land and in the water.
_Animalcules._ Small animals, visible only with
the assistance of the microscope.
_Annulated._ Marked with rings.
_Antennæ._ The horns or feelers of insects.
_Apex._ The top or summit of anything.
_Apical._ Situated at, or belonging to, the apex.
_Apodal._ Footless.
_Apterous._ Wingless.
_Aquatic._ Living or growing in the water.
_Bicuspid._ Having two points.
_Bifid._ Divided into two parts.
_Bifurcated._ Divided into two prongs.
_Bisulcous._ Cloven-hoofed.
_Bivalve._ With two shells.
_Branchiæ._ Gills, or organs for aquatic respiration.
_Buccal._ Pertaining to the mouth.
_Byssus._ A tuft of silky filaments produced by some Mollusca.
_Callosity._ A hard lump, an excrescence.
_Campanulate._ Bell-shaped.
_Canine._ Of the dog kind.
_Carinated._ Keeled.
_Carnivorous._ Feeding on flesh.
_Caudal._ Pertaining to the tail.
_Cere._ A skin over the base of the bill of birds._Cervical._
Belonging to the neck.
_Cetaceous._ Of the whale kind.
_Cilia._ Microscopic filaments, which,
by their constant vibration,
either cause currents in the water,
or move the animals
possessing them.
_Cinereous._ Of the colour of ashes.
_Clavate._ Clubbed.
_Cordiform._ Heart-shaped.
_Coriaceous._ Leathery.
_Corneous._ Horny.
_Crustaceous._ Covered with a shell or crust; as lobsters, crabs, &c.
_Dentate._ Toothed like a saw.
_Dorsal._ Belonging to the back.
_Elytra._ The wing-cases of insects of the beetle tribe.
_Emarginate._ Notched.
_Entomology._ A description of insects.
_Exsanguineous._ Without red blood, as worms.
_Feline._ Belonging to the cat kind.
_Ferruginous._ Of an iron or rust colour.
_Filiform._ Thread-like.
_Foliaceous._ Leaf-like.
_Frugivorous._ Feeding on fruits.
_Furcated._ Forked.
_Fusiform._ Spindle-shaped.
_Gallinaceous._ Belonging to the hen kind.
_Gelatinous._ Like jelly.
_Gemmiparous._ Capable of propagating by buds.
_Geniculate._ Bent like a knee.
_Gestation._ The time of going with young.
_Granivorous._ Feeding on grain.
_Gregarious._ Associating together.
_Hastate._ Formed like an arrow-head.
_Haustellate._ Insects with a mouth adapted for suction.
_Herbivorous._ Feeding on grass.
_Hexapod._ Having six legs.
_Hyaline._ Glassy.
_Ichthyology._ A description of fishes.
_Imbricated._ Tiled, or lying over each other.
_Incubation._ The act of hatching eggs.
_Insectivorous._ Feeding on insects.
_Intestinal._ Pertaining to the digestive organs.
_Laminated._ Covered with or divided into plates or scales.
_Larva._ The young of insects.
_Lateral._ Belonging to the side, placed sideways.
_Loricated._ Covered with hard scales or plates like
armour._Lunate._
Crescent-shaped.
_Mandibles._ Upper and lower, the two divisions of
a bird’s beak, or
the projecting jaws of an insect.
_Migratory._ Coming and going at certain seasons.
_Multivalve._ With many shells or openings.
_Nacreous._ Resembling mother-of-pearl.
_Nictitating._ Winking; applied to a membrane with which birds cover
their eyes at pleasure.
_Olfactory._ Relating to smell.
_Operculum._ A shield or cover.
_Ornithology._ A description of birds.
_Oviparous._ That lays eggs.
_Palmated._ Webbed.
_Parasitic._ Attached to and dependent on some other living body.
_Parturition._ The act of bringing forth young.
_Passerine._ Belonging to the sparrow tribe.
_Pectinate._ Resembling a comb.
_Pectoral._ Belonging to the breast.
_Pendulous._ Hanging down.
_Piscivorous._ Feeding on fishes.
_Plicate._ Folded.
_Predaceous._ Formed to pursue prey.
_Prehensile._ Capable of grasping.
_Quadrifid._ Divided into four parts.
_Quadruped._ Four-footed.
_Ramose._ Branching.
_Reptiles._ Animals of the serpent tribe, with legs.
_Rudimentary._ Small; imperfectly developed.
_Ruminating._ Chewing the cud.
_Scabrous._ Rough.
_Scapulars._ Shoulders.
_Semilunar._ In the form of a half-moon.
_Serrated._ Notched like a saw.
_Sessile._ Attached without the intervention of a stalk.
_Setaceous._ Having bristles or strong hairs.
_Spiral._ Winding like a screw.
_Squamose._ Scaly.
_Striated._ Streaked or striped.
_Subulated._ Formed like an awl.
_Sulcated._ Furrowed.
_Suture._ The line of junction of two hind parts.
_Tentacula._ The feelers of snails and other mollusca.
_Testaceous._ Covered with a shell, as oysters.
_Trifurcated._ Three-forked.
_Truncated._ Appearing as if cut off._Tubicolar._
Inhabiting a tube.
_Univalve._ With one shell or opening.
_Ventral._ Belonging to the belly.
_Vertebrated._ Having a jointed spine-bone.
_Viscera._ The organs contained in the cavities of the body.
_Viviparous._ Bringing forth the young alive.
_Webbed._ Connected by a membrane, as the toes of aquatic birds.
_Xylophagous._ Wood-eating.
_Zoologists._ Writers on animated nature.
_Zoology._ The history of animated nature.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
BOOK I.
QUADRUPEDS, OR FOUR-FOOTED BEASTS.
POPULAR AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF THE ANIMALS DESCRIBED.
⁂ Where no synonyme is given, the Linnæan name is the only one in use;
and when the synonymes are seldom used, they are marked thus *. When no
Linnæan name is given, the animal was not described by Linnæus.
SECTION I.--CARNIVOROUS, OR FLESH-EATING ANIMALS.
English Name Linnæan Name Synonymes Page
LION Felis Leo *Leo vulgaris.--_Leach_ 1
LIONESS Ibid. 7
TIGER Felis Tigris 9
LEOPARD Felis Leopardus 12
PANTHER Felis Pardus 13
OUNCE Felis Uncia.--_Schreb._ 14
OCELOT Felis Pardalis 14
HUNTING LEOPARD,}
or CHEETAH } Felis jubata Cynailurus jubatus.--_Wag._ 15
JAGUAR Felis Onca 16
{Felis Puma.--_Trail_ }
PUMA Felis concolor {*Leo Americanus.--_Her._} 18
{*Puma concolor.--_Jard._}
COMMON LYNX Felis Lynx *Lyncus vulgaris.--_Gray_ 19
CANADIAN LYNX {Felis Canadensis.--_Geoff._} 19
{*Lyncus Canadensis.--_Gray_}
CARACAL Felis Caracal.--_Schreb._ 20
DOMESTIC CAT Felis domestica 20
WILD CAT Felis Catus 22
DOGS {Canis familiaris and} 23
{ var. }
SHEPHERD’S DOG 23
BLOODHOUND 25
FOXHOUND 27
POINTER 28
MASTIFF 29
BULLDOG 30
TERRIER 31
SPANIEL 32
WATER SPANIEL 33
NEWFOUNDLAND DOG 34
GREYHOUND 36
FOX Canis Vulpes Vulpes vulgaris.--_Briss._ 37
ARCTIC FOX Canis lagopus Vulpes lagopus 39
WOLF Canis Lupus *Lupus vulgaris 40
JACKAL Canis aureus 42
STRIPED HYÆNA Canis Hyæna Hyæna striata.--_Zimm._ 43
SPOTTED HYÆNA Hyæna Crocuta 44
BLACK BEAR Ursus Americanus 45
GRISLY BEAR Ursus ferox 46
BROWN BEAR Ursus Arctos 46
MALAYAN SUN BEAR Ursus Malayanus 48
POLAR BEAR Ursus maritimus.--_Gmel._ 50
RACOON Ursus Lotor Procyon Lotor.--_Cuv._ 51
BADGER Ursus Meles Meles Taxus.--_Blum._ 53
COATI-MONDI Viverra Nasua Nasua narica.--_F. Cuv._ 53
CIVET Viverra Civetta.--_Schreb._54
GENET Viverra Genetta Genetta vulgaris.--_Cuv._ 55
ORIENTAL CIVET Viverra Zibetha 56
ICHNEUMON, or } Viverra Ichneumon Herpestes Ichneumon 56
EGYPTIAN }
MANGOUSTE }
WEASEL Mustela vulgaris 58
FERRET Mustela furo *Viverra furo.--_Shaw_ 60
POLECAT Mustela putorius Putorius vulgaris.--_Cuv._ 61
ERMINE Mustela erminea 62
SKUNK Mustela or Mephitis Americana 63
SABLE {Mustela or Martes} 64
{ Zibellina }
MARTEN Mustela Martes Martes foina.--_Gray_ 65
OTTER Mustela Lutra Lutra vulgaris.--_Erxl._ 66
SEA OTTER Mustela Lutris Enhydra Lutris.--_Gray_ 68
SEAL Phoca vitulina {*Phoca variegata.--_Niel._ }
{Calocephalus vitulinus.--_Cuv._} 69
WALRUS Trichechus Rosmarus 72