THE AZTEC CALENDAR.
ASTRONOMICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE AZTECS--CONTRADICTIONS OF
AUTHORS RESPECTING THE CALENDAR--VALUE OF THE RESEARCHES OF
VARIOUS WRITERS--THE FIRST REGULAR CALENDAR--THE MEXICAN
CYCLE--THE CIVIL YEAR--THE AZTEC MONTHS--NAMES OF THE DAYS
AND THEIR SIGNIFICATION--THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE AZTEC
YEAR--THE RITUAL CALENDAR--GAMA'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE
MONTHS--THE CALENDAR-STONE--THE FOUR DESTRUCTIONS OF THE
WORLD--THE CALENDAR OF MICHOACAN--RECKONING OF THE ZAPOTECS.
Perhaps the strongest proof of the advanced civilization of the Nahuas
was their method of computing time, which, for ingenuity and
correctness, equaled, if it did not surpass, the systems adopted by
contemporaneous European and Asiatic nations.
The Nahuas were well acquainted with the movements of the sun and
moon, and even of some of the planets, while celestial phenomena, such
as eclipses, although attributed to unnatural causes, were
nevertheless carefully observed and recorded. They had, moreover, an
accurate system of dividing the day into fixed periods, corresponding
somewhat to our hours; indeed, as the learned Sr Leon y Gama has
shown, the Aztec calendar-stone which was found in the plaza of the
city of Mexico, was used not only as a durable register, but also as a
sun-dial.
[Sidenote: THE AZTEC CALENDAR.]
Although the system of the Aztec calendar as a whole is clear and
easily understood, yet it is extremely difficult to describe with
certainty many of its details, owing to the contradictory statements
of nearly all the earlier writers, who visited Mexico and there in
different localities picked up scraps of what they afterwards
described as being the 'calendar of the Mexicans,' not taking into
consideration that the many and distinct kingdoms surrounding the
Aztec territory, although using essentially the same system, differed
on many important points, such as the names of years, months, days,
the season of beginning the year, etc. This difficulty increases when
we attempt to make Mexican dates agree with our own. Even Boturini,
who gathered his information in Mexico, makes many mistakes; and
Veytia, although we must accord him the credit of having thoroughly
studied the subject, and of having reduced it to a clear system, is at
fault in many points. Of the older writers, such as Sahagun, Las
Casas, Duran, Motolinia, and others, no one is explicit enough on all
points to enable us to follow him; and such details as they unite in
giving are mostly contradictory. Torquemada, who draws a great portion
of his material from Motolinia, contradicts himself too frequently to
be reliable. Leon y Gama, although he spent much labor in trying to
clearly expound the system, has also fallen into some errors,
attributable, perhaps, to his not having the valuable aid of Sahagun's
writings, and to his having placed too much trust in the writings of
Torquemada and the manuscript of the Indian Cristóbal del Castillo, as
is shown in the review of Gama's work by Sr José Antonio Alzate in the
_Gacetas de Literatura_. Baron von Humboldt's description, valuable as
it is on account of the extended comparisons which he draws between
the Mexican, Asiatic and Egyptian calendars, is on that account too
intricate to be easily understood. From all these descriptions
Gallatin, McCulloh, and Müller, with perhaps a few others, have each
given us a very good résumé, but without attempting to reconcile all
the contradictions.
The first notice we have of any regular calendar is given by
Ixtlilxochitl, who states that in the year 5097 from the creation of
the world, an assembly of learned men met at the city of
Huehuetlapallan, and determined the reckoning of the years, days, and
months, leap years and intercalary days, in the order in which they
were found at the time of the conquest.[618] Previous to this time it
is said that the only reckoning kept was regulated by the yearly
growth of the fresh grass and herbs from which the name of the Mexican
year _xihuitl_, 'new grass,' is derived. It is also said that a rough
computation of time was made by the moon, from its appearance to its
disappearance, and that this period called _metztli_, 'the moon,' was
divided into two equal parts, named respectively _mextozolitzli_, the
time when the moon was awake or visible, and _mecochiliztli_, the
sleep of the moon, or the time when it was invisible.[619] Of the
larger divisions of time, accounts are very conflicting. Two, three,
four, and five ages are said by various writers to have existed, at
the end of each of which the world was said to have been destroyed,
and recreated at the beginning of the age next following. The common
aboriginal belief was, however, that at the time of the conquest, the
world had passed through three ages, and was then in the fourth. The
first age, or 'sun,' as it is also called, was the Sun of Water,
_atonatiuh_; the second, the Sun of Earth, _tlalchitonatiuh_; the
third, the Sun of Air, _ehecatonatiuh_.[620] This is about all we
know of any division of time, before the assembly at Huehuetlapallan
which is said to have introduced the regular calendar.
[Illustration: The Aztec Cycle.]
[Sidenote: THE MEXICAN CYCLE.]
The Mexican calendar contains the following divisions of time: The
'age,' consisting of two periods of fifty-two years each, was called
_huehuetiliztli_; the 'cycle,' consisting of four periods of thirteen
years each, was named _xiuhmolpilli_, _xiuhmolpia_ or _xiuhtlalpilli_,
meaning the 'binding up of the years.' Each period of thirteen years
or, as it was called by the Spanish historians, 'indiccion,' was known
as a _tlalpilli_, or 'knot,' and, as stated above, each single year
was named _xihuitl_, or 'new grass,' The age was not used in the
regular reckoning, and is only rarely mentioned to designate a long
space of time. The numeral prefixed to the name of any year in the
cycle, or xiuhmolpilli, never exceeded four, and to carry out this
plan, four signs, respectively named _tochtli_, 'rabbit,' _calli_,
'house,' _tecpatl_, 'flint,' and _acatl_, 'cane,' were used. Thus the
Aztecs commenced to count the first year of their first cycle with the
name or hieroglyphic Ce Tochtli, meaning 'one (with the sign of)
rabbit;' and the second year was Ome Acatl, 'two, cane;' the third,
Yey Tecpatl, 'three, flint;' the fourth, Nahui Calli, 'four, house;'
the fifth, Macuilli Tochtli, 'five, rabbit;' the sixth, Chicoace
Acatl, 'six, cane;' the seventh, Chicome Tecpatl, 'seven, flint;' the
eighth, Chico ey Calli, 'eight, house;' the ninth, Chico nahui
Tochtli, 'nine, rabbit;' the tenth, Matlactli Acatl, 'ten, cane;' the
eleventh, Matlactli occe Tecpatl, 'eleven, flint;' the twelfth,
Matlactli omome Calli, 'twelve, house;' and the thirteenth, Matlactli
omey Tochtli, 'thirteen, rabbit.' This numeration continued in the same
manner, the second tlalpilli commencing again with 'one, cane,' the
third tlalpilli with 'one, flint,' the fourth with 'one, house,' and
so on to the end of the cycle of fifty-two years. It will easily be
seen that during the fifty-two years none of these four signs could be
accompanied by the same number twice, and therefore no confusion could
arise. Instead, therefore, of saying an event happened in the year
1850, as we do in our reckoning, they spoke of it as happening, for
instance, in the year of 'three, rabbit' in the twelfth cycle.[621]
Still, some confusion has been caused among different writers by the
fact that the different nations of Anáhuac did not all commence their
cycles with the same hieroglyphic sign. Thus the Toltecs commenced
with the sign tecpatl, 'flint;' and the Mexicans, or Aztecs, with
tochtli, 'rabbit;' while some again used acatl, 'cane;' and others
calli, 'house,' as their first name.[622] A cycle was represented in
their paintings by the figures of tochtli, acatl, tecpatl, and calli,
repeated each thirteen times and placed in a circle, round which was
painted a snake holding its tail in its mouth, and making at each of
the four cardinal points a kink with its own body, as shown in the
plate on the opposite page, which served to divide the cycle into
four tlalpillis.[623] These four signs, rabbit, cane, flint, and house
were also, according to Boturini, used to designate the four seasons
of the year, the four cardinal points, and lastly, the four elements.
Thus, for instance, tecpatl also signified south; calli, east;
tochtli, north; and acatl, west. In the same manner tecpatl was used
to designate fire; calli, earth; tochtli, air; and acatl, water.[624]
The civil year was again divided into eighteen months and five days.
Each month had its particular name, but the five extra days were only
designated as _nemontemi_ or 'unlucky days,' and children born at this
time, or enterprises undertaken, were considered unlucky. In
hieroglyphical paintings these months were also placed in a circle, in
the middle of which a face, representing either the sun or moon, was
painted. This circle was called a _xiuhtlapohualli_, or 'count of the
year.' Concerning the order in which these months followed one
another, and the name of the first month, hardly two authors agree; in
the same manner we find three or four various names given to many of
the months. It would appear reasonable to suppose that the month
immediately following the nemontemi, which were always added at the
end of the year, would be the first, and the only difficulty here is
to know which way the Aztecs wrote; whether from right to left or from
left to right. On the circle of the month given by Veytia, and
supposed to have been copied from an original, these five days are
inserted between the months Panquetzaliztli and Atemoztli, and
counting from left to right, this would make Atemoztli the first
month, which would agree with Veytia's statement. But Gama and others
decidedly dissent from this opinion, and name other months as the
first. I reserve further consideration of this subject for another
place in this chapter, where in connection with other matters it can
be more clearly discussed, and content myself with simply inserting
here a table of the names of the months as enumerated by the principal
authors, in order to show at a glance the many variations. I also
append to it the different dates given for the first day of the year,
in which there are as many contradictions as in the names and position
of the months.
NAMES OF MEXICAN MONTHS ACCORDING TO VARIOUS AUTHORS.
+==================================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 1. | 2. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|SAHAGUN. | Atlacahualco, or | Tlacaxipeoaliztli. |
| | Quavitleloa. | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|GOMARA. | Tlacaxipeualiztli. | Tozçuztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]| Atlcahualo. | Tlacaxipehualiztli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|DURAN. | Xuchitzitzquilo, or | Tlacaxipehualiztli. |
| | Quauitlehua, or | |
| | Atlmotzacuaga, | |
| | or Xilomaniztly. | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | Atlcaualo. | Tlacaxipeualiztli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | Atlacahualco, or | Tlacaxipehualiztli. |
| | Quahuitlehua. | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|VETANCVRT. | Atlachualco, or | Tlacaxipehualiztli. |
| | Quahuilchua. | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|VETANCVRT | Xilomatihuitztli. | Coylhuitl. |
|(Tlascaltec names). | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | Tlacaxipehualitztli. | Tozoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|LAET. | Tlacaxipenaliztli. | Toxcactli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|VEYTIA. | Atemoztli. | Tititl. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|LORENZANA. | Atemoztli. | Tititl. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | Atlacahualco. | Tlacaxipehualiztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|GAMA.[626] | Tititl, | Itzcalli, or |
| | or Itzcalli. | Xochilhuitl. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|KLEMM. | Acahualco. | Tlacaxipehualitztli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|MUELLER. | Tlacaxipehualiztli, | Tozoztontli. |
| | or Cohuailhuitl. | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|BRASSEUR | Atlacahualco. | Tlacaxipehualiztli. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | Atlacahualco. | Tlacaxipehualiztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | | |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+==================================================================+
+===============================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 3. | 4. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|SAHAGUN. | Tozoztontli. | Veytocoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|GOMARA. | Hueitozçuztli. | Toxcatl, or |
| | | Tepupochuiliztli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]|Toçoztontli. | Hueitoçoztontli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|DURAN. | Tozoztontly. | Ochpaniztly, or |
| | | Cueytozoztly. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | Tocozintli. | Veitozcoztli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | Toçoztontli. | Hueytoçoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|VETANCVRT. | Tocoztontli. | Hueytocoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|VETANCVRT | | |
|(Tlascaltec names). | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | Hueytozoztli. | Toxcatl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|LAET. | Hueitozcuztli. | Toxcatl, or |
| | | Tepupochuiliztli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|VEYTIA. | Itzcalli. | Xilomaniztli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|LORENZANA. | Yzcalli. | Xilomanizte. |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | Tozoztontli. | Hueitozoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|GAMA.[626] | Xilomanalixtli, or | Tlacaxipehualiztli, |
| | Atlcahualco, or | or Cohuailhuitl. |
| | Quahuitlehua, or | |
| | Cihuailhuitl. | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|KLEMM. | Tozozontli. | Hueitozoptli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|MUELLER. | Huey Tozoztli. | Toxcatl, or |
| | | Tepopochuiliztli. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|BRASSEUR | Tozoztontli. | Huey-Tozoztli. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | Tozoztontli. | Hueitozoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+---------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | | |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+===============================================================+
+===============================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 5. | 6. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|SAHAGUN. | Toxcatl. | Etzacualiztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|GOMARA. | Eçalcoaliztli. | Tecuilhuicintli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]| Tochcatl. | Etzalcualiztli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|DURAN. | Toxcatl. | Etzalcualiztly. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | Toxcatl. | Hetzalqualiztl. |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | Toxcatl. | Etzalqualiztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|VETANCVRT. | Teoxcalt. | Etzaqualiztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|VETANCVRT | | |
|(Tlascaltec names). | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | Etzalcualiztli. | Ticuyilhuitl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|LAET. | Ezalioalixtli. | Tecuilhuicintli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|VEYTIA. | Cohuailhuitl. | Tozcotzintli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|LORENZANA. | Cohuailhuitl. | Tozcotzintli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | Toxcatl. | Etzalcualiztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|GAMA.[626] | Tozoztontli. | Huey Tozoztli. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|KLEMM. | Texcatl. | Etzalqualitztli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|MUELLER. | Etzalqualiztli. | Tecuilhuitzintli. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|BRASSEUR | Toxcatl. | Etzacualiztli. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | Toxcatl, or Coxcatl. | Etzalcualiztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+-------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | | |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+===============================================================+
+=============================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 7. | 8. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|SAHAGUN. | Tecuilhuitontli. | Veytecuilhuitl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|GOMARA. | Hueitecuilhuitl. | Miccailhuicintli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]| Tecuilhuitontli. | Hueiteucyilhuitl. |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|DURAN. | Tecuiluitontly, or | Hueytecuilhuitl. |
| | Tlaxochimaco. | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | Tecuilvitontl. | Veitecuiluitl. |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | Tecuhilhuitontli. | Hueytecuhilhuitl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|VETANCVRT. | Tecuylhuitontli. | Hueytecuyilhuitl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|VETANCVRT | | |
|(Tlascaltec names). | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | Hueytecuilhuitl. | Micaylhuitl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|LAET. | Huehtecuilhuitl. | Miccathuicintli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|VEYTIA. | Hueytozcoztli. | Toxcatl. |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|LORENZANA. | Huey Tozcoztli. | Toxcatl. |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | Tecuilhuitontli. | Hueitecuilhuitl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|GAMA.[626] | Toxcatl, or | Etzalqualiztli. |
| | Tepopochuiliztli. | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|KLEMM. | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|MUELLER. | Hueytecuilhuitl. | Miccailhuitzintly, |
| | | or Tlalxochimaco. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|BRASSEUR | Tecuilhuitontli. | Huey Tecuilhuitl. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | Teucuilhuitontli. | Hueituecuilhuitl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | Tecuiluitontl. | Veytecuiluitl. |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+==============================================================+
+=============================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 9. | 10. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|SAHAGUN. | Tlaxochimaco. | Xocohuetzl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|GOMARA. | Veymiccailhuitl. | Vchpaniztli, or |
| | | Tenauatiliztli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]| Tlaxochimanco. | Xocotlhuetzi. |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|DURAN. | Miccailhuitontly. | Tocotluetz. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | Miccailhuitl. | Veymiccailhuitl. |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | Tlaxuchimaco, or | Xocotlhuetzi. |
| | Hueymiccaylhuitl. | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|VETANCVRT. | Tlaxochimaco. | Xocotlhuetzi. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|VETANCVRT | Micaylhuitzintli. | Hueymicaylhuitl. |
|(Tlascaltec names). | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | Hueymicailhuitl. | Ochpaniztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|LAET. | Veimiccailhuitl. | Vchpaniztli, or |
| | | Tenavatiliztli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|VEYTIA. | Exolqualiztli. | Tecuilhuitzintli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|LORENZANA. | Ezalqualliztli. | Tecuilhuitzintli. |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | Tlaxochimaco. | Xocohuetzi. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|GAMA.[626] | Tecuilhuitzintli. | Hueytecuilhuitl. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|KLEMM. | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|MUELLER. | Hueymiccailhuitl, | Ochpaniztli, or |
| | or Xolotlhuetzin. | Tenahuatiliztli. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|BRASSEUR | Tlaxochimaco. | Xocohuetzi. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | Tlaxochimaco. | Xocotlhuetzi. |
| | | |
+--------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | Michaylhuitl. | Hueymiccaylhuitl. |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+=============================================================+
+==================================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 11. | 12. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|SAHAGUN. | Ochpaniztli. | Teotleco. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|GOMARA. | Pachtli, or | Hueipachtli, or |
| | Heçoztli. | Pachtli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]| Ochpaniztli. | Teotlèco. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|DURAN. | Ochpaniztly. | Pachtontly. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | Ochpaniztl. | Pachtontl. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | Uchpaniztli. | Teutleco. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|VETANCVRT. | Ochpaniztli. | Teotleco. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|VETANCVRT | | |
|(Tlascaltec names). | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | Pachtli. | Hueypachtli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|LAET. | Pachtli, or | Hueipachtli. |
| | Hecoztli. | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|VEYTIA. | Hueytecuilhuitl. | Micailhuitzintli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|LORENZANA. | Huey Tecuilhuitl. | Mictailhutlzintli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | Ochpaniztli. | Teotleco. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|GAMA.[626] | Miccailhuitzintli, | Hueymiccailhuitl, |
| | or Tlaxochimaco. | or Xocotlhuetzi. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|KLEMM. | Ochpanitztli. | Pachtli. |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|MUELLER. | Pachtli, or Ezoztli, | Hueypachtli, or |
| | or Teotleco. | Pachtli, |
| | | or Tepeilhuitl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|BRASSEUR | Ochpaniztli. | Teotleco. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | Tlachpanaliztli. | Teotleco. |
| | | |
+--------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | Ochpaniztli. | Pactontly. |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+==================================================================+
+==========================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 13. | 14. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|SAHAGUN. |Tepeilhuitl. | Quecholli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | Panquetzaliztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|GOMARA. |Quecholli. | Panqueçaliztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]|Tepeilhuitl. | Quechulli. |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|DURAN. |Veypachtly, or | Quecholli. |
| | Coailhuitl. | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. |Veipachtli. | Quecholi. |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. |Tepeilhuitl. | Quecholli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|VETANCVRT. |Tepeylhuitl. | Quecholli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|VETANCVRT |Pachtzintli. | |
|(Tlascaltec names). | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. |Checiogli. | Panchetzaliztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|LAET. |Quecholli. | Panquecaliztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|VEYTIA. |Hueymicailhuitl. | Huepaniztli. |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|LORENZANA. |Hueymictailhuitl. | Ochpaniztli. |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. |Tepeilhuitl. | Quecholli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|GAMA.[626] |Ochpaniztli, or | Pachtli, or |
| | Tenahuatiliztli. | Ezoztli, or |
| | | Teotleco. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|KLEMM. | | Tepeilhuitl. |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|MUELLER. |Quecholli. | Panquetzaliztli. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|BRASSEUR |Tepeilhuitl. | Quecholli. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. |Tepeilhuitl. | Quecholli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- |Veypactli. | Quecholi. |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+==========================================================+
+=======================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 15. | 16. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|SAHAGUN. | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|GOMARA. | Hatemuztli. | Tititlh. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]| Panquetzaliztli. | Atemuztli. |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|DURAN. | Panquetzaliztly. | Atemoztli. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemoztli. |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemuztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|VETANCVRT. | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemoztlique. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|VETANCVRT | | |
|(Tlascaltec names). | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | Atemoztli. | Tititl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|LAET. | Hatemuztli. | Tititl. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|VEYTIA. | Pachtzintli. | Hueypachtli. |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|LORENZANA. | Pachtlizintli. | Hueypachtli. |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|GAMA.[626] | Hueypachtli, or | Quecholli. |
| | Pachtli, or | |
| | Tepeilhuitl. | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|KLEMM. | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|MUELLER. | Atemoztli. | Tititl, or |
| | | Itzcalli. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|BRASSEUR | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemoztli. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemoztli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+---------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemoztli. |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+=======================================================+
+============================================================+
| | | |
|AUTHORS. | 17. | 18. |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|SAHAGUN. | Tititl. | Yzcalli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|ACOSTA. | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|GOMARA. | Izcalli. | Coauitleuac, or |
| | | Ciuailhuilt. |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]| Tititl. | Ytzcali. |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|DURAN. | Tititl. | Yzcalli, or |
| | | Xilomaniztly, or |
| | | Queuitleua. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | Tititl. | Yzcalli. |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | Tititl. | Izcalli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|VETANCVRT. | Titzotl. | Izcalli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|VETANCVRT | | |
| (Tlascaltec names).| | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | Izcagli. | Atlacoalo. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|LAET. | Izcalli. | Coavitlevac. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|VEYTIA. | Quecholli. | Panquetzaliztli. |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|LORENZANA. | Quecholli. | Panquetzalliztli. |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | Tititl. | Izcalli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|GAMA.[626] | Panquetzaliztli. | Atemoztli. |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|KLEMM. | Tititl. | Izcalli. |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|MUELLER. | Itzcalli, or | Xilomanaliztli, or |
| | Xochilhuitl. | Atlcahualco, or |
| | | Quahuitlehua, or |
| | | Cihuailhuitl. |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|BRASSEUR | Tititl. | Izcalli. |
| DE BOURBOURG. | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | Tititl. | Izcalli. |
| | | |
+--------------------+------------------+--------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | Tititl. | Yzcatli. |
| REMENSIS. | | |
+============================================================+
+=============================================+
| | Commencement of |
|AUTHORS. | the Mexican year, |
| | according to our |
| | reckoning. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|SAHAGUN. | 2d February. |
| | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|MOTOLINIA. | Commencement |
| | of March. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|ACOSTA. | 26th February. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|GOMARA. | |
| | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|MARTIN DE LEON.[625]| 2d February. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|DURAN. | 1st March. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|CODEX VATICANUS. | 24th February. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|TORQUEMADA. | 1st February. |
| | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|VETANCVRT. | February. |
| | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|VETANCVRT | |
|(Tlascaltec names). | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|GEMELLI CARRERI. | First year of century, |
| | 10th April. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|LAET. | March, or 26th |
| | of February. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|VEYTIA. | 2d February. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|LORENZANA. | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|CLAVIGERO. | First year of century, |
| | 26th February. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|GAMA.[626] | 9th January. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|KLEMM. | 26th February. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|MUELLER. | 20th March. |
| | |
| | |
| | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|BRASSEUR | |
| DE BOURBOURG. | |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|CARBAJAL ESPINOSA. | First year of century, |
| | 26th February. |
+--------------------+------------------------+
|CODEX TELLERIANO- | 24th February. |
| REMENSIS. | |
+=============================================+
[Sidenote: NAMES OF THE AZTEC MONTH.]
Each month, as before stated, was represented by its proper
hieroglyph, having a certain meaning, and generally referring to some
feast or natural event, such as the ripening of fruit, or falling of
rain, happening during the month, although in this case also there are
many differences between authors regarding the meaning of the names.
[Illustration: The Aztec Year.]
Tititl, which according to Gama was the first month, is translated by
Boturini as 'our mother,' or 'mother of the gods,' while Cabrera calls
it 'fire.'[627] Itzcalli, according to Boturini, means 'regeneration;'
the Codex Vaticanus translates it 'skill;' and Veytia, 'the sprouting
of the grass.'[628] Atlcahualco means the 'abating of the waters.' The
Tlascaltec name of this month, Xilomanaliztli, signifies the 'offering
of green maize.' In other localities this month was also known by the
name of Quahuitlehua, the 'burning of the mountains,' or rather of the
trees on the mountains, previous to sowing.[629] Tlacaxipehualiztli
means the 'flaying of the people;' the other name of this month,
Cohuailhuitl, is the 'feast of the snake.' Tozoztontli, Tozcotzintli,
and Hueytozoztli are respectively the small and great fast or vigil;
while some translate these words by 'pricking of veins,' 'shedding of
blood,' or 'great and small penance.'[630] Toxcatl is a 'collar' or
'necklace.'[631] Etzalqualiztli is translated by Boturini 'bean stew,'
or 'the eating of beans,' while Veytia calls it 'the eating of maize
gruel.' Tecuilhuitzintli and Hueytecuilhuitl mean respectively the
small and great 'feast of the Lord.' Miccailhuitzintli is explained
both as 'the feast of dead children,' and 'the small feast of the
dead;' another name for this month is Tlaxochimaco, meaning
'distribution of flowers.' Hueymiccailhuitl is either 'the feast of
dead adults,' or 'the great feast of the dead.' Xocotlhuetzin, another
name for this month, means 'the ripening of the fruit.' Ochpaniztli is
'the cleaning of streets.' Teotleco, or 'the arrival of the gods,' was
the next month, and was also named Pachtli, or Pachtontli, the latter
being translated by 'humiliation,' and the former by 'moss hanging
from trees.' Hueypachtli was 'the great feast of humiliation,' also
called Tepeilhuitl, or 'feast of the mountains.' Quecholli means
'peacock,' but the interpreter of the _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_
calls it the 'serpent of the clouds.' Panquetzaliztli is 'the raising
of flags and banners.' Atemoztli, the last month, means the 'drying up
of the waters.'[632] The plate on the preceding page shows the order
of the months and the pictures by which they were represented.
[Illustration: The Aztec Month.]
[Sidenote: NAMES OF THE AZTEC DAYS.]
Each month contained twenty days, which were divided into four groups
or weeks, as we may for convenience call them; and at the end of each
group a public market or fair was held. There is no difference of
opinion as to the names of the days or the order in which they follow
one another, but it is very difficult, and in many cases impossible,
to reconcile one with another the different hieroglyphic signs
denoting these days given in the codices or in the various
representations of the calendar. The names of the days are: Cipactli,
a name of which it is almost impossible to give the correct meaning,
it being variously represented as an animal's head with open mouth
armed with long tusks, as a fish with a number of flint knives on its
back, as a kind of lizard with a very long tail curled up over its
back, and in many other monstrous shapes. It is called the
'sea-animal,' the 'sword-fish,' the 'serpent armed with harpoons,' and
other names. Ehecatl is 'wind;' Calli, 'house;' Cuetzpalin, 'lizard;'
Coatl, 'snake;' Miquiztli, 'death;' Mazatl, 'deer;' Tochtli, 'rabbit;'
Atl, 'water;' Itzcuintli, 'dog;' Ozomatli, 'monkey;' Malinalli,
'brushwood,' or 'tangled grass;' Acatl, 'cane;' Ocelotl, 'tiger;'
Quauhtli, 'eagle;' Cozcaquauhtli, a species of vulture, known in
Mexico as 'rey de los zopilotes;' Ollin, 'movement;' Tecpatl, 'flint;'
Quiahuitl, 'rain;' and Xochitl, 'flower.' It will be seen that the
days having the names or signs of the years,--namely: Tochtli, Calli,
Tecpatl, and Acatl--stand first in each week. The five nemontemi had
no particular name. The cut given above shows the method by which the
Aztecs represented their month, with the hieroglyphic names of each
day.[633]
[Sidenote: INTERCALARY DAYS.]
As three hundred and sixty-five days do not make the year complete,
the Mexicans added the missing thirteen days at the end of the cycle
of fifty-two years. But Gama asserts that they came still nearer to
our more correct calculations, and added only twelve days and a
half.[634] It has been frequently attempted to fix accurately the
time when the Mexican year commenced according to our dates, but there
is no agreement on this point between the old historians, as will be
seen from the table given, and although many elaborate calculations
have been made for the purpose of verifying the one or the other
statement, the result is in no two cases the same. Gama calculated,
and Humboldt and Gallatin confirmed his statement, that the first year
of a Mexican cycle commenced on the 31st day of December, old style,
or on the 9th day of January, new style, with the month Tititl and the
day Cipactli.[635]
[Sidenote: THE RITUAL CALENDAR.]
We come now to another mode of reckoning known as the ritual calendar,
which, as its name implies, was used for adjusting all religious
feasts and rites and everything pertaining thereto. The previously
described reckoning was solar, while that of the ritual calendar was
lunar. The periods into which it was divided were of thirteen days
each, thus representing about half the time that the moon was visible.
The year contained as many days as the solar calendar, but they were
divided into entirely different periods. Thus, in reality there were
no months at all, but only twenty weeks of thirteen days each; and
these not constituting a full year, the same kind of reckoning was
continued for one hundred and five days more, and at the end of a
tlalpilli thirteen days were intercalated to make up for the lost
days. The names of the days were the same as in the solar calendar but
they were counted as follows. To the first day the number one was
prefixed, to the second, two, to the third, three, and so on to
thirteen; when the fourteenth name was again called one, the
fifteenth, two, and so on to thirteen again, after which the same
count was continued to the end of the year. But as in this reckoning
it naturally happens that one name has the same number twice,
accompanying signs were added to the regular names, which were called
_quecholli_, 'lords or rulers of the night.' Of these there were
nine, _xiuhtecutli_, _tletl_, 'lord of the year, fire;' _tecpatl_,
'flint;' _xochitl_, 'flower;' _centeotl_, 'goddess of maize;'
_miquiztli_, 'death;' _atl_, 'water,' represented by the goddess
Chalchihuitlicue; _tlazolteotl_, 'goddess of love;' _tepeyollotli_, a
deity supposed to inhabit the centre of the mountains; _quiahuitl_,
'rain,' represented by the god Tlaloc.[636] As stated above, one of
these signs was understood to accompany the regular name of each day,
commencing with the first day of the year; but they were never written
or mentioned with the first two hundred and sixty days, but only with
the last one hundred and five days, to distinguish them from the
former.[637] For the purpose of making this system more
comprehensible, I insert a few months of the Mexican calendar, showing
the solar and lunar system together, as arranged by Gama.
+===========+===============+====================+===================+
| |Months and days| | |
|Months and | of the Mexican|Days and weeks of |Accompanying signs,|
|days of | civil or solar|the Mexican ritual, |or 'lords of the |
|our era | calendar. |or lunar, calendar. |night.' |
+-----------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| January 9|Tititl 1|1 Cipactli |Tletl 1 |
| 10| 2|2 Ehecatl |Tecpatl 2 |
| 11| 3|3 Calli |Xochitl 3 |
| 12| 4|4 Cuetzpalin |Centeotl 4 |
| 13| 5|5 Coatl |Miquiztli 5 |
| 14| 6|6 Miquiztli |Atl 6 |
| 15| 7|7 Mazatl |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| 16| 8|8 Tochtli |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| 17| 9|9 Atl |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | | -- |
| 18| 10|10 Itzcuintli |Tletl 1 |
| 19| 11|11 Ozomatli |Tecpatl 2 |
| 20| 12|12 Malinalli |Xochitl 3 |
| 21| 13|13 Acatl |Centeotl 4 |
| | |--------------------|-------------------|
| 22| 14|1 Ocelotl |Miquiztli 5 |
| 23| 15|2 Quauhtli |Atl 6 |
| 24| 16|3 Cozcaquauhtli |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| 25| 17|4 Ollin |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| 26| 18|5 Tecpatl |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | | |
| 27| 19|6 Quiahuitl |Tletl 1 |
| 28| 0|7 Xochitl |Tecpatl 2 |
| |---------------| | |
| 29|Itzcalli 1|8 Cipactli |Xochitl 3 |
| 30| 2|9 Ehecatl |Centeotl 4 |
| 31| 3|10 Calli |Miquiztli 5 |
+===========+===============+====================+===================+
+===========+===============+====================+===================+
|Months and |Months and days|Days and weeks of |Accompanying signs,|
|days of |of the Mexican |the Mexican ritual |or 'lords of |
|our era |civil calendar.|calendar. |the night.' |
+-----------+---------------+--------------------+-------------------+
|February 1| 4|11 Cuetzpalin |Atl 6 |
| 2| 5|12 Coatl |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| 3| 6|13 Miquiztli |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| | |--------------------|-------------------|
| 4| 7|1 Mazatl |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | | -- |
| 5| 8|2 Tochtli |Tletl 1 |
| 6| 9|3 Atl |Tecpatl 2 |
| 7| 10|4 Itzcuintli |Xochitl 3 |
| 8| 11|5 Ozomatli |Centeotl 4 |
| 9| 12|6 Malinalli |Miquiztli 5 |
| 10| 13|7 Acatl |Atl 6 |
| 11| 14|8 Ocelotl |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| 12| 15|9 Quauhtli |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| 13| 16|10 Cozcaquauhtli |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | | -- |
| 14| 17|11 Ollin |Tletl 1 |
| 15| 18|12 Tecpatl |Tecpatl 2 |
| 16| 19|13 Quiahuitl |Xochitl 3 |
| | |--------------------|-------------------|
| 17| 20|1 Xochitl |Centeotl 4 |
| |---------------| | |
| 18|Atlcahualco 1|2 Cipactli |Miquiztli 5 |
| 19| 2|3 Ehecatl |Atl 6 |
| 20| 3|4 Calli |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| 21| 4|5 Cuetzpalin |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| 22| 5|6 Coatl |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | -- |
| 23| 6|7 Miquiztli |Tletl 1 |
| 24| 7|8 Mazatl |Tecpatl 2 |
| 25| 8|9 Tochtli |Xochitl 3 |
| 26| 9|10 Atl |Centeotl 4 |
| 27| 10|11 Itzcuintli |Miquiztli 5 |
| 28| 11|12 Ozomatli |Atl 6 |
|-----------| | | |
|March 1| 12|13 Malinalli |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| | |--------------------|-------------------|
| 2| 13|1 Acatl |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| 3| 14|2 Ocelotl |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | | -- |
| 4| 15|3 Quauhtli |Tletl 1 |
| 5| 16|4 Cozcaquauhtli |Tecpatl 2 |
| 6| 17|5 Ollin |Xochitl 3 |
| 7| 18|6 Tecpatl |Centeotl 4 |
| 8| 19|7 Quiahuitl |Miquiztli 5 |
| 9| 20|8 Xochitl |Atl 6 |
| |---------------| | |
| 10|Tlacaxipe 1|9 Cipactli |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| 11| -hualiztli 2|10 Ehecatl |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| 12| 3|11 Calli |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | | -- |
| 13| 4|12 Cuetzpalin |Tletl 1 |
| 14| 5|13 Coatl |Tecpatl 2 |
| | |--------------------|-------------------|
| 15| 6|1 Miquiztli |Xochitl 3 |
| 16| 7|2 Mazatl |Centeotl 4 |
| 17| 8|3 Tochtli |Miquiztli 5 |
| 18| 9|4 Atl |Atl 6 |
| 19| 10|5 Itzcuintli |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| 20| 11|6 Ozomatli |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| 21| 12|7 Malinalli |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | | -- |
| 22| 13|8 Acatl |Tletl 1 |
| 23| 14|9 Ocelotl |Tecpatl 2 |
| 24| 15|10 Quauhtli |Xochitl 3 |
| 25| 16|11 Cozcaquauhtli |Centeotl 4 |
| 26| 17|12 Ollin |Miquiztli 5 |
| 27| 18|13 Tecpatl |Atl 6 |
| | |--------------------|-------------------|
| 28| 19|1 Quiahuitl |Tlazolteotl 7 |
| 29| 20|2 Xochitl |Tepeyollotli 8 |
| |---------------| | |
| 30|Tozoztontli 1|3 Cipactli |Quiahuitl 9 |
| | | | -- |
| 31| 2|4 Ehecatl |Tletl 1 |
+===========+===============+====================+===================+
The five nemontemi were counted in this calendar as other days, that
is, they received the names which came in the regular order, but,
nevertheless, they were believed to be unlucky days and had no
accompanying signs.
[Illustration: The Calendar-Stone.]
[Sidenote: THE AZTEC CALENDAR-STONE.]
Besides the preceding cuts of the Mexican calendar systems, as they
were represented by Gemelli Careri, Veytia, and others, the
calendar-stone is the most reliable source by which the extent of the
astronomical science of the Aztecs can be shown. Gama, and after him
Gallatin, give very accurate descriptions of this stone; I insert here
a résumé from the latter author. On this stone there is engraved in
high-relief a circle, in which are represented by certain
hieroglyphics the sun and its several motions, the twenty days of the
month, some principal fast-days, and other matters. The central figure
represents the sun as it is usually painted by the Mexicans. Around
it, outside of a small circle, are four parallelograms with the signs
of the days, Nahui Ocelotl, Nahui Ehecatl, Nahui Quiahuitl, and Nahui
Atl. Between the two upper and lower parallelograms are two figures,
which Gama explains as being two claws, which are the hieroglyphics
representing two eminent astrologers, man and wife. Gama further
explains these four signs of the days in this place, as having
reference to the four epochs of nature, of which the Aztec traditions
speak. The first destruction of the sun is said to have taken place in
the year Ce Acatl and on the day Nahui Ocelotl. The second sun was
supposed to have died in the year Ce Tecpatl and on the day Nahui
Ehecatl; the third destruction occurred also in the year Ce Tecpatl
and on the day Nahui Quiahuitl; and lastly, the fourth destruction
took place in the year Ce Calli, on the day Nahui Atl. But Mr Gallatin
thinks that these four parallelograms had yet some other purpose; for
on the twenty-second of May and on the twenty-sixth of July, which
days are Nahui Ocelotl and Nahui Quiahuitl, if we accept the
thirty-first of December as the first day of the Mexican cycle, the
sun passed the meridian of the city of Mexico. But in this case the
other two days, Nahui Ehecatl and Nahui Atl cannot be explained in
connection with any other astronomical event. Between the lower
parallelograms are two small squares, in each of which are five oblong
marks, signifiying the number ten; and as the central figure is the
_ollin tonatiuh_, or sun, the number ten in these two squares is
supposed to mean the day Matlactli Ollin. Below this again are the
hieroglyphics Ce Quiahuitl, and Ome Ozomatli. The day Matlactli Ollin
in the first year of the cycle is the twenty-second of September; Ce
Quiahuitl in the year Matlactli omey Acatl, which year is inscribed at
the head of the stone, is our twenty-second of March; and Ome Ozomatli
in the same year would be our twenty-second of June. Here are
therefore designated three of the principal phenomena as they
happened in the first year of the cycle, viz: two transits of the sun
by the zenith and the autumnal equinox. In the year designated on the
stone Matlactli omey Acatl, there are given the spring equinox and
summer solstice. In a circle surrounding these figures are represented
the twenty days of the months. From the central figure of the sun
there runs upward, as far as the circle of days, a triangle, the upper
and smallest angle of which points between the days Cipactli and
Xochitl, thus confirming the idea that Cipactli was always the first
day of the month. Gama, Gallatin, Humboldt, Dupaix, and others have
given correct pictures of the stone as is proved by recent
photographs; but in my cut the figures are reversed. It is a copy from
Charnay, whose photographs were in 1875 the best authority accessible;
and I failed to notice that this, unlike Charnay's other plates, was a
photo-lithograph reversed in printing. Not only did I fall into this
error, but in my earlier editions charged other writers with having
made a similar one. The cut does not otherwise mislead, but it must be
noted that instead of running from left to right, the days really run
from right to left. From the circle of days, four triangles, or rays,
project, exactly dividing the stone into four quarters, each of which
has ten visible squares, and, as the rays cover twelve more, there
would be fifty-two in all. In each square are five oblong marks, which
multiplied by fifty-two, give two hundred and sixty, or the first
period of the Mexican ritual year. Outside of the circle of these
squares the four quarters are each again divided by a smaller ray,
and, as stated before, at the head of the stone, over the principal
triangle is the sign of the year Matlactli omey Acatl. Round the outer
edge are a number of other figures and hieroglyphics, which have not
yet been deciphered, or whose interpretations by different writers
present so many contradictions that they would have no value
here.[638]
[Sidenote: CALENDAR OF THE TARASCOS.]
The only information we have of the calendar used in Michoacan is
furnished by Veytia, and this is only fragmentary. Enough is known,
however, to show that their system was the same as that of the Aztecs.
Instead of the four principal signs of the Aztecs, tecpatl, calli,
tochtli, and acatl, in Mechoacan the names _inodon_, _inbani_,
_inchon_, and _intihui_ were used. Of the eighteen months only
fourteen are mentioned by name. These are: Intacaci, Indehuni,
Intecamoni, Interunihi, Intamohui, Inizcatolohui, Imatatohui,
Itzbachaa, Intoxihui, Intaxihui, Intechaqui, Intechotahui,
Inteyabchitzin, Intaxitohui. The five intercalary days were named
_intasiabire_.[639] The days of the month, divided into four equal
parts by the above-mentioned four principal signs, were called:
Inodon, Inicebi, Inettuni, Inbeari, Inethaati, Inbani, Inxichari,
Inchini, Inrini, Inpari, Inchon, Inthahui, Intzini, Intzoniabi,
Intzimbi, Inthihui, Inixotzini, Inichini, Iniabi, Intaniri.[640]
The Zapotecs in Oajaca, according to the description of Burgoa, used
the same calendar as the Aztecs, with this difference, that the year
always commenced on the twelfth day of March, and that the bissextile
year was corrected every fourth year, by adding, instead of five, six
intercalary days.[641]
FOOTNOTES:
[618] _Ixtlilxochitl_, _Relaciones_, in _Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._,
tom. ix., p. 322. 'En un año que fué señalado con el geroglifico de un
pedernal, que segun las tablas parece haber sido el de 3901 del mundo,
se convocó una gran junta de astrólogos ... para hacer la correcion de
su calendario y reformar sus cómputos, que conocian errados segun el
sistema que hasta entónces habian seguido.' _Veytia_, _Hist. Ant.
Mej._, tom. i., p. 32.
[619] _Id._, pp. 31-2.
[620] _Ixtlilxochitl_, _Hist. Chich._, in _Kingsborough's Mex.
Antiq._, vol. ix., p. 205; _Id._, _Relaciones_, in _Id._, pp. 331-2,
459; _Camargo_, _Hist. Tlax._, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1843,
tom. xcix., p. 132; _Ternaux-Compans_, in _Id._, 1840, tom. lxxxvi.,
pp. 5-6; _Boturini_, _Idea_, p. 3; _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del
Messico_, tom. ii., p. 57; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _S'il existe des
Sources de l'Hist. Prim._, pp. 26-7; _Spiegazione delle Tavole del
Codice Mexicano_ (Vaticano), in _Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol. v.,
pp. 164-7; _Explicacion del Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, in _Id._, pp.
134-6. 'Cinco Soles que son edades ... el primer Sol se perdio por
agua.... El segundo Sol perecio cayendo el cielo sobre la tierra....
El Sol tercero falto y se consumio por fuego.... El quarto Sol fenecio
con aire.... Del quinto Sol, que al presente tienen.' _Gomara_, _Conq.
Mex._, fol. 297. 'Le ciel et la terre s'étaient faits, quatre fois.'
_Codex Chimalpopoca_, in _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._,
tom. i., p. 53. 'Creyeron que el Sol habia muerto cuatro veces, ó que
hubo cuatro soles, que habian acabado en otros tantos tiempos ó
edades; y que el quinto sol era el que actualmente les alumbraba.'
_Leon y Gama_, _Dos Piedras_, pt i., p. 94. 'Hubo cinco soles en los
tiempos pasados.' _Mendieta_, _Hist. Ecles._, p. 81, repeated
literally by _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii., p. 79;
_Humboldt_, _Vues_, tom. ii., pp. 118-29; _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno.
Soc., Transact._, vol. i., p. 325; _Müller_, _Amerikanische
Urreligionen_, pp. 510-12.
[621] _Gomara_, _Conq. Mex._, fol. 296-7; _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._,
tom. ii., lib. vi., pp. 256-7; _Acosta_, _Hist. de las Ynd._, pp.
397-8; _Leon y Gama_, _Dos Piedras_, pt i., p. 16 et seq.; _Veytia_,
_Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., p. 42 et seq.
[622] 'No todos comenzaban á contar el ciclo por un mismo año: los
tultecos lo empezaban desde _Tecpatl_: los de Teotihuacan desde
_Calli_; los mexicanos desde _Tochtli_; y los tezcocanos desde
_Acatl_.' _Leon y Gama_, _Dos Piedras_, pt i., p. 16; _Veytia_,
_Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., p. 58. 'So begannen die Aculhuas von
Texcoco ihre Umläufe mit dem Zeichen Ce Tecpatl, die Mexicaner dagegen
im Ce Tochtli.' _Müller_, _Reisen_, tom. iii., p. 65; _Boturini_,
_Idea_, p. 125.
[623] 'Esto circulo redondo se dividia en cuatro partes.... La primera
parte que pertenecia á Oriente llamabanle los trece años de las cañas,
y asi en cada casa de los trece tenian pintada una caña, y el número
del año corriente.... La segunda parte aplicaban al septentrion, que
era de otras trece casas, á las cuales llamaban las trece casas del
pedernal; y asi tenian pintado en cada casa un pedernal.... A la
tercera ... parte Occidental, llamabanle las trece casas, y asi
verémos en cada parte de las trece una casilla pintada.... A la cuarta
y última parte que era de otros trece años, llamabanla las trece casas
del conejo; y asi en cada casa de aquellas verémos pintada una cabeza
de conejo.' _Duran_, _Hist. Indias_, MS., tom. iii., appendix, cap. i.
[624] Gemelli Careri gives these names in a different order, calling
tochtli south, acatl east, tecpatl north, and calli west; further,
tochtli earth, acatl water, tecpatl air, and calli fire. _Gemelli
Careri_, in _Churchill's Col. Voyages_, vol. iv., pp. 487-8;
_Boturini_, _Idea_, pp. 54-8. The above are only figurative names, as
the words for the cardinal points and also for the elements are
entirely different in the Mexican language.
[625] Boturini repeats Martin de Leon and Gemelli Carreri.
[626] Humboldt and Gallatin repeat Leon y Gama.
[627] 'Itetl, Ititl, barriga o vientre.' _Molina_, _Vocabulario_.
'Vientre, la madre, á excepcion del padre.' _Salva_, _Nuevo Dicc._
'Titl ... significa fuego. Tititl escrito en dos sílabas y seis letras
nada significa en el idioma mexicano' _Cabrera_, in _Ilustracion
Mex._, tom. iv., p. 468.
[628] 'Izcalia, abiuar, tornar en si, o resuscitar.' _Molina_,
_Vocabulario_.
[629] 'Quiahuitl-ehua ... significa _la lluvia levanta_.' _Cabrera_,
in _Ilustracion Mex._, tom. iv., p. 464.
[630] 'Toçoliztli vela, el acto de velar o de no dormir.' _Molina_,
_Vocabulario_.
[631] 'Garganta totuzcatlan, tuzquitl.' _Ib._
[632] For the various etymologies of the names of months, see:
_Spiegazione delle Tavole del Codice Mexicano_ (Vaticano), in
_Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol. v., pp. 190-97; _Explicacion del
Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, in _Id._, pp. 129-34; _Leon_, _Camino del
Cielo_, fol. 96-100; _Boturini_, _Idea_, pp. 50-52; _Veytia_, _Hist.
Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 64-5; _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_,
tom. ii., pp. 66-83; _Humboldt_, _Vues_, tom. i., pp. 349-352;
_Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., pp. 502-36;
_Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii., pp. 250-300.
[633] This order is varied by a few authors. Veytia gives the
following entirely different system: 'Si el año era del carácter
Tecpatl, con este se señalaba el primer dia de cada mes, y seguian
anotándose los demas con los geroglificos siguientes en el órden en
que los he puesto; de manera que el vigésimo dia de cada mes se
hallaba Ollin.... Si el año era del segundo geroglifico Calli, por
este se comenzaba á contar, y á todos los dias primeros de cada mes se
les daba este nombre.' The same method he contends is followed also in
those years of each tlalpilli which commence with Tochtli and Acatl.
For _cozcaquauhtli_ he uses the name _temeztlatl_, or metate. _Hist.
Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 76-80; _Gomara_, _Conq. Mex._, fol. 294-5.
Gemelli Careri states that Cipactli was not always the first day of
the month. _Churchill's Col. Voyages_, tom. iv., p. 489; _Duran_,
_Hist. Indias_, MS., tom. iii., appendix, cap. ii.; _Ritos Antiguos_,
p. 22, in _Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol. ix.; _Motolinia_, _Hist.
Indios_, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de Doc._, tom. i., p. 36. Boturini
adds to Ollin the word Tonatiuh, and translates it 'movement of the
sun.' _Idea_, p. 45. Gama places Ollin between Atl and Itzcuintli.
_Dos Piedras_, pt i., p. 26; _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc.,
Transact._, tom. i., p. 59; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat.
Civ._, tom. iii., p. 463. See also hieroglyphics in _Codex
Telleriano-Remensis_, pl. ix., in _Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol.
i., and _Codex Borgian_, in _Id._, vol. iii., pl. 24; _Torquemada_,
_Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii., p. 304. In Nicaragua where the Aztec
language was spoken by a large portion of the population, the calendar
and the names of the days were the same as Aztec, with but some slight
differences in spelling. Oviedo gives the names of the days as
follows: '_Agat_, _oçelot_, _oate_, _coscagoate_, _olin_, _tapecat_,
_quiaüit_, _sochit_, _çipat_, _acat_, _cali_, _quespal_, _coat_,
_misiste_, _maçat_, _toste_, _at_, _izquindi_, _ocomate_, _malinal_,
_acato_.... Un año ... tiene diez çempuales, é cada çempual es veynte
dias.' _Hist. Gen._, tom. iv., p. 52.
[634] Sahagun, and after him several others, do not agree with this,
but pretend that one day was added every fourth year, on which occasion
a certain feast was celebrated, but Gama has clearly demonstrated that
this is a mistake. 'El año visiesto, que era de cuatro en cuatro
años.' _Hist. Gen._, tom. i., lib. ii., p. 75. 'Otra fiesta hacian de
cuatro en cuatro años á honra del fuego, en la que ahugeraban las
orejas á todos los niños; y la llamaban _Pillabanaliztli_, y en esta
fiesta es verosimil, y hay congeturas que hacian su visiesto contando
seis dias de _nemontemi_.' _Id._, tom. iv., pp. 347-8. Boturini
expresses the same opinion. 'Determinaron cada quatro años añadir un
dia mas, que recogiesse las horas, que se desperdiciaban, lo que
supongo executaron contando dos veces uno de los Symbolos de el ultimo
mes de el año, á la manera de los Romanos.' _Idea_, p. 137. 'El año de
visiesto que era de quatro à quatro años.' _Leon_, _Camino del Cielo_,
fol. 100. 'They order'd the bissextile, or leap-year, after this
manner. The first year of the age began on the tenth of _April_, and
so did the second and third, but the fourth or leap-year, on the
ninth, the eighth on the eighth, the twelfth on the seventh, the
sixteenth on the sixth, till the end of the age, which was on the
twenty-eighth of _March_, when the thirteen days of the leap-years,
till the tenth of _April_, were spent in rejoicing.' _Gemelli Careri_,
in _Churchill's Col. Voyages_, vol. iv., p. 490. Veytia following
Boturini adds one day every fourth year by repeating the last day.
_Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 110-20. 'La correccion no se hacia
hasta el fin del ciclo, en que se intercalaban juntos los 13 dias.'
_Leon y Gama_, _Dos Piedras_, pt i., p. 24. 'Les Mexicains ont
évidemment suivi le système des Perses: ils conservoient l'année vague
jusqu'à ce que les heures excédantes formassent une demilunaison; ils
intercaloient, par conséquent, treize jours toutes les _ligatures_ ou
cycles de cinquante-deux ans ... à chaque année du signe _tochtli_,
les Mexicains perdoient un jour; et, par l'effet de cette
_rétrogradation_, l'année _calli_ de la quatriéme indiction commençoit
le 27 décembre, et finissoit au solstice d'hiver, le 21 décembre, en
ne faisant pas entrer en ligne de compte les cinq jours inutiles ou
complémentaires. Il en résulte que ... treize jours intercalaires
ramènent le commencement de l'année au 9 janvier.' _Humboldt_, _Vues_,
tom. ii., pp. 60-1. 'Non frammettevano un giorno ogni quattro anni, ma
tredici giorni ... ogni cinquanta due anni.' _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant.
del Messico_, tom. ii., p. 62. 'They waited till the expiration of
fifty-two vague years, when they interposed thirteen days, or rather
twelve and a half, this being the number which had fallen in arrear.'
_Prescott's Mex._, vol. i., p. 112; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist.
Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., p. 469. In this connection I also give the
remarkable statement of Pedro de los Rios in his interpretation of the
Codex Vaticanus: '_Item_, si ha da notare, che il loro bisesto andava
solo in quattro lettere, anni, o segni che sono Canna, Pietra, Casa, e
Coniglio, perchè come hanno bisesto delli giorni a fare di quattro in
quattro anni un mese di quelli cinque giorni morti che avanzavano di
ciascun anno, cosi avevano bisesto di anni perchè di cinquantadue in
cinquantadue anni, che è una loro Età, aggiungevano un anno, il quale
sempre veniva in una di queste lettere o segni perchè come ogni
lettera o segno di questi vinti habbia tredici del suo genere che le
servano, _verbi gratiâ_.' _Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol. v., pp.
174-5. In the Explicacion del Codex Telleriano-Remensis we read: 'Á
19 de Fevrero los cinco dias muertos que no avia sacrificios; estos
eran los dias que sobravan de los de veynte en veynte del año: y
siempre en cumpliendose los 365 dias, dexavan pasar estos, y luego
tornavan a tomar el año en la letra que entrava.' _Id._, p. 134. To
this Lord Kingsborough adds in a note: 'The Mexicans reckoned 365 days
to their year; the last five of which had no sign or place
appropriated to them in the calendar; since, if they had been
admitted, the order of the signs would have been inverted, and the new
year would not always have commenced with Ce Cipactli. These days,
therefore, although included in the computation of the year, were
rejected from the calendar, until at the expiration of four years an
intercalation of twenty corresponding signs might be effected without
producing any confusion in it. It would appear, however, that this
intercalation did not actually take place till at the expiration of 52
years; for it is impossible, except on this supposition, to understand
the _intercalation of years_ mentioned in the Vatican MS. as occurring
at the expiration of every period of 52 years, when an entire year was
intercalated: but admitting the postponement of an intercalation of a
month every four years during a period of 52 years, such an
intercalation would then become quite intelligible; since thirteen
Mexican months, of 20 days each, exactly constitute a ritual year of
the Mexicans which contained 260 days, and was shorter than the civil
year by 105 days; and this is the precise number of months of which
the intercalation would have been postponed.' _Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi.,
pp. 103-4.
[635] _Leon y Gama_, _Dos Piedras_, pt i., pp. 62-89; _Gallatin_, in
_Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., pp. 69-86. Veytia's reason
for commencing the year with Atemoztli is, that on the calendar
circle which he saw, and of which I insert a copy, this was the month
following the five nemontemi. This appears very reasonable, but
nevertheless Gama and Gallatin's calculations show it to be an error.
See _Veytia_, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 74-5.
[636] Boturini gives the rulers of the night as follows:
Xiuhteucyòhua, Señor de el Año; Ytzteucyòhua, Señor de el Fuego;
Piltzinteucyòhua, Señor de los Niños; Cinteucyòhua, Señor de el Maiz;
Mictlanteucyòhua, Señor de el Infierno; Chalchihuitlicueyòhua, Señor
de el Agua; Tlazolyòhua, Señor de el Amor deshonesto; Tepeyoloyòhua,
Señor de los Entrañas de los Montes; Quiauhteucyòhua, Señor de las
Lluvias. _Idea_, p. 58.
[637] _Leon y Gama_, _Dos Piedras_, pt i., pp. 29-31, 52-3;
_Boturini_, _Idea_, pp. 57-9; _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc.,
Transact._, vol. i., p. 61.
[638] _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., pp.
94-103; _Leon y Gama_, _Dos Piedras_, pt i., pp. 89-114. Further
description, and mention of the astronomical system will be found in
_Humboldt_, _Vues_, tom. i., pp. 332-92, and tom. ii., pp. 1-99,
356-80; _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii., pp. 295-305; _Las
Casas_, _Hist. Apologética_, MS., cap. cxli.; _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._,
tom. i., lib. ii., pp. 49-76, tom. iv., pp. 282-309, 338-49, tom. ii.,
lib. vii., pp. 256-60, 264-5; _Explanation of the Codex Vaticanus_, in
_Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol. vi., pp. 196, 200; _Boturini_,
_Idea_, pp. 42-59, 109-10, 122-4, 137-40, 153-5; _Id._, _Catálogo_,
pp. 57-72; _Motolinia_, _Hist. Indios_, in _Icazbalceta_, _Col. de
Doc._, tom. i., pp. 35-8; _Veytia_, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp.
30-138; _Carbajal Espinosa_, _Hist. Mex._, tom. i., pp. 517-31;
_Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., pp. 457-82;
_Gomara_, _Conq. Mex._, fol. 294-97; _Gemelli Careri_, in _Churchill's
Col. Voyages_, tom. iv., pp. 487-90; _Leon y Gama_, _Dos Piedras_;
_Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., pp. 57-115;
_Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp. 241-2; _Prescott's Mex._, vol. i., pp.
110-27; _Pimentel_, _Mem. sobre la Raza Indígena_, pp. 41-3; _Nebel_,
_Viaje_, pl. l.; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iii., lib. ii., cap.
xviii.; _Ixtlilxochitl_, _Relaciones_, in _Kingsborough's Mex.
Antiq._, tom. ix., pp. 322-4; _Acosta_, _Hist. de las Ynd._, pp.
397-9; _Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. ii., pp. 56-65;
_Müller_, _Reisen_, tom. iii., pp. 63-90; _McCulloh's Researches in
Amer._, pp. 201-25; _Klemm_, _Cultur-Geschichte_, tom. v., pp. 128-30;
_Tylor's Researches_, pp. 92-4; _Id._, _Anahuac_, p. 103;
_Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. i., pp. 44-5; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe
Weereld_, pp. 266-7; _Peter Martyr_, dec. iv., lib. viii., pp. 537-8;
_Baril_, _Mexique_, pp. 194-5, 211-15; _Morton's Crania Amer._, p.
150; _Malte-Brun_, _Précis de la Géog._, tom. vi., pp. 445, 293;
_Macgregor's Progress of Amer._, vol. i., p. 22; _Chambers' Jour._,
1835, vol. iv., p. 254; _Lafond_, _Voyages_, tom. i., p. 118;
_Touron_, _Hist. Gén._, tom. iii., pp. 21-2, 24-5; _Poinsett's Notes
Mex._, pp. 111, 75-6; _Simon's Ten Tribes_, pp. 149-57; _Kendall's
Nar._, vol. ii., p. 328; _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, tom. ii., p.
507; _Cabrera_, in _Ilustracion Mex._, tom. iv., pp. 461-70; _Müller_,
_Amerikanische Urreligionen_, pp. 93-4; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom.
i., p. 92; _Thompson's Mex._, p. 213; _Falliés_, _Études Hist. sur les
Civilisations_, Paris, (n. d.) pp. 57-62.
[639] 'Los cuatro meses que faltan son los que corresponden á nuestro
enero, febrero y marzo, porque al manuscrito le falta la primera hoja,
y solo comienza desde el dia 22 de marzo, y concluye en 31 diciembre,
confrontando sus meses con los nuestros.' _Veytia_, _Hist. Ant. Mej._,
tom. i., p. 138. 'Il est dit que l'année commençait au 22 mars avec le
premier jour In Thacari.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._,
tom. iii., p. 467.
[640] _Veytia_, _Hist. Ant. Mej._, tom. i., pp. 137-8; _Brasseur de
Bourbourg_, _Hist. Nat. Civ._, tom. iii., pp. 463, 467; _Gallatin_, in
_Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., pp. 104-5.
[641] 'Dabanle diez y ocho meses de à 20. dias, y otro mas de cinco, y
este al cabo de quatro años como nuestro Bisiesto lo variaban à seis
dias, pos las seis horas que sobran cada año.' _Burgoa_, _Geog.
Descrip._, tom. i., pt ii., fol. 136.