frying-pan (No. =322=), with a spout at one corner. Instead of
butter, fat, or dripping, the Romans, like the inhabitants of southern
countries at the present day, were accustomed to use oil in frying.
The shelf above the pans is occupied with ladles, dippers, and
other implements. The handles of the ladles usually terminate in a
beautifully modelled head of an animal, such as that of a duck, swan,
or dog. One wine dipper (No. =323=) is hinged so as to fold for the
pocket. On the next shelf above are two painted plates of about the
beginning of the third century B.C. They belong to a well marked class
(cf. Fourth Vase Room, Cases 26-7) of plates of Campanian fabric,
distinguished by the fish and other marine creatures painted upon
them. It is probable that they were intended for the serving of fish.
Of the two examples shown in this case one (No. =324=) is decorated
with a sea-perch, a sargus (a fish peculiar to the Mediterranean), and
a torpedo, the other (No. =325=; fig. 124) with a red mullet, a bass,
a sargus, and a cuttlefish.
[Illustration: FIG. 122.--BRONZE LANTERN (NO. 318). 1:4.]
[Illustration: FIG. 123.--EARTHENWARE LANTERN (NO. 320).]
The strainers (No. =326=), with perforated designs, on the right of
Case 36, were used for clearing wine and other liquids. In Cases 36,
37 are bronze moulds for shaping food in the form of shells.
Some remains of ancient walnuts, grain, and fragments of calcined
bread from Pompeii, and a black cup from Rhodes, containing eggs, are
shown in the middle shelf of Case 35.
The process of bread-making is illustrated by the terracottas shown in
this case. One (No. =327=) from Kameiros in Rhodes represents a woman
kneading dough on a board placed in a circular trough resting on
three legs. Another (No. =328=), of much rougher workmanship, shows a
bearded man engaged in a like occupation. A third (No. =329=) shows
a woman kneading in front of the oven. A small terracotta model of an
oven shows two cakes baking (No. =330=).
[Illustration: FIG. 124.--FISH-PLATE (NO. 325). Diam. 8-3/4 in.]
In antiquity knives and forks were little used at table, fingers
being mainly employed. Only one three-pronged fork (No. =331=) is
here shown. Spoons, however, were common, and a considerable number
of ancient spoons (No. =332=) are exhibited in Case 36. The series of
large ivory spoons with elaborately ornamented handles belong to an
early period, a similar one coming from the Polledrara tomb at Vulci
in Etruria, of the seventh century B.C. The small spoons in bronze or
ivory, with round head and handle running to a point, were probably
used for the eating of eggs and the extraction of snails from their
shells. Snails were a favourite dish with the Romans, and the spoon
got its name (_cochleare_) from being employed in this way.[42]
In the lower part of Case 36 are examples of pestles and mortars (No.
=333=). The pestle usually takes the form of a bent thumb, or of a leg
and foot.
[Illustration: FIG. 125.--ATHLETE USING STRIGIL.]
In early times cooking was done either in the courtyard of the
house or in the principal living-room. Pompeian houses are, however,
generally provided with separate kitchens, small rooms opening off the
court of the peristyle. The hearth is a simple rectangular structure
of masonry, sometimes furnished with projecting supports for holding
vessels over the fire. Much, however, of the warming and working was
done over small braziers, such as are shown on a small scale, and by
a model, in the lower part of Case 36. The terracotta braziers are of
characteristic form, with three internal projecting knobs to support
the cooking vessel. These are generally ornamented with masks of
Hephaestos, Satyrs, or the like (No. =334=). Compare examples in the
Terracotta Room (_Cat. of Terracottas_, p. xix., C 863 ff). See also
in Case 36 a terracotta food warmer, from Olbia, in the form of a
shrine (No. =335=).
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--BRONZE STRIGILS AND OIL-FLASK (NO. 337). Ca.
2:7.]
=The Bath.=--Certain implements shown in Case 37 illustrate the
routine of the bath, which occupied a large place in the life both
of the Greeks and Romans. Celsus, who wrote on the art of medicine
probably early in the first century after Christ, recommended the
bather first to go into the moderately heated room (_tepidarium_), and
perspire slightly, then to anoint himself and to pass into the hot air
room. After perspiring there he was to pour hot, warm, and cold water
alternately over his head, then to scrape himself with the strigil,
and finally to anoint himself--the last probably a precaution against
taking cold. This description will enable us to understand the use
of the implements carried by bathers. Of these the strigil is most
important. It was a curved piece of metal, usually bronze, but
sometimes iron, employed by athletes for removing dust and oil
after exercise, and by bathers for scraping away sweat and dirt. The
accompanying figure (fig. 125), drawn from a Greek vase of the fifth
century B.C., shows an athlete resting after exercise, and about to
use the strigil. Some times a strigil, oil-flask, and sponge are seen
on vases, suspended from the wall of the _palaestra_ where youths are
exercising. In Case 37 a small lekythos (No. =336=) shows an athlete
with a strigil, and an impression from a gem illustrates the method of
using that implement. The strigils here seen range in date from about
the sixth century B.C. to the third century A.D. Many of them are
inscribed with the name of their owners, and some have small figures,
_e.g._, a man dancing or a horse galloping, stamped upon them. Two
strigils which deserve special mention are the silver one found in
the sarcophagus of the Etruscan lady, Seianti Hanunia (second century
B.C.), and exhibited with that sarcophagus in the Terracotta Room, and
the beautiful bronze ornamental strigil in the Bronze Room (Pedestal
3), with the handle in the form of a girl herself using the strigil.
A complete bather's outfit of Roman date (No. =337=), found near
Düsseldorf, includes two bronze strigils and an oil-flask attached by
rings to a handle (fig. 126), and several glass vases for use in the
toilet.
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--SECTION OF ROMAN BRONZE PUMP FROM BOLSENA
(NO. 338). 1:5.]
=Water Supply.=--A few objects in Cases 38-39 illustrate the methods
of water-supply among the Romans, which are characterised by their
completeness and excellence. The remains of two Roman double-action
pumps in bronze from Bolsena in Etruria (Nos. =338=, =339=; figs. 127,
128) are of special interest. These are constructed on a principle
invented by Ktesibios of Alexandria, who probably lived in the third
century B.C. They were worked by alternating plungers, raised and
lowered by a rocking-beam. The first illustration (fig. 127) shows
the less advanced but more complete pump in section, and explains the
method, of working. The bottoms of the cylinders (A) were connected
by pipes with the reservoir, and are furnished with flap-valves
(B), opening upwards. When the plunger (C) was raised, a vacuum
was created, and the water lifted the valve and rushed in. When the
plunger was raised to its highest point the valve fell again and
retained the water; when the plunger descended it forced the water
from the cylinder into the central discharge pipe through another
flap-valve (D) at the end of the horizontal pipe. BD in the figure
shows the structure of the flap-valves, which the Greeks called
[Greek: assaria] ("pennies") from their likeness to coins. F is
a complete plunger of the same type as those used in the pump
illustrated, but not belonging to it. Only two-thirds of the second
pump (No. =339=) survive, but the missing part (marked off in the
diagram by a dotted line) is supplied in the section (fig. 128). In
this example the more advanced spindle valve takes the place of the
flap valves, and the two valves side by side open into a central domed
chamber, in place of the simple central cylinder of No. =338=.
[Illustration: FIG. 128.--SECTION OF SECOND ROMAN BRONZE PUMP, FROM
BOLSENA (NO. 339).]
There are here several jets and spouts for the emission of water, one
(No. =339=) in the form of a pine-cone, pierced with small holes for
sending out a spray, others in the form of dolphins (No. =340=) and
the fore-part of a horse (No. =341=). The bronze stop-cocks seen in
Case 39 were used for controlling the flow of water from the cisterns
to the various parts of the house. They were inserted in the lead
water-pipes, portions of which still adhere to them. Their arrangement
is excellently illustrated by those discovered at the Roman villa at
Boscoreale, near Pompeii (see _Mon. Ant._ vii., p. 454, fig. 45_a_).
See also a gargoyle in the form of a lion for rain water (No. =342=),
and a bronze grating from the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos (No. =343=)
for draining it away. Various lead supply pipes and clay drain pipes
are shown in case 39.
=Heating.=--In early times houses were heated by means of a large open
hearth placed in the middle of the principal room, whence the smoke
escaped as it might, through the door, or between the roof beams. Next
followed the use of portable braziers in bronze, such as have been
found in Etruscan tombs from the seventh century B.C. (cf. Italic
Room, Cases B, C). The small braziers used for cooking, etc., in the
Hellenistic period have been mentioned above, p. 118. A system of
heating by hot air was introduced by the Romans, but was used chiefly
for the warming of baths. For the general heating of houses such an
arrangement was, until about the third century A.D. exceptional, and
Seneca, writing in the first century A.D. regards it as an enervating
luxury. Several examples of Roman terracotta flue-tiles (No. =344=)
for the transmission of hot air are seen in the bottom of Cases 39,
40.
=Shapes of Vases.=--Case 40 contains a small type-series of the
leading shapes of Greek vases, intended to teach the names current in
archaeology (No. =345=).
(300) Cf. _Ant. du Bosph. Cimm._, pl. 81, where a restoration
of a table with a leg of this kind is shown; (301) The
couch in fig. 113 is after the restoration of a couch from
Boscoreale, given in _Arch. Anzeiger_, 1900, p. 178; (304)
Cf. Furtwaengler, _Olympia, IV._, (_Die Bronzen_), pls. 28, 34;
(305) _Cat. of Lamps_, 137; (308) _ibid._, 1; (309) _ibid._,
66; (310) _ibid._, 97; (312) _Journal of Hellenic Studies_,
XXVIII., pl. 33; (313) _Cat. of Lamps_, 390; (314) _ibid._,
1437; (318) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1435; (320) _ibid._, 1511; (323)
_Excavations in Cyprus_, fig. 148, No. 4; (324, 325) _Cat.
of Vases_, IV., F 259 and F 267; (338-339) _Cat. of Bronzes_,
2573-4; (343) Newton, _Hist. Disc._, II., p. 143.
On the Greek house generally, see Daremberg and Saglio s.v.
_Domus_ and B. C. Rider, _The Greek House_. On the Roman
house, see Daremberg and Saglio, _loc. cit._, and Mau-Kelsey,
_Pompeii_.
[Footnote 41: Martial, xiv. 44:
Esse vides lignum; serves nisi lumina, fiet
De candelabro magna lucerna tibi.
]
[Footnote 42: Cf. Martial, xiv. 121:
Sum cochleis habilis, sed nec minus utilis ovis:
Numquid scis potius cur cochleare vocer?
]
XI.--DRESS AND TOILET.
(Table-Case F.)
The objects connected with the toilet in Case F are those accessories
in metal and other materials that have been preserved. The actual
fashion of the dress of the Greeks and Romans can be best studied
elsewhere--in the Vase Rooms, the Room of Terracottas, and the
Sculpture Galleries. A few words only need be said here as to the
principal varieties of costume.
=Greek Female Dress.=--The very singular and modern-looking dress of
the Minoan ladies may be seen in the facsimiles of Cretan statuettes
and carvings in the First Vase Room.
[Illustration: FIG. 129.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE
DORIAN _Chiton_.]
The earliest dress of women which is represented in the art of
historical Greece is that which was known as the Dorian _chiton_, or
tunic. It was an oblong sheet of woollen cloth, measuring rather more
than the height of the wearer, and about twice the span of her arms.
This blanket was folded as shown in the annexed diagram (fig. 129).
The tunic then fell into position about the figure, leaving the arms
bare, as in the illustration, which is taken from a toilet-box (E 772)
in the Third Vase Room (fig. 130). The dress in its simplest form was
now complete, but as one side of it was open, a girdle was usually
worn to keep the edges together. At Sparta, where Dorian manners
were preserved in their primitive severity, the side remained open.
Elsewhere it was partially or completely sewn up.
[Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE DORIAN _Chiton_.]
About the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the Ionian chiton was
introduced into Greece from Asia Minor, and became the ordinary
undergarment of women, in Italy as well as Greece, throughout the
classical period. It was in effect a loosely-fitting dress with wide
sleeves, girt at the waist. Being of fine linen instead of wool, a
mantle or wrap was worn over it to make up for the thinness of the
cloth. This construction is plainly shown in a drawing on the inside
of a cup (E 44) by the potter Euphronios, which represents a woman
busy with the knot of her girdle (fig. 131). The material was soft
and heavy, yet thin and transparent enough to reveal the form of the
figure beneath it. It is only in a dressing scene, such as this,
that the Ionian chiton is represented alone. Otherwise a mantle
(_himation_) was worn in addition. These mantles were of various
shapes and sizes, though always rectangular, and their arrangement did
not follow any fixed rule. Distinct fashions, however, in the wearing
of the over-mantle can be remarked at certain periods. Thus, when
the Ionian dress first came into use at Athens, an extraordinary
elaboration was cultivated, the folds being arranged with such
precision as to suggest that the garment is not a rectangular wrap,
but a made-up shawl artificially pressed and gathered. This style
of dress is best known from a large series of statues which were
discovered in excavations on the Acropolis of Athens. They are relics
of the city which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 B.C., and
give an accurate date for the prevalence of the fashion. The type is
represented in a statuette in the Bronze Room (fig. 132): the lady
stands in an attitude of archaic severity, and holds up with her
left hand the skirt of the soft Ionian chiton which is underneath the
shawl.
[Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE IONIAN _Chiton_.]
The outer garment was afterwards larger than this, as well as more
simply arranged. Often the whole figure was wrapped in the mantle,
which was also drawn over the mouth and the back of the head. This
heavy style was favoured in the fourth and third centuries B.C., and
constantly appears in the most numerous products of that period, the
terracotta statuettes from Tanagra and elsewhere. Fig. 133 is from
one of these, and others in the Terracotta Room show very clearly the
beautiful and varied draperies of the himation.
[Illustration: FIG. 132.--GREEK BRONZE STATUETTE, ILLUSTRATING AN
EARLY FASHION OF WOMEN'S DRESS. 1:2.]
[Illustration: FIG. 133.--TERRACOTTA STATUETTE OF A LADY OF THE
HELLENISTIC PERIOD. 1:2.]
=Greek Male Dress.=--A dress worn in early times was a tunic falling
to the feet, with or without the mantle. It continued in use as
a ceremonial and festal attire of elderly men, minstrels and
charioteers. It is illustrated in a drawing of Peleus by the
vase-painter Amasis (?) (fig. 134), in which the soft texture of the
long white Ionian chiton is indicated by wavy lines, and the heavy
mantle hangs stiffly across the shoulders. Subsequently the long tunic
was discarded, and either a short form of the same garment, which had
been in use before for outdoor exercise, was adopted in its place, or
the outer cloak was worn alone. The short tunic was worn as before
by men engaged in active pursuits, and by boys, workmen and slaves.
A common fashion of wearing it was to fasten the shoulder on one side
only, so that the right arm and breast were free for violent movement.
A series of statuettes in the Bronze Room represents the blacksmith
god Hephaestos in this working garb (fig. 135). The ordinary costume
of the citizen was the himation or a mantle of smaller size. With this
the right shoulder was usually left free, as with the tunic; it is the
common dress of men on the red-figure Athenian vases (see the Third
Vase Room), from one of which (E 61) the illustration is taken
(fig. 136). Men of leisure or high rank affected a more elaborate
arrangement of the himation, by which the whole body was enveloped and
the free movement of the hands impeded. The statue of Sophokles in
the Lateran Museum at Rome is a good example of the care which a
cultivated man of the fifth century bestowed upon the adjustment of
this garment (fig. 137).
[Illustration: FIG. 134.--PELEUS WEARING THE IONIAN _Chiton_.]
[Illustration: FIG. 135.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF HEPHAESTOS, WEARING THE
SHORT _Chiton_. 2:5.]
Other mantles were of various sizes and were distinguished by many
names. The _chlamys_ was the smallest, and differed from the rest
also in shape, though its scheme was still rectangular. It was rather
longer in proportion to its width, and was clasped round the neck by
a brooch. Its origin was in Thessaly, where it was the cape of the
native horsemen, and it continued to be used for this purpose in the
rest of Greece. Young men wore it, especially when riding, and it was
a light and convenient dress for travellers. A young horseman on a cup
by the painter Euphronios (fig. 138) has a gaily embroidered chlamys
hung evenly across his shoulders, and underneath is seen the skirt of
the short chiton.
=Roman Dress.=--The dress of Roman women was the same as that of the
Greeks of the Hellenistic period, who are vividly portrayed in the
terracotta statuettes (fig. 133). Their undergarment was the Ionian
chiton, now called _tunica_, of which two were sometimes worn
together, and the overmantle was the Greek himation, by its Roman
name, _palla_.
[Illustration: FIG. 136.--MAN WEARING THE _Himation_. (From a vase of
Hieron.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 137.--STATUE OF SOPHOKLES WEARING THE _Himation_.]
For men there was also a tunic similar to that worn by the Greeks;
but in place of the himation the Roman _toga_ was worn, a garment of
entirely different shape. In the relief of a cutler's shop, which
is exhibited in Case 41, the shopman wears the tunic without a belt,
while the customer, who has just come in from the street, wears the
toga as well (fig. 193). In that of the forge, in Case 48, both the
smiths have the tunic alone, with but the right shoulders unfastened
and the skirts girt up to the knee in Greek fashion (fig. 192; compare
fig. 135). Yet the Roman tunic seems already to have departed from the
Greek pattern in having sleeves, though only to the elbows. Sleeved
tunics were not unknown to the Greeks, whose slaves are often
represented in this dress; but it was a foreign habit, and as such
avoided.
[Illustration: FIG. 138.--A HORSEMAN WEARING THE _Chlamys_.]
[Illustration: FIG. 139.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE SHAPE OF THE TOGA.]
The shape of the toga was roughly semicircular, the straight edge
being about six yards long and the width in the middle about two
yards, as in the diagram (fig. 139). The simplest mode of putting it
on was to place one end on the left shoulder, with the straight edge
nearest the centre of the body and the point almost touching the
ground. The left hand would be just covered by the curved edge. The
rest was then passed behind the back, over or under the right arm,
and over the left shoulder again, so that the point hung almost to the
ground behind. This was also a method of wearing the Greek himation,
and it is difficult to distinguish the two garments when so arranged;
but a close examination will discover the sharp point and the curved
edge in the case of the toga. At the end of the Republic and under the
Empire, to which period most of the monuments belong, more elaborate
fashions were developed, as in fig. 140, from a statuette in the
Bronze Room.
We turn to the accessories of the dress and the toilet in Table Case
F.
[Illustration: FIG. 140.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A ROMAN WEARING TUNIC
AND TOGA. 1:2.]
=Greek and Roman Footwear.=--The general distinction was that the
Greeks wore both sandals, and also boots or shoes. The Romans wore the
boot, the _calceus_, but disapproved of the sandal. Part of Cicero's
charge against Verres was that he wore sandals, as well as other Greek
dress.
The objects shown in Case F are either actual shoes and sandals
or representations of them from works of art, such as fragments of
statues; or applications of the device of a foot to the decoration of
such things as vases, lamps, tripod-feet, etc.
The extant specimens include a Roman leather shoe (No. =344=) of cut
leather work, found in London; slippers from Antinoe in Egypt (No.
=345=), with coloured and cut leather work; a pair of cork soles
from Egypt (No. =346=), the edges of which were formerly gilt. A
well-preserved pair of soles is exhibited (No. =347=). They are made
of wood, divided at the instep, and plated with bronze, held in place
by iron nails. These appear to be of Etruscan origin, as several
examples have been found at Vulci (_Mus. Etr. Vat., I._, pl. 57, fig.
7). The sandal in its simplest form, as in the vase B 587 (No. =348=),
consists of a sole attached to the foot by thongs passing between
the great and second toes, and round the heel. The arrangement of
the thongs gradually became more elaborate, with the result that the
uncomfortable separation of the toes could be avoided. In the case of
the foot of the Hermes of Olympia (No. =349=; fig. 141) there is
no toe-thong, but only a reminiscence of the ornament from which it
formerly started. An undershoe or sock now became possible, and the
shoe and laced sandal in combination (cf. the statue of Mausolos,
about 350 B.C.) became highly elaborate. See also the cast of a relief
in the Third Graeco-Roman Room (No. =350=) and the feet in marble and
bronze. In effect, the result was not greatly different from the Roman
military boot (_caliga_) bound up the leg with thongs.
[Illustration: FIG. 141.--FOOT OF THE HERMES OF OLYMPIA (NO. 349).
1:9.]
[Illustration: FIG. 142.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A NEGRO SLAVE CLEANING A
BOOT (NO. 355). 1:2.]
A simpler boot or shoe of modern pattern was also in use. In its
plainest forms it represents the Roman boot (_calceus_). Several
examples (No. =351=) are shown in this case. See also a vase (No.
=352=) in the form of a modern lace-boot. The nails on the sole are
arranged so as to impress _alpha_ and _omega_, and the mystic symbol
of the _swastika_ on the ground. A delicate gold model of a boot (No.
=353=) has [Illustration] [Greek: patou] "walk!" (?) on the sole. A
shoe has been found in Egypt, impressing at every step the invitation
[Greek: AKOLOUTHEI] ("follow!") The shoemaker at work in his workshop
is seen in the fifth century kylix (E 86; No. =354=). He is in the act
of cutting the leather with the semicircular knife of the form still
in use.
In conclusion, attention should be drawn to the bronze statuette (No.
=355=; fig. 142) of a kneeling negro slave cleaning a boot.
On Greek Dress, cf. Lady Evans, _Greek Dress_; E. B. Abrahams,
_Greek Dress_; on Roman, Heuzey in _Rev. de l'art ancien et
moderne_, 1897; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pallium_, _Peplos_,
_Toga_. On shoes and sandals, see _ibid._, _Calceus_, _Caliga_,
_Solea_.
=Fibulae.=--Although the straight pin (cf. p. 137) was used for
fastening the dress, fibulae--that is, brooches on the safety-pin
principle--were most commonly worn. This method of fastening was of
early origin, and its use can be traced in all parts of Europe, but,
curiously enough, it seems to have been unknown in Egypt and the East.
The fibula experienced in the first centuries of its existence and in
the hands of different peoples so many variations and developments
of form, that these can be classified in distinct types, and their
presence in tombs and other deposits affords valuable evidence of the
date and origin of the objects with which they occur.