times was probably the upright loom. A good idea of its form is
obtained from the illustration (fig. 176), taken from a Greek
vase-painting[45] of the fifth century B.C., representing Penelope
seated beside the loom, with one of the suitors or Telemachos before
her. The primary part of the loom is the wooden frame (_jugum_)
resembling two posts with a cross-bar. Near the top is a roller, about
which the threads of the warp and the finished cloth are wound. The
threads of the warp hang downwards, strained by weights attached
to their ends. The row of nine rods fitted into sockets in the top
framework is probably for holding the balls of different coloured wool
used in the weaving. Coloured patterns are woven towards each selvedge
of the fabric. The band of winged figures must be regarded as a piece
of embroidery. (For tapestry weaving see below.) The two horizontal
rods lower down are the _canons_, which effect the alternation of the
threads of the warp. It may be noted that the threads are alternately
long and short at the lower end, so that the _canon_ would be inserted
correctly with great ease. The loom weights, which hang at the bottom,
closely resemble in form the sets (No. =427=) of pyramidal terracotta
and lead weights in this Case. The terracotta discs (figs. 173 and
177), which are pierced with two holes and sometimes have a stamped
design, are also probably loom-weights. No. =428= (fig. 177) has a
design of two dolphins plunging into the sea; No. =429= (fig. 173) is
stamped with a name--Kleodamos. As a loom weight was needed for every
thread of a warp, it is not surprising that they are found in great
numbers. Possibly the small bronze object (No. =430=) seen at the
bottom of fig. 173 may be an ancient shuttle, for passing the thread
of the woof to and fro in a horizontal direction, alternately before
and behind the threads of the warp. Afterwards they were driven close
together by the batten ([Greek: spathê]), a possible example of which
is the toothed bone object seen in this Case (No. =431=).
Various specimens of ancient cloth are shown here. A piece from the
Crimea (No. =432=), with pretty geometric patterns in black on a
light ground, and a large fragment from an Egyptian tomb (No. =433=),
inscribed in paint "Diogenes, who was a patcher in his lifetime,"[46]
may be specially mentioned.
The art of tapestry weaving was highly developed during the later
Roman Empire, especially in Egypt. See a fragment from Antinoe, fourth
to fifth centuries A.D. (No. =434=). The art of embroidery, that is,
of working with a needle on an already woven fabric, was practised
from very early times. See the small vase with a woman seated working
on a four-sided embroidery frame, supported on her lap (No. =435=).
[Illustration: FIG. 178.--BRONZE THIMBLE (NO. 436). 2:3.]
[Illustration: FIG. 179.--IRON SCISSORS FROM PRIENE (NO. 437). 2:3.]
The objects illustrating ancient sewing, etc., speak pretty well for
themselves. Such are the bronze thimble (No. =436=; fig. 178), the
iron scissors (No. =437=; fig. 179), and the series of pins, needles,
bodkins, netting needles, etc. (figs. 180, 181). The needles and
pins are arranged in the Case according to their supposed order of
development, starting from the thorn or bone fragment with a hole
pierced in it. The Roman bronze needle-case from France (No. =438=;
fig. 182) is worthy of note. Similar cases were used by Roman surgeons
for their instruments.
[Illustration: FIG. 180.--NEEDLES, ETC. 2:5.]
[Illustration: FIG. 182--BRONZE NEEDLE-CASE (NO. 438). 2:3]
[Illustration: FIG. 181.--NETTING-NEEDLES. 2:5.]
(421) _Cat. of Vases_, III., D 13; (433) Petrie, _Hawara_, pl.
viii., 2; (435) _Journ. of Hellen. Stud._, xxxi., p. 15;
cf. Blümner, _Technologie_, 2nd ed., pp. 220, 221; (438) Cf.
Deneffe, _La trousse d'un chirurgien gallo-romain_, pl. 2.
On the ancient loom, see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v.
_Textrinum_; Blümner, _Technologie_, I., 2nd. ed., p. 135 ff.
=Cutlery.=--At the east end of Table-Case G will be seen a series of
Greek and Roman knives, ranging from the long Mycenaean hunting knife
from Ialysos in Rhodes (No. =438=) to the numerous Roman pocket-knives
with bronze handles, frequently in the form of animals (No. =439=).
The iron blade has often rusted away, as will be seen from the
illustration (fig. 183), which gives a selection of these knives.
(_a_) represents a handle in the form of a panther catching a deer,
(_b_) one in the form of a ram's head, with a leg projecting below to
assist the grip, (_e_) a hound catching a hare. The iron blades are
still preserved in the case of (_c_) and (_d_). The first, from Nîmes,
has a bronze handle ending in a woman's head; (_d_) has a handle of
the same material in the form of a hound catching a hare.
[Illustration: FIG. 183.--ROMAN KNIVES AND KNIFE-HANDLES (NO. 439).
Ca. 1:2.]
For two reliefs of a cutler's forge and a cutler's shop, see below,
pages 156, 157.
=Locks and Keys.=--The earliest and simplest form of door fastening
used by the Greeks seems to have consisted of a bar of wood set behind
the door, and made to slide into a hole or staple in the sidepost. An
advance on this arrangement was soon made, when the bar was pulled
to by a strap from the outside, and could be opened again from the
outside by means of a key passed through a hole in the door, and
adapted to lift up the pegs which held the bar fast in position. This
is the type of lock mentioned in the _Odyssey_,[47] where Penelope
releases the strap from the hook to which it was fastened, puts in the
key, and lifts the pegs, "striking them fairly." The key for such a
lock will probably have resembled No. =440=, marked _a_ in fig. 186
below, the working of which is shown in the sketch (fig. 184).[48]
It was passed narrow-wise through the central slot, then turned, and
drawn back so as to lift up the pegs fitted in grooves in the side
slots. The bar below would thus be freed and could be drawn to and
fro by the strap. This type of lock is still sometimes used in the
East.[49]
[Illustration: FIG. 184.--HOMERIC LOCK (RESTORED).]
[Illustration: FIG. 185.--ROMAN LOCK, WITH RESTORATIONS SHOWING
ORIGINAL MECHANISM AND USE OF KEY (NO. 441). 3:7.]
[Illustration: FIG. 186.--ROMAN KEYS. 2:3.]
The majority of Roman locks, though of a more complicated structure,
are made on the same principle, as may be seen from the ancient lock
No. =441= (probably from Pompeii) here exhibited, together with model
lock of the same type (No. =442=) and a diagram showing its original
arrangement (fig. 185_a-d_). Here the bolt has been shot through
the end link of a chain, part of which remains (fig. 185_c_). It is
secured by pins, the ends of which fit into a series of perforations
in the bolt and are kept down by a spring. The bolt was released by a
key fitted with teeth corresponding to the perforations (fig. 185_d_).
The key lifted the pins out of the holes and took their place. The
bolt was then drawn aside, as the key was moved along the horizontal
slot. On account of the double movement, first vertical and then
horizontal, the keyhole is in the shape |¯. Several bolts, keys
(_e.g._ No. =442=; fig. 186_c_), and door plates for locks of this
type are exhibited in this Case. Three keys from Syria are shown (No.
=443=) fitted into the wards of the actual bolts for which they were
made. Notice the projections on the ring of key _c_, which were used
for shooting a supplementary bolt, a common device in Roman locks.
The modern type of lock, in which the key works on a pivot and moves
the bolt backwards and forwards by a rotatory movement, after passing
through a series of wards, was also known to the Romans. This is
proved by the existence of several Roman keys solely adapted to a
lock of this character (_e.g._, No. =444=; fig. 186_d_). Such keys are
frequently found combined with finger-rings, a convenient method of
lessening the danger of loss. We may conclude that this type of key
was a favourite one for use with small padlocks.
[Illustration: FIG. 187. ROMAN PADLOCK, WITH KEY RUSTED IN IT (NO.
445). Ca. 1:3.]
[Illustration: FIG. 188.--ROMAN PADLOCKS (NOS. 446, 447). 1:1.]
Padlocks of Roman date are common. In this Case three of a barrel form
are shown. One (No. =445=; fig. 187) has the key still rusted in
it. The padlock has traces of a chain attachment at one end, and was
probably kept hanging to a doorpost, while the bolt was shot into the
end link of a chain attached to the door. Two other Roman padlocks
illustrated (fig. 188) are more ornamental in character. One (No.
=446=) is in the form of a circular box with hinged handle, the free
end of which was fastened by pin-bolts within the box. There is also
a secret catch underneath. The other padlock (No. =447=) is furnished
with a chain attached to one side of it. The last link of the free end
was fastened inside the box, the lid of which was closed with a secret
catch. The head on the cover is that of a Sphinx, a hint that the
riddle of opening was not easy to solve. A hole in the floor of
the box makes it probable that it was fastened to the object to be
secured.
[Illustration: FIG. 189.--BRONZE STRONG-BOX, WITH COVER SEEN ON INNER
SIDE. _c_ AND _d_ EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF THE BOLT (NO. 450). 1:2.]
Other objects deserving mention are the keys for raising latches (No.
=448=; fig. 186_b_), and the combined ward and pin keys (No. =449=;
fig. 186_e_), and also the very interesting Graeco-Roman bronze
strong-box from Tarentum (No. =450=; fig. 189). The box (_a_) has
a sliding lid (_b_), originally furnished on the inside with four
separate fastenings. Two are horizontal bolts shot home by turning
toothed discs from the outside; the third is the catch seen at the
end, which was held fast in the slot by a pin-bolt (_c_). This bolt
was moved by a disc on the outside of the cover, and was itself locked
by the turning of another disc behind it; it could only be drawn back
when the slot in that disc was brought into line with the bolt, as
indicated in design _d_ of the figure. The small catch on the right at
the end of the box fell into position automatically when the cover was
closed, and could only be unfastened by turning the box on its side.
The outside of the lid shows four similar circles, over which were the
revolving or sliding discs now lost (fig. 190).
[Illustration: FIG. 190.--COVER OF ABOVE STRONG-BOX (OUTER SIDE).
1:2.]
[Illustration: FIG. 191.--SEALS AND SEAL-LOCKS (NOS. 452-4). 1:1.]
=Seals.=--These were closely connected with locks in ancient life, and
often in fact took their place. Aristophanes makes the women complain
that not only did their husbands carry the patent Laconian key,
but that they also (at the instigation of Euripides) carried very
complicated "worm-eaten" seals,[50] not likely to be forged. Several
objects in this Case illustrate the use of seals. When a man wished to
secure an object he tied it up with string and put a lump of clay over
the knot, impressing the clay with his signet. Such impressions are
seen on several baked lumps of clay here exhibited. One large lump
(No. =451=) has no fewer than eight Roman seal impressions (several
from the same seal), while the knot of the cord remains embedded in
the clay underneath. This Case also contains examples (No. =452=) of
Roman seal-locks (one in wood and several in ivory). The wooden lock,
found in Egypt, is shown in fig. 191_a_, where its probable use is
indicated. The lock was suspended from the door-jamb on a pivot
passed through the small hole seen at the left end. The loop or staple
attached to the door was then inserted in the groove, and the movable
cover slid through it, as shown in the figure. The clay or wax was
next pressed into the hole behind the lid, and sealed with a signet
(as in fig. 191_b_, top view). The door could then not be opened
unless the seal or the lock was broken. Such a lock would be very
useful to prevent the often-mentioned pilfering by slaves.[51] Another
interesting class of objects is that of the seal-boxes (No. =453=).
They are small bronze boxes with hinged lids, and resemble in form
a pear-shaped or circular lamp. Each box has a small slot cut out on
either side, and three or four holes pierced in its floor. The cover
not infrequently has a design in relief (such as might be impressed
from a seal), _e.g._, a frog (fig. 191_d_). The illustration (fig.
191_e_) shows a suggested method of using them. The box is fastened by
studs (passed through the holes in its floor) to the lid of the object
to be secured. The string is inserted in a staple on the front of it
and tied in a knot, which is placed in the seal-box and held fast by
wax stamped with a seal. The projecting stud-heads would assist the
natural tenacity of the wax, so that it would be impossible to remove
the string without breaking the seal. Other arrangements are, of
course, possible. For instance, the staple might not be used, and
string might instead be tied round the object to be secured. The
ends would be brought into the seal-box by two of the holes, there be
secured by the sealed knot, and would leave it by two other holes.
[Illustration: FIG. 192.--ROMAN CUTLER'S FORGE (NO. 457). Ht. 18-3/4
in.]
Another form of seal was that consisting of two lead discs connected
by a loop (No. =454=). The discs were pressed together and stamped on
the outer surfaces with a design (as in fig. 191_c_). In this way the
loop was securely attached to the object to be protected. Probably
these seals were attached to merchandise by manufacturers or customs
officials, just in the same way as lead seals are used in our own
time. Their use appears to have been confined almost, if not entirely,
to Sicily.
A variety of labels in lead, bronze, and ivory is shown in this Case.
They generally have a hole for attachment, and bear the name and
initials of their owner. The bronze label (No. =455=), to which a
portion of the iron object to which it was attached still adheres, has
the name of the owner, C. Junius Hermetus, inscribed upon it. A second
label has the name of another member of the family, Decius Junius
Hermetus (No. =456=).
[Illustration: FIG. 193.--ROMAN CUTLER'S SHOP (NO. 458). Ht. 19-1/2
in.]
Seals were applied by the use of signet rings of gold, silver, or
bronze with the impression of the seal cut in the metal or on a gem
set in the bezel (see p. 136). The engraved ring was usually employed
for purely personal purposes, such as the sealing of a letter or
document, and the device of the seal was more or less ornamental. For
the somewhat allied group of bronze tablets, used for marking objects,
rather than securing them, see p. 192.
(441) On ancient locks, see Diels, _Parmenides_, p. 117 ff.;
Fink, _Der Verschluss bei den Griechen u. Römern_; Daremberg
and Saglio, s.v. _Sera_; (453) Cf. _Num. Chron._, 1897, p.
293 ff.; (454) Cf. _Annali dell' Inst._, 1864, p. 343 ff., and
_Mon. dell' Inst._, VIII., pl. xi.
[Footnote 44: 616 C, D.]
[Footnote 45: _Mon. d. Inst._, ix. pl. 42.]
[Footnote 46: [Greek: Diogenês êpêtês men ôn hote ezê ...]]
[Footnote 47: xxi. 46 ff.; [Greek:
autik' ar' hê g' himanta thoôs apelyse korônês,
en de klêid' hêke, thyreôn d' anekopten ochêas,
anta tityskomenê.]
]
[Footnote 48: After Jacobi, _Das Römerkastell Saalburg_,
p. 469, fig. 74, 1, 2 (modified).]
[Footnote 49: See _Ann. of Brit. School at Athens_, IX.,
p. 190 ff.]
[Footnote 50: Ar., _Thesm._ 421 ff.]
[Footnote 51: Cf. Plin., _H.N._ xxxiii. 26: nunc cibi quoque
ac potus anulo vindicantur a rapina.]
XIII-XVIII.--TRADE AND THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS.
(Wall-Cases 41-53, Table Case H.)
XIII.--TRADE.
The part of the collection now to be described deals generally
with commerce and the industrial arts. We have already seen the
bird-catcher (p. 115), the baker (p. 117), and the shoemaker at work
(p. 130).
In the corners of Cases 41 and 48 are casts of reliefs from the
gravestone of L. Cornelius Atimetus, a Roman cutler of the first
century A.D. One relief (No. =457=; fig. 192) shows the cutler's
workshop, with two men working at some object placed on an anvil in
front of a furnace. One man holds the object with the tongs, the other
hammers it into shape. Above them hang a knife, sickle, tongs, etc.
Behind on the left is the bellows. The other relief (No. =458=; fig.
193) represents the cutler's shop, with numerous knives and sickles
hanging in an open cupboard. The cutler on the right, who wears the
tunic only, is showing a knife to a customer on the left, who wears
the toga, as a mark of dignity.
In Case 41 is a cast of a relief of a pork-butcher's shop, in the
Dresden Museum (No. =459=). On the left, the butcher's wife, seated
in a high chair, is busy with a set of tablets, for the accounts. The
butcher is jointing a side of bacon on a massive block. Portions
of bacon hang on hooks. Behind the butcher is a spare chopper and
a steelyard, at present hung out of the way. The details of the
steelyard such as the weight, the alternative hook for suspension, and
the scalepan are shown (see below p. 161).
XIV.--WEIGHTS AND SCALES.
(Wall-Cases 41-44.)
=Greek Weights.=--In Case B of the First Vase Room will be seen the
plaster model of a large stone object of triangular form, pierced
towards the apex with a hole.[52] It has the design of an octopus on
either side, and may with some probability be regarded as a standard
hanging weight (64 pounds). This object was found by Sir A. Evans at
Knossos in Crete, in the "Palace of Minos," and may be dated roughly
at 2000 B.C. A set of very early weights of the Mycenaean period from
Cyprus is in Case 41, consisting of haematite objects in the form of
sling bolts (No. =460=), passing in a series of gradations from large
to small. No definite system can, however, be deduced from these
weights.
[Illustration: FIG. 194.--LEAD AND BRONZE WEIGHTS. 2:3.]
The Greek weights of the historic period here shown are mainly of two
leading standards, known as the Aeginetan and the Solonian or Attic.
The standard weight of the Aeginetan system was the heavy mina of
9,722 grains (about 1-2/5 lb. avoirdupois). The Solonian (Euboic) mina
weighed normally 6,737 grains (nearly 1 lb. avoirdupois), but there
was a special heavy mina in use which weighed exactly double the
normal. This last was the original mina introduced by Solon, which
gradually gave way to the light mina of half its weight. Weights
of the Aeginetan and Solonian systems are here exhibited. Through
incompleteness or inaccuracy they often show considerable variation
from the norm. The mina was subdivided into 100 drachmae, and the
drachma into 6 obols. Certain stamped devices distinguish these
Attic weights, viz., the astragalos or knuckle-bone, the amphora, the
tortoise, the dolphin, and the crescent. Fig. 194 shows three weights
of the later Solonian standard: (_a_) a mina in lead stamped with a
dolphin and inscribed [Greek: MNA] (7,010 grs.) (No. =461=); (_b_) a
half mina in lead (3,399 grs.) with the device of a tortoise and the
inscription [Greek: DÊMO] (= [Greek: dêmou]), "of the people," (No.
=462=); and (_c_) a bronze weight of 4 drachmae (283 grs.) stamped
with an amphora and the word [Greek: TESSARES] (No. =463=). Sometimes
a half tortoise occurs, as in No. =464=, a quarter mina, or a half
amphora, as on No. =465=, a one-third mina. Various other standards
are represented in this Case, _e.g._ that of Kyzikos in Asia Minor,
but these need not be particularly described. A noteworthy weight is
the bronze one (No. =466=), in the form of a series of rising steps,
inscribed on the top [Greek: DIOS]. This probably is a temple-weight,
very likely used to weigh votive objects. Weights of a similar type
have been found at Olympia. The peculiar series of stone weights (No.
=467=) decorated with female breasts was found in the precincts of the
temple of Demeter at Knidos, and may be regarded as temple-weights,
probably made as a votive offering. They do not seem to correspond to
any known standard.
Some weights are marked as standards. A lead weight of 10,863 grains,
with a design of two cornucopias (No. =468=) is inscribed [Greek:
Etous dls' dêmosia mna], _i.e._, "In the year 234 a public (or
standard) mina." The date is probably by the Seleucid era, and
equivalent to 78 B.C. Another example is the large square weight from
Herakleia in Bithynia, with a head of Herakles in relief (No. =469=;
fig. 195). It is inscribed "To the divine Augusti and the people"
([Greek: theois Sebastois kai tô damô]) on the rim in front, and on
the sides with the names of the aediles P. Clodius Rufus and Tertius
Vacilius (weight 41,494 grs., nearly 6 lb. avoirdupois).
We have instances of weights of artistic form in these Cases. The
hanging weights from steelyards in particular (No. =470=; fig. 195)
are often in the form of a head or bust.
=Roman Weights.=--The standard was here the _libra_ or pound, which
weighed 5,050 grains (being ·721 of the pound avoirdupois, which is
equal to 7,000 grains), and was subdivided into 12 _unciae_ or ounces,
the ounce again being divided into 24 _scripula_ or scruples. The
Roman weights are here grouped according to multiples or divisions of
the pound, and generally have their values marked upon them in dotted
characters. Thus the pound is marked +I+, the half pound +S+(_emis_),
and so on. The series, beginning at the bottom of Case 51, runs 10,
5, 4, 3, 2, 1-1/2, and 1 pounds. Fractions of the pound are 1/2lb.
(semis) = 6 oz; 1/3lb. (triens) = 4 oz.; 1/4lb. (quadrans) = 3 oz.;
1/6lb. (sextans) = 2 oz.; and one ounce. Fractions of the ounce are
1/2oz. = 12 scruples; 1/3oz. = 8 scruples; 1/4oz. = 6 scruples; 1/8oz.
= 3 scruples; 1/12oz. = 2 scruples; and one scruple. Some of the
numerous dark stone weights have inscriptions, showing that they had
been certified by proper authority. Thus one _libra_ (No. =472=) is
inscribed: "On the authority of Q. Junius Rusticus, city-prefect" [167
A.D.]. In Sicily and Magna Graecia a weight called a _litra_ was used
instead of the Roman pound, weighing rather less than the _libra_. A
set of _litra_ weights in bronze, of late Imperial date, is shown
in Case 41 (No. =473=). An ounce weight (marked [Illustration] in
silver, and weighing 389 grains), belonging to this series, is seen in
fig. 194 above.
[Illustration: FIG. 195.--BRONZE WEIGHTS OF ARTISTIC FORM (NO. 400,
etc.). 4:7.]
[Illustration: FIG. 196.--ROMAN BRONZE STEELYARD (NO. 475). L. 12-3/4
in.]
=Weighing Instruments.=--Of these there are two chief varieties, the
simple balance (_libra_), and the steelyard (_statera_). In the former
weight is set against, weight, at equal distances from the point of
suspension. In the latter the object to be weighed, suspended from
the short arm of the lever, is set against a small weight in an
appropriate position on the long arm. The Greeks seem to have used
the former only; the Romans used both. The use of the balance is
illustrated by the Greek vase with the design of Hermes weighing the
souls of Achilles and Memnon, and by the Roman lamp showing a stork
weighing an elephant and a mouse (No. =474=). The steelyard was widely
used in the Roman world. Owing to its portability, it was doubtless
much employed by hawkers and street-sellers, as at the present day.
We have also seen it above (p. 158) in the pork-butcher's shop (No.
=459=). Out of the several steelyards exhibited here, one example,
from Catania in Sicily (No. =475=; fig. 196), may be described in
detail. It consists of a bronze rod of square section, divided
into two unequal portions. The shorter portion has (_a_) two hooks
suspended from chains attached to the end of the rod by a movable
collar working in a groove (the object to be weighed was of course
attached to these hooks); (_b_) three hooks, placed at intervals
of about 3/4, 1-1/2, and 3 in. respectively from the collar, and
suspended from small movable rings. These hooks are in different
planes, corresponding to three of the four edges in the longer portion
of the bar. The bar is graduated on three of its four faces, viz.,
on the first with nine divisions, each subdivided into twelfths. This
scale was used when the steelyard was suspended by the hook nearest
the graduated bar (as in the fig.). Objects weighing up to nine Roman
pounds could thus be weighed by moving a sliding weight along the
bar. The figure V will be seen at the fifth pound, the half pounds are
marked by three dots, and the twelfths correspond to the _unciae_. The
second face begins with VI and goes up to twenty-three pounds. It was
used when the steelyard was suspended by the middle hook. The third
face starts with XXII pounds, and goes up to fifty-nine pounds. In the
second and third scales, multiples of five and ten pounds are marked
by the figures V and X. Fifty pounds is indicated by the letter
[Greek: N] +N+, which has that numerical value in the Greek notation.
This third scale was used in conjunction with the hook nearest the
collar. The sliding weight (now lost) must have weighed about 17,000
grs. (2-3/7 lb. avoirdupois). All the other steelyards here shown work
on this principle, though many have only two graduated scales and two
suspending hooks.
[Illustration: FIG. 197.--STEELYARD FROM SMYRNA (NO. 476).]
Fig. 197 shows a highly ornate example of a steelyard (No. =476=),
lately acquired from the neighbourhood of Smyrna. The weight is in the
form of a bust of Silenus. The larger hooks are designed as heads of
serpents, and the smaller hooks as heads of eagles.
[Illustration: FIG. 198.--ROMAN BRONZE BALANCES (NOS. 477, 480). Ca.
1:4.]