supposed to have been originally one of the sayings of Bias, has been
censured by Cicero, in his beautiful treatise _De Amicitia_, as the bane
of friendship. It would be endless to quote the lines of the different
Latin poets, particularly Horace and Juvenal, which are nearly copied from
the maxims of Publius Syrus. Seneca, too, has availed himself of many of
his reflections, and, at the same time, does full justice to the author
from whom he has borrowed. Publius, says he, is superior in genius both to
tragic and comic writers: Whenever he gives up the follies of the Mimes,
and that language which is directed to the crowd, he writes many things
not only above that species of composition, but worthy of the tragic
buskin(558).
Cneius Matius, also a celebrated writer of Mimes, was contemporary with
Laberius and Publius Syrus. Some writers have confounded him with Caius
Matius, who was a correspondent of Cicero, and an intimate friend of
Julius Cæsar. Ziegler, though he distinguishes him from Cicero’s
correspondent, says, that he was the same person as the friend of
Cæsar(559).
Aulus Gellius calls Matius a very learned man, (_homo eruditus et impense
doctus_,) and frequently quotes him for obsolete terms and forms of
expression(560). Like other writers of Mimes, he indulged himself a good
deal in this sort of phraseology, but his diction was considered as
agreeable and highly poetical(561).
The Mimes of Matius were called Mimiambi, because chiefly written in
iambics; but not more than a dozen lines have descended to us. The
following verses have been praised for elegance and a happy choice of
expressions—
“Quapropter edulcare convenit vitam,
Curasque acerbas sensibus gubernare;
Sinuque amicam recipere frigidam caldo
Columbatimque labra conserens labris(562).”
The age of Laberius, P. Syrus, and Matius, was the most brilliant epoch in
the history of the actors of Mimes. After that period, they relapsed into
a race of impudent buffoons; and, in the reign of Augustus, were classed,
by Horace, with mountebanks and mendicants(563). Pantomimic actors, who
did not employ their voice, but represented everything by gesticulation
and dancing, became, under Augustus, the idols of the multitude, the
minions of the great, and the favourites of the fair. The _Mimi_ were then
but little patronized on the stage, but were still admitted into convivial
parties, and even the court of the Emperors, to entertain the guests(564),
like the Histrions, Jongleurs, or privileged fools, of the middle ages;
and they were also employed at funerals, to mimic the manners of the
deceased. Thus, the Archimimus, who represented the character of the
avaricious Vespasian, at the splendid celebration of his obsequies,
inquired what would be the cost of all this posthumous parade; and on
being told that it would amount to ten millions of sesterces, he replied,
that if they would give him a hundred thousand, they might throw his body
into the river(565). The audacity, however, of the Mimes was carried still
farther, as they satirized and insulted the most ferocious Emperors during
their lives, and in their own presence. An actor, in one of these pieces
which was performed during the reign of Nero, while repeating the words
“_Vale pater, vale mater_,” signified by his gestures the two modes of
drowning and poisoning, in which that sanguinary fiend had attempted to
destroy both his parents(566). The _Mimi_ currently bestowed on Commodus
the most opprobrious appellation(567). One of their number, who performed
before the enormous Maximin, reminded the audience, that he who was too
strong for an individual, might be massacred by a multitude, and that thus
the elephant, lion, and tiger, are slain. The tyrant perceived the
sensation excited in the Theatre, but the suggestion was veiled in a
language unknown to that barbarous and gigantic Thracian(568).
The Mimes may be traced beyond the age of Constantine, as we find the
fathers of the church reprehending the immorality and licentiousness of
such exhibitions(569). Tradition is never so faithful as in the
preservation of popular pastimes; and accordingly, many of those which had
amused the Romans survived their dominion. The annual celebration of
Carnival prolonged the remembrance of them during the dark ages. Hence,
the Mimes, and the Atellane fables formerly mentioned, became the origin
of the Italian pantomimic parts introduced in the _Commedie dell’ arte_,
in which a subject was assigned, and the scenes were enumerated; but in
which the dialogue was left to the extemporary invention of the actors,
who represented buffoon characters in masks, and spoke the dialect of
different districts. “As to Italy,” says Warburton, in an account given by
him of the Rise and Progress of the Modern Stage, “the first rudiments of
its theatre, with regard to the matter, were profane subjects, and with
regard to the form, a corruption of ancient Mimes and Atellanes.”—Zanni is
one of the names of the Harlequin in the Italian comedies; and Sannio, as
we learn from ancient writers, was a ridiculous personage, who performed
in these Latin farces, with his head shaved(570), his face bedaubed with
soot(571), and clothed in party-coloured garments—a dress universally worn
by the ancient Italian peasantry during the existence of the Roman
Republic(572). The lowest species of mimic actors were called
_planipedes_, because they performed without sock or buskin, and generally
barefooted, whence Harlequin’s flat unsho’d feet. A passage of Cicero, in
which he speaks of the Sannio, seems almost intended to describe the
perpetual and flexible motion of the limbs, the ludicrous gestures, and
mimetic countenance of Harlequin. “Quid enim” says he, “potest tam
ridiculum quam Sannio esse? qui ore, vultu, imitandis motibus, voce,
denique corpore ridetur ipso(573).” Among the Italians, indeed, this
character soon degenerated into a booby and glutton, who became the butt
of his more sharp-sighted companions. In France, Harlequin was converted
into a wit,—sometimes even a moralist; and with us he has been transformed
into an expert magician, who astonishes by sudden changes of the scene:
But none of these was his original, or native character, which, as we have
seen, corresponded to the Sannio of the Mimes and Atellane fables. In the
year 1727, a bronze figure of high antiquity, and of which Quadrio gives
an engraving(574), was found at Rome; and it appears from it, that the
modern Pollicinella of Naples is a lineal descendant of the _Mimus Albus_
of the Atellanes(575). Ficoroni, who, in his work _Larve Sceniche_,
compares his immense collection of Roman masks with the modern Italian
characters, was possessed of an onyx, which represented a Mime with a long
nose and pointed cap, carrying a bag of money in one hand, and two brass
balls in the other, which he sounded, as is supposed, like castanets when
he danced. These appendages correspond to the attributes which
distinguished the Italian dancer of Catana, known by the name of
Giangorgolo. Another onyx exhibits a figure resembling that of Pantalone.
It is also evident from the Antiques collected by Ficoroni, that the Roman
_Mimi_ were fond of representing caricatures of foreign nations, as we
find among these ancient figures the attires of the oriental nations, and
the garb of old Gaul—a species of exhibition in which the _Commedia dell’
arte_ also particularly delighted.
These _Commedie dell’ arte_ were brought to the highest pitch of comic and
grotesque perfection by Ruzzante, an Italian dramatist, who both wrote and
performed a number of them about the middle of the sixteenth century, and
who, in addition to Zany and Pollicinella, peopled the stage with a new
and enlivening crowd of mimetic characters. There appears to be something
so congenial to the Italian taste in these exhibitions, that they long
maintained their ground against the regular dramas, produced by the
numerous successors of Trissino and Bibbiena, and kept supreme possession
of the Italian stage, till at length Goldoni, by introducing beauties
which were incongruous with the ancient masks, gradually refined the taste
of his audience, made them ashamed of their former favourites, and then,
in some of his pieces, ventured to exclude from the stage the whole
grotesque and gesticulating family of Harlequin.
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
Having said so much (and, I fear, too much) of the Mimes, and other
departments of the Roman drama, it would not be suitable to conclude
without some notice, I. of the mechanical construction of the theatre
where the dramatic entertainments were produced; and, II. of the actors’
declamation, as also of the masks and other attributes of the characters
which were chiefly represented.
I. Such was the severity of the ancient republican law, that it permitted
no places of amusement, except the circus, where games were specially
privileged from having been instituted by Romulus, and exhibited in honour
of the gods. Satiric and dramatic representations, however, as we have
seen, gradually became popular; and, at length, so increased in number and
importance, that a _Theatre_ was required for their performance.
The subject of the construction of the Roman theatre is attended with
difficulty and confusion. While there are still considerable remains of
amphitheatres, scarcely any ruins or vestiges of theatres exist. The
writings of the ancients throw little light on the topic; and there is
much contradiction, or at least apparent inconsistency, in what has been
written, in consequence of the alterations which took place in the
construction of theatres in the progress of time.
Those stages, which were erected in the earliest periods of the Roman
republic, for the exhibitions of dancers and histrions, were probably set
up according to the Etruscan mode, in places covered with boughs of trees,
(Nemorosa palatia,) in tents or booths, or, at best, in temporary and
moveable buildings—perhaps not much superior in dignity or accommodation
to the cart of Thespis.
But, though the Etruscan histrions probably constructed the stage on which
they were to perform, according to the fashion of their own country, the
Greek was the model of the regular Roman theatre, as much as the pieces of
Euripides and Menander were the prototypes of the Latin tragedies and
comedies. The remains of a playhouse believed to be Etruscan, were
discovered at Adria about the middle of the seventeenth century. But there
was a wider difference between it and the Roman theatre, than between the
Roman and the Greek. The Greeks had a large orchestra, and a very limited
stage—the Romans, a confined orchestra, and extensive stage; while in the
Adrian theatre, the orchestra was larger even than in the Greek(576).
The first regular theatre at Rome was that constructed for Livius
Andronicus on the Aventine Hill. This building, however, was but
temporary, and probably existed no longer than the distinguished dramatist
and actor for whose accommodation it was erected. In the year 575, M.
Æmilius Lepidus got a theatre constructed adjacent to the temple of
Apollo(577); but it also was one of those occasional buildings, which were
removed after the series of dramatic exhibitions for which they had been
intended were concluded. A short while before the commencement of the
third Punic war, a playhouse, which the censors were fitting up with seats
for the convenience of the spectators, was thrown down by a decree of the
senate, as prejudicial to public morals; and the people continued for some
time longer to view the representations standing, as formerly(578). At
length, M. Æmilius Scaurus built a theatre capable of containing 80,000
spectators, and provided with every possible accommodation for the public.
It was also adorned with amazing magnificence, and at almost incredible
expense. Its stage had three lofts or stories, rising above each other,
and supported by 360 marble columns. The lowest floor was of marble—the
second was incrusted with glass; and the third was formed of gilded boards
or planks. The pillars were thirty-eight feet in height: and between them
were placed bronze statues and images, to the number of not fewer than
3000. There was besides an immense superfluity of rich hangings of cloth
of gold; and painted tablets, the most exquisite that could be procured,
were disposed all around the _pulpitum_ and scenes(579).
Curio, being unable to rival such profuse and costly decoration,
distinguished himself by a new invention, which he introduced at the
funeral entertainments given by him in honour of his father’s memory. He
constructed two large edifices of wood adjacent to each other, and
suspended on hinges so contrived that the buildings could be united at
their centre or separated, in such a manner as to form a theatre or
amphitheatre, according to the nature of the exhibition. In both these
fabrics he made stage plays be acted in the early part of the day—the
semicircles being placed back to back, so that the declamation, music, and
applauses, in the one, did not reach the other; and then, having wheeled
them round in the afternoon, so that, by completing the circle, they
formed an amphitheatre, he exhibited combats of gladiators(580). All these
changes were performed without displacing the spectators, who seem to have
fearlessly trusted themselves to the strength of the machinery, and skill
of the artist.
The theatres of Scaurus and Curio, though they far surpassed in extent and
sumptuous decoration all the permanent theatres of modern times: yet,
being built of wood, and being only destined for a certain number of
representations during certain games or festivals, were demolished when
these were concluded. The whole furnishings and costly materials of the
theatre of Scaurus were immediately removed to his private villa, where
they were burned, it is said, by his servants, in a transport of
indignation at the extravagant profusion of their master(581).
Pompey was the first person who erected a permanent theatre of stone.
After the termination of the Mithridatic war, he made a coasting voyage
along the shores and islands of Greece. In the whole of his progress he
showed the attention of a liberal and cultivated mind to monuments of art.
The theatre of Mitylene particularly pleased him, both in its outward
form, and interior construction. He carried away with him a model of this
building, that he might erect at Rome a theatre similar to it(582), but on
a larger scale. The edifice which he built on the plan of this theatre,
after his return to Rome, was situated in the field of Flora, near the
temple of Venus Victrix, and held just one half of the number of
spectators which the playhouse of Scaurus contained(583). It was completed
during Pompey’s second consulship, in the year 698. On the day on which it
was opened, Æsopus, the great tragic actor, appeared for the last time in
one of his favourite characters, but his strength and voice failed him,
and he was unable to finish the part.
The construction of this theatre was speedily followed by the erection of
others. But all the Roman theatres which were built towards the close of
the republic, and commencement of the empire, were formed, in most
respects, on the model of the Greek theatre, both in their external plan
and interior arrangement. They were oblong semicircular buildings, forming
the half of an amphitheatre; and were thus rounded at one end, and
terminated on the other by a long straight line. The interior was divided
into three parts—1. The place for the spectators; 2. The orchestra; and,
3. The stage(584).
1. The universal passion of the Roman people for all sorts of exhibitions,
rendered the places from which they were to view them a matter of
competition and importance. Originally there were no seats in the
theatres, and the senators stood promiscuously with the people; yet, such
in those days was the reverence felt by the plebeians for their dignified
superiors, that, notwithstanding their rage for spectacles, they never
pushed before a senator(585). It was in the year 559, during the
consulship of the elder Scipio Africanus with Sempronius Longus, that the
former carried a law, by which separate places were assigned to the
senators(586). This regulation was renewed from time to time, as
circumstances of political confusion removed the line of distinction which
had been drawn. Scipio lost much of his popularity by this aristocratic
innovation, and is said to have severely repented of the share he had
taken in it(587). By the law of Scipio, part of the orchestra, (which, in
the Greek theatre, was occupied by the chorus,) was appropriated to the
senators. The knights and plebeians, however, continued to sit
promiscuously for more than 100 years longer; but at length, in 685, a
regulation of the tribune, Roscius Otho, allotted to the knights,
tribunes, and persons of a certain _census_, fourteen rows of circular
benches immediately behind the orchestra. This was a still more unpopular
measure than that introduced by the edict of Africanus. Otho, during the
consulship of Cicero, having entered the theatre, was hissed by the
multitude, while Roscius was acting one of his principal parts; but Cicero
presently called them out to the temple of Bellona, where he delivered a
harangue, which appeased their fury and reconciled them to the
tribune(588). Henceforth the senators held undisputed possession of the
orchestra; and the knights, with the better classes, retained the fourteen
rows of seats immediately surrounding it.
The seats for the senators, arranged in the orchestra, were straight
benches, placed at equal distances from each other, and were not
fixed(589). The other benches, which were assigned to the knights and
people, were semicircularly disposed around the circumference of the
theatre, and spread from the orchestra to the rounded end of the building
The extremities of the seats joined the orchestra, and they were carried
one above another, sloping, till they reached the remotest part, and
ascended almost to the ceiling. Thus the benches which were lowest and
most contiguous to the orchestra, described a smaller circumference than
those which spread more towards the outer walls of the theatre(590). Over
the higher tier of seats a portico was constructed, the roof of which
ranged with the loftiest part of the scene, in order that the voice
expanding equally, might be carried to the uppermost seats, and thence to
the top of the building(591). The benches, which were gently raised above
each other, were separated into three sets or tiers: each tier, at least
in most theatres, consisting of seven benches. According to some writers,
the separation of these tiers was a passage, or gallery, which went quite
round them for facility of communication; according to others, it was a
belt, or precinction, which was twice the height, and twice the breadth of
the seats(592). It would appear, however, from a passage in Vitruvius,
that both a raised belt, and a gallery or corridore, surrounded each tier
of seats(593). One of the precinctions formed the division between the
places of the knights and those of the people(594). In a different and
angular direction, the tiers and ranges of seats were separated by stairs,
making so many lines in the circumference of the seats, and leading from
the orchestra to the doors of the theatre. The benches were cut by the
stairs into the form of wedges. The steps of the stairs were always a
little lower than the seats; but the number of stairs varied in different
theatres. Pompey’s theatre had fifteen, that of Marcellus only seven(595).
As luxury increased at Rome, these stairs were bedewed with streams of
fragrant water, for the purposes of coolness and refreshment. At the top
of each flight of steps were doors called _vomitoria_, which gave egress
from the theatre, and communicated directly with the external
stair-cases(596).
In the ancient temporary Roman theatres, the body of the building, or
place where the spectators sat, was open at top to receive the light. But
Quintus Catulus, during the entertainments exhibited at his dedication of
the Capitol, introduced the luxury of canvass, which was drawn partially
or completely over the theatre at pleasure(597). This curtain was at first
of simple unornamented wool, and was merely used as a screen from the sun,
or a protection from rain; but, in process of time, silken hangings of
glossy texture and splendid hues waved from the roof, flinging their
gorgeous tints on the _proscenium_ and spectators:—
“Et vulgo faciunt id lutea russaque vela,
Et ferrugina, quum, magnis intenta theatris,
Per malos vulgata trabesque, trementia fluctant.
Namque ibi consessum caveai subter, et omnem
Scenalem speciem, patrum, matrumque, deorumque,
Inficiunt, coguntque suo fluitare colore(598).”
2. _The Orchestra_ was a considerable space in the centre of the theatre,
part of which was allotted for the seats of the senators. The remainder
was occupied by those who played upon musical instruments, whose office it
was, in the performance both of tragedies and comedies, to give to the
actors and audience the tone of feeling which the dramatic parts demanded.
In tragedies, the music invariably accompanied the Chorus. It was not,
however, confined to the Chorus; but appears to have been also in the
monologues, and perhaps in some of the most impassioned parts of the
dialogue; for Cicero tells of Roscius, that he said, when he grew older,
he would make the music play slower, that he might the more easily keep up
with it(599). I do not, however, believe, that comedy was a musical
performance throughout: Mr Hawkins, after quoting a number of authorities
to this purpose, concludes, “that comedy had no music but between the
acts, except, perhaps, occasionally in the case of marriages and
sacrifices, if any such were represented on the stage(600).”