the unsatisfactory conditions of our labor, was augmented by the
invasion of publicity. The overturn of our voluntary isolation was a
cause of real suffering for us and had all the effect of disaster. It
was serious trouble brought into the organization of our life, and I
have already explained how indispensable was our freedom from external
distraction, in order to maintain our family life and our scientific
activity. Of course, people who contribute to that kind of trouble
generally mean it kindly. It is only that they do not realize the
conditions of the problem.
In 1904 our second daughter. Eve Denise, came to us. I had, of course,
to interrupt my work in the laboratory for a while. In the same year,
because of the awarding of the Nobel prize and the general public
recognition, a new chair of physics was created in Sorbonne, and my
husband was named as its occupant. At the same time I was named chief of
work in the laboratory that was to be created for him. But in reality
the laboratory was not constructed then, and only a few rooms taken from
other uses were available to us.
In 1906 just as we were definitely giving up the old shed laboratory
where we had been so happy, there came the dreadful catastrophe which
took my husband away from me and left me alone to bring up our children
and, at the same time, to continue our work of research.
It is impossible for me to express the profoundness and importance of
the crisis brought into my life by the loss of the one who had been my
closest companion and best friend. Crushed by the blow, I did not feel
able to face the future. I could not forget, however, what my husband
used sometimes to say, that, even deprived of him, I ought to continue
my work.
The death of my husband, coming immediately after the general knowledge
of the discoveries with which his name is associated, was felt by the
public, and especially by the scientific circles, to be a national
misfortune. It was largely under the influence of this emotion that the
Faculty of Sciences of Paris decided to offer me the chair, as
professor, which my husband had occupied only one year and a half in the
Sorbonne. It was an exceptional decision, as up to then no woman had
held such a position. The University by doing this offered me a precious
mark of esteem and gave me opportunity to pursue the researches which
otherwise might have had to be abandoned. I had not expected a gift of
this kind; I never had any other ambition than to be able to work freely
for science. The honor that now came to me was deeply painful under the
cruel circumstances of its coming. Besides I wondered whether I would be
able to face such a grave responsibility. After much hesitation, I
decided that I ought at least to try to meet the task, and so I began in
1906 my teaching in the Sorbonne, as assistant professor, and two years
later I was named titular professor.
In my new situation the difficulties of my life were considerably
augmented, as I alone had now to carry the burden formerly weighing on
my husband and me together. The cares of my young children required
close vigilance; in this, my husband's father, who continued to live
with us, willingly took his share. He was happy to be occupied with the
little girls, whose company was his chief consolation after his son's
death. By his effort and mine, the children had a bright home, even if
we lived with our inner grief, which they were too young to realize. The
strong desire of my father-in-law being to live in the country, we took
a house with a garden in Sceaux, a suburb of Paris, from which I could
reach the city in half an hour.
This country life had great advantages, not only for my father-in-law,
who enjoyed his new surroundings, and especially his garden, but also
for my girls, who had the benefit of walks in the open country. But they
were more separated from me, and it became necessary to have a governess
for them. This position was filled first by one of my cousins, and then
by a devoted woman who had already brought up the daughter of one of my
sisters. Both of them were Polish, and in this way my daughters learned
my native tongue. From time to time, some one of my Polish family came
to see me in my grief, and we managed to meet in vacation time, at the
seashore in France, and once in the mountains of Poland.
In 1910 we suffered the loss of my very dear father-in-law, after a long
illness, which brought me many sorrowful days. I used to spend at his
bedside as much time as I could, listening to his remembrances of passed
years. His death affected deeply my elder daughter, who, at twelve, knew
the value of the cheerful hours spent in his company.
There were few resources for the education of my daughters in Sceaux.
The youngest one, a small child, needed principally a hygienic life,
outdoor walks and quite elementary schooling. She had already shown a
vivid intelligence and an unusual disposition for music. Her elder
sister resembled her father in the form of her intelligence. She was not
quick, but one could already see that she had a gift of reasoning power
and that she would like science. She had some training in a private
school in Paris, but I had not wanted to keep her in a lycée, as I have
always found the class hours in these schools too long for the health of
the children.
My view is that in the education of children the requirement of their
growth and physical evolution should be respected, and that some time
should be left for their artistic culture. In most schools, as they
exist to-day, the time spent in various reading and writing exercises is
too great, and the study required to be done at home too much. I also
find these schools lacking, in general, in practical exercises to
accompany the scientific studies.
With a few friends in the university circle who shared these views, we
organized, therefore, a cooperative group for the education of our
children, each of us taking charge of the teaching of a particular
subject to all of the young people. We were all very busy with other
things, and the children varied in age. Nevertheless, the little
experiment thus made was very interesting. With a small number of
classes we yet succeeded in reuniting the scientific and literary
elements of a desirable culture. The courses in science were accompanied
by practical exercises in which the children took great interest.
This arrangement, which lasted two years, proved to be very beneficial
for most of the children; it was certainly so for my elder daughter.
Following this preparation, she was able to enter a higher class in one
of the _collèges_ of Paris, and had no difficulty in passing her
bachelor's examination before the usual age, after which she continued
her scientific studies in the Sorbonne.
My second daughter, although not benefiting by a similar arrangement for
her earlier studies, at first followed the classes of a _collège_ only
partially, and later completely. She showed herself a good pupil, doing
satisfactory work in all directions.
I wanted very much to assure for my children a rational physical
education. Next to outdoor walks, I attach a great importance to
gymnastics and sports. This side of a girl's education is still rather
neglected in France. I took care that my children did gymnastics
regularly. I was also careful to have them spend vacations either in the
mountains or at the seashore. They can canoe and swim very well and are
not afraid of a long walk or a bicycle ride.
But of course the care of my children's education was only a part of my
duties, my professional occupations taking most of my time. I have been
frequently questioned, especially by women, how I could reconcile family
life with a scientific career. Well, it has not been easy; it required a
great deal of decision and of self-sacrifice. However, the family bond
has been preserved between me and my now grown-up daughters, and life is
made brighter by the mutual affection and understanding in our home,
where I could not suffer a harsh word or selfish behavior.
In 1906, when I succeeded my husband at the Sorbonne, I had only a
provisional laboratory with little space and most limited equipment. A
few scientists and students had already been admitted to work there with
my husband and me. With their help, I was able to continue the course of
research with good success.
In 1907, I received a precious mark of sympathy from Mr. Andrew
Carnegie, who donated to my laboratory an annual income for research
fellowships which enabled some advanced students or scientists to devote
their whole time to investigation. Such foundations are very encouraging
to those whose inclinations and talents are such as to warrant their
entire devotion to research work. They ought to be multiplied in the
interest of science.
As for myself, I had to devote again a great deal of time to the
preparation of several decigrammes of very pure radium chloride. With
this I achieved, in 1907, a new determination of the atomic weight of
radium, and in 1910 I was able to isolate the metal. The operation, an
extremely delicate one, was performed with the assistance of a
distinguished chemist belonging to the laboratory staff. It has never
been repeated since that time, because it involves a serious danger of
loss of radium, which can be avoided only with utmost care. So I saw at
last the mysterious white metal, but could not keep it in this state,
for it was required for further experiments.
As for the polonium, I have not been able to isolate it, its quantity in
the mineral being even much less than the quantity of radium. However,
very concentrated polonium has been prepared in my laboratory, and
important experiments have been performed with this substance,
concerning especially the production of helium by radiation of polonium.
I had to devote special care to the improvement of the measuring methods
in the laboratory. I have told how important precise measurements were
in the discovery of radium. It is still to be hoped that efficient
methods of quantitative determination may lead to new discoveries.
I devised a very satisfactory method for determining the quantity of
radium by the means of a radioactive gas produced by it and called
"emanation." This method, frequently used in my laboratory, permits of
the measurement of very small quantities of radium (less than a
thousandth of a milligramme), with a fair precision. More important
quantities are often measured by their penetrating radiation, named
Gamma-rays. For this we also possess in my laboratory a suitable
equipment. It is easier and more satisfactory to measure the radium by
the emitted rays, than to weigh it in a balance. However, these
measurements require the disposition of reliable standards. So the
question of a radium standard had to be taken into careful
consideration.
The measurements of radium had to be established on a solid basis, for
the benefit of laboratories and scientific research, which, of course,
is in itself an important reason, and moreover, the growing medical
utilization of this substance made it necessary to control the relative
purity of commercially produced radium.
The first experiments on the biological properties of radium were
successfully made in France with samples from our laboratory, while my
husband was living. The results were, at once, encouraging, so that the
new branch of medical science, called radiumtherapy (in France,
_Curietherapy_), developed rapidly, first in France and later in other
countries. To supply the radium wanted for this purpose, a
radium-producing industry was established. The first plant was created
in France and worked very successfully, but afterwards manufactures were
founded in other countries, the most important of which are now in
America, where great quantities of radium ore, named "carnotite," are
available. The radiumtherapy and the radium production developed
conjointly, and the results were more and more important, for the
treatment of several diseases, and particularly of cancer. As a
consequence of this, several institutes have been founded, in the large
cities, for the application of the new therapy. Some of these institutes
own several grammes of radium, the commercial price of the gramme being
now about $70,000, the cost of production depending on the very small
proportion of radium in the ore.
It may be easily understood how deeply I appreciated the privilege of
realizing that our discovery had become a benefit to mankind, not only
through its great scientific importance, but also by its power of
efficient action against human suffering and terrible disease. This was
indeed a splendid reward for our years of hard toil.
The success of the therapy depends, of course, on the precise knowledge
of the quantity of radium which is used, so that the measurements of
radium are as important for industry and for medicine as for
physicochemical research.
Considering all these needs, a commission of scientific men of different
countries was formed who agreed to take as a base an international
standard, formed of a carefully weighed quantity of pure radium salt.
Secondary standards were then to be prepared for each country, and
compared to the basic standard by means of their radiation. I was
appointed to prepare the primary standard.
This was a very delicate operation, as the weight of the standard
sample, quite small (about 21 milligrammes of chloride), had to be
determined with great precision. I performed the preparation in 1911.
The standard is a thin glass tube, of a few centimeters in length,
containing the pure salt which was used for the determination of atomic
weight. It was accepted by the Commission and is deposited in the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, near Paris.
Several secondary standards, compared with the primary one, have been
put into service by the Commission. In France the control of radium
tubes, by the measurement of their radiation, takes place in my
laboratory, where any one may bring the radium to be tested; in the
United States this is done in the Bureau of Standards.
Near the end of the year 1910, I was proposed for the decoration of the
Légion of Honor. A similar proposal was made earlier in favor of my
husband, who, however, being opposed to all honorary distinctions, did
not accept the nomination. As my husband and I were too united in all
things for me to act differently from him in this matter, I did not
accept the decoration, in spite of the insistence of the Ministry. At
that time also, several colleagues persuaded me to be a candidate for
election to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, of which my husband was a
member during the last months of his life. I hesitated very much, as
such a candidacy requires, by custom, a great number of personal visits
to Academy members. However, I consented to offer myself a candidate,
because of the advantages an election would have for my laboratory. My
candidacy provoked a vivid public interest, especially because it
involved the question of the admission of women to the Academy. Many of
the Academicians were opposed to this in principle, and when the
scrutiny was made, I had a few votes less than was necessary. I do not
ever wish to renew my candidacy, because of my strong distaste for the
personal solicitation required. I believe that all such elections should
be based wholly on a spontaneous decision, without any personal efforts
involved, as was the case for several Academies and Societies which made
me a member without any demand or initiative on my part.
As a result of all the cares devolving on me, I fell seriously ill at
the end of 1911, when, for the second time, I received, this time alone,
the award of the Nobel prize. This was a very exceptional honor, a high
recognition of the discovery of the new elements and of the preparation
of pure radium. Suffering though I was, I went to Stockholm to receive
the prize. The journey was extremely painful for me. I was accompanied
by my eldest sister and my young daughter Irene. The ceremony of
delivery of the Nobel prizes is very impressive, having the features of
a national solemnity. A most generous reception was accorded me,
specially by the women of Sweden. This was a great comfort to me, but I
was suffering so much that when I returned I had to stay in bed for
several months. This grave illness, as well as the necessities of my
children's education, obliged me to move my home from Sceaux to Paris.
During the year 1912 I had the opportunity of collaborating in the
creation of a laboratory of radium at Warsaw. This laboratory was
founded by the Scientific Society of Warsaw which offered me its
direction. I could not leave France to go back to my native country, but
I willingly agreed to occupy myself with the organization of the studies
in the new laboratory. In 1913, having improved my health, I was able to
attend an inauguration fête in Warsaw, where a touching reception was
given, leaving me an unforgettable memory of national sentiment which
succeeded in creating useful work under particularly difficult political
conditions.
While still only partially recovered from my illness, I renewed my
efforts for the construction of a suitable laboratory in Paris. Finally
it was arranged for, and work began in 1912. The Pasteur Institute
wished to be associated with this laboratory, and, in accord with the
University, it was decided to create an Institute of Radium, with two
laboratories, one of physics and one of biology, the first to be devoted
to studies of the physical and chemical properties of the radioactive
elements, the second to the study of their biological and medical
applications. But, because of the lack of financial means, the
construction work proceeded very slowly, and was not yet entirely
finished when the war broke out in 1914.
CHAPTER III
In 1914, it happened, as it often had in other years, that my daughters
had left Paris for their summer vacation before me. They were
accompanied by their governess, in whom I had all confidence, and were
living in a small house on the seashore in Brittany, at a place where
there were also the families of several of our good friends. My work did
not generally permit me to pass the entire vacation near them without
interruption.
That year I was preparing to join them in the last days of July, when I
was stopped by the bad political news, with its premonitions of an
imminent military mobilization. It did not seem possible for me to leave
under these conditions, and I waited for further events. The
mobilization was announced on August 1st, immediately followed by
Germany's declaration of war on France. The few men of the laboratory
staff and the students were mobilized, and I was left alone with our
mechanic who could not join the army because of a serious heart trouble.
The historic events that followed are known to every one, but only those
who lived in Paris through the days of August and September, 1914, can
ever really know the state of mind in the capital and the quiet courage
shown by it. The mobilization was a general wave of all France passing
out to the border for the defense of the land. All our interest now
centered on the news from the front.
After the uncertainties of the first days this news became more and more
grave.
First, it was the invasion of Belgium and the heroic resistance of that
little country; then the victorious march of the German army through the
valley of the Oise toward Paris; and soon the departure of the French
government to Bordeaux, followed by the leaving of those Parisians who
could not, or would not, face the possible danger of German occupation.
The overloaded trains took into the country a great number of people,
mostly of the well-to-do class. But, on the whole, the people of Paris
gave a strong impression of calm and quiet decision in that fateful year
of 1914. In the end of August and the beginning of September the weather
was radiant, and under the glorious sky of those days the great city
with its architectural treasures seemed to be particularly dear to those
who remained in it.
When the danger of German attack on Paris became pressing, I felt
obliged to put in security the supply of radium then in my laboratory,
and I was charged by the government to take it to Bordeaux for safety.
But I did not want to be away long, and hence decided to return
immediately. I left by one of the trains that were carrying government
staff and baggage, and I well remember the aspect of the national
highway which is at intervals in view from the train; it showed a long
line of motor-cars carrying their owners from the capital.
Arriving at Bordeaux in the evening, I was very embarrassed with my
heavy bag including the radium protected by lead. I was not able to
carry it and waited in a public place, while a friendly ministry
employee who came by the same train managed to find a room for me in a
private apartment, the hotels being overcrowded. The next morning I
hurried to put the radium in a safe place, and succeeded, although not
without difficulty, in taking a military train back to Paris in the
evening of the same day. Having opportunity for exchanging a few
sentences with persons on the place who wanted to ask information from
people coming by the train, I was interested to notice how they seemed
surprised and comforted to learn of some one who found it natural to
return to Paris.
My trip back was troubled by delays; for several hours the train rested
immovable on the rails, while the travelers accepted a little bread from
the soldiers who were provided with it. Finally arriving in Paris, I
learned that the German army had turned; the battle of the Marne had
begun.
In Paris I shared the alternating hope and grief of the inhabitants
during the course of that great battle, and had the constant worry of
foreseeing a long separation from my children in case the Germans
succeeded in occupying the city. Yet I felt that I must stay at my post.
After the successful outcome of the battle, however, any immediate
danger of occupation being removed, I was able to have my daughters come
back from Brittany to Paris and again take up their studies. This was
the great desire of my children, who did not want to stay away from me
and from their work, even if many other families thought it wiser to
stay in the country, far from the front.
The dominant duty imposed on every one at that time was to help the
country in whatever way possible during the extreme crisis that it
faced. No general instructions to this were given to the members of the
University. It was left to each to take his own initiative and means of
action. I therefore sought to discover the most efficient way to do
useful work, turning my scientific knowledge to most profit.
During the rapid succession of events in August, 1914, it was clearly
proved that the preparation for defense was insufficient. Public feeling
was especially aroused by the realization of the grave failings which
appeared in the organization of the Health Service. My own attention was
particularly drawn to this situation, and I soon found a field of
activity which, once entered upon, absorbed the greatest part of my time
and efforts until the end of the war, and even for some time thereafter.
The work was the organization of radiologic and radiotherapeutic
services for the military hospitals. But I also had to make the change,
during these difficult war years, of my laboratory into the new building
of the Institute of Radium and to continue, in the measure possible to
me, regular teaching, as well as to investigate certain problems
especially interesting the military service.
It is well known that the X-rays offer surgeons and doctors extremely
useful means for the examination of the sick and wounded. They make
possible the discovery and the exact location of projectiles which have
entered the body, and this is a great help in their extraction. These
rays also reveal lesions of bones and of the internal organs and permit
one to follow the progress of recovery from internal injuries. The use
of the X-rays during the war saved the lives of many wounded men; it
also saved many from long suffering and lasting infirmity. To all the
wounded it gave a greater chance of recovery.
However, at the beginning of the war, the Military Board of Health had
no organization of radiology, while the civil organization was also but
little developed. Radiologic installations existed in only a small
number of important hospitals, and there were only a few specialists in
the large cities. The numerous new hospitals that were established all
over France in the first months of the war had, as a rule, no
installation for the use of X-rays.
To meet this need I first gathered together all the apparatus I could
find in the laboratories and stores. With this equipment I established
in August and September, 1914, several stations of radiology, the
operation of which was assured by volunteer helpers to whom I gave
instruction. These stations rendered great service during the battle of
the Marne. But as they could not satisfy the needs of all the hospitals
of the Paris region, I fitted up, with the help of the Red Cross, a
radiologic car. It was simply a touring motor-car, arranged for the
transport of a complete radiologic apparatus, together with a dynamo
that was worked by the engine of the car, and furnished the electric
current necessary for the production of the rays. This car could come at
the call of any of the hospitals, large or small, in the surroundings of
Paris. Cases of urgent need were frequent, for these hospitals had to
take care of the wounded who could not be transported to more distant
places.
The first results of this work showed that it was necessary to do more.
Thanks to special donations and to the help of a very efficient relief
committee called "le Patronage National des Blessés," I succeeded in
developing my initiative to a considerable extent. About two hundred
radiologic installations were established or materially improved through
my efforts in the zone of the French and Belgian armies, and in the
regions of France not occupied by the army. I was able, besides, to
equip in my laboratory and give to the army twenty radiologic cars. The
frames of these cars were donated by various persons who wished to be
helpful; some of them offered also the equipment. The cars were of the
greatest service to the army.
These privately developed installations were particularly important in
the first two years of the war, when the regular military service
possessed but few radiologic instruments. Later the Board of Health
created, little by little, a considerable radiologic service of its own,
as the utility of the stations was more clearly realized owing to the
example given by private initiative. But the needs of the armies were so
great, that my cooperation continued necessary to the end of the war,
and even afterwards.
I could not have accomplished this work without seeing for myself the
needs of the ambulance stations and hospitals. Thanks to the help of the
Red Cross and to the agreement of the Board of Health, I was able to
make several journeys to the army zones and to the other parts of
France. Several times I visited the ambulance stations of the armies of
the north and in the Belgian zone, going to Amiens, Calais, Dunkirk,
Furnes, and Poperinghe. I went to Verdun, Nancy, Luneville, Belfort, to
Compiegne, and Villers-Cotterets. In the regions distant from the front,
I took care of many hospitals which had to do very intensive work with
little aid. And I keep as a precious recollection of that time, many
letters of warm recognition from those to whom I brought help in their
difficulties.
The motive of my starting on a journey was usually a demand from
surgeons. I went with a radiologic car which I kept for my personal use.
In examining the wounded in the hospital, I could gain information of
the special needs of the region. When back in Paris, I got the necessary
equipment to meet these needs and returned to install it myself, for
very often the people on the ground could not do it. I had then to find
competent persons to handle the apparatus and show them how to do it, in
full detail. After a few days of hard toil, the manipulator knew enough
to work the apparatus himself, and at the same time a large number of
wounded had been examined. In addition, the surgeons of the region had
gained an idea of the usefulness of the radiologic examination (which
few of them knew at that time), and friendly relations were established
which made the later development of my work much easier.
On several of my trips I was accompanied by my elder daughter, Irene,
who was then seventeen years old, and, having finished her preparatory
studies, was beginning higher studies at the Sorbonne. Because she
greatly desired to be useful, she now studied nursing and learned
radiology, and did her best to help me under the most varied
circumstances. She did ambulance work at the front between Furnes and
Ypres, and also at Amiens, receiving, from the Chiefs of Service,
testimonials of work satisfactorily performed and, at the end of the
war, a medal.
Of the hospital life of those years, we keep many a remembrance, my
daughter and I. Traveling conditions were extraordinarily difficult; we
were often not sure of being able to press forward, to say nothing of
the uncertainty of finding lodgings and food. However, things always
ended in arranging themselves, thanks to our persistence and to the good
will we met. Wherever we went I had to look after each detail myself and
see innumerable military chiefs to obtain passes and permissions for
transportation. Many a time I loaded my apparatus on to the train
myself, with the help of the employees, to make sure that it would go
forward instead of remaining behind several days at the station. And on
arrival I also went to extract them from the encumbered station.
When I traveled with the radiologic car, other problems presented
themselves. I had, for instance, to find safe places for the car, to get
lodgings for the assistants and to secure the automobile accessories.
Since chauffeurs were scarce, I learned to drive the car, and did it
when necessary. Owing to all this personal supervision, my installations
were usually swiftly made, whereas appeal to the Central Health Service
was answered slowly. So the military chiefs greatly appreciated the
assistance they could get from me, especially in cases of urgent need.
We both, my daughter and myself, have pleasant and grateful memories of
the personnel of the hospitals, and were on the best terms with the
surgeons and nurses. One could not but admire these men and women who
were giving their services without counting, and whose task was often
overwhelming. Our collaboration was easy, for my daughter and I tried to
work in their spirit; and we felt that we were standing side by side
with friends.
While we were attached to the Belgian Ambulance Service, we were present
several times during visits of King Albert and Queen Elizabeth. We
appreciated deeply their devotion, their solicitude for the wounded,
their extreme simplicity, and the cordiality of their behavior.
But nothing was so moving as to be with the wounded and to take care of
them. We were drawn to them because of their suffering and because of
the patience with which they bore it. Almost everyone did his best to
facilitate the X-ray examination, notwithstanding the pain caused by any
displacement. One learned very soon to know them individually and to
exchange with them a few friendly words. Those who were not familiar
with the examination, wanted very much to be reassured about the effect
of the strange apparatus they were going to experience.
I can never forget the terrible impression of all that destruction of
human life and health. To hate the very idea of war, it ought to be
sufficient to see once what I have seen so many times, all through those
years: men and boys brought to the advanced ambulance in a mixture of
mud and blood, many of them dying of their injuries, many others
recovering but slowly through months of pain and suffering.
One of my difficult problems was to find the necessary trained
assistants to operate my apparatus. At the beginning of the war there
was little knowledge of radiology, and apparatus in the hands of those
who did not understand how to handle it deteriorated quickly and was
soon useless. The practice of radiology in most hospitals in war-time
does not require much medical knowledge; it can be sufficiently grasped
by intelligent persons who know how to study and who have some notion of
electrical machinery. Professors, engineers, or university students
often made good manipulators. I had to look for those who were
temporarily free from military service, or who happened to be stationed
in the locality where I needed them. But even after I had secured them,
these operators were often transferred by military orders, and I had to
search again for others to fill their places. For this reason, I
determined to train women to do this work.
Accordingly, I proposed to the Health Service to add a department of
radiology to the Nurses' School which had just been founded at the Edith
Cavell Hospital. This they agreed to do. And so, in 1916, the course was
organized at the Radium Institute, and provided in the following years
of war for the training of one hundred and fifty operators. Most of the
pupils who applied had only an elementary education, but could succeed
if working in a proper way. The course comprised theoretical studies and
very extended practical training; it included also some instruction in
anatomy. It was given by a few persons of good will, among them my
daughter. Our graduates formed an excellent personnel very genuinely
appreciated by the Board of Health. Theoretically, they were supposed to
serve as aides to physicians, but several of them proved capable of
independent work.
My continued and various experience in war radiology gave me a wide
knowledge of that subject, which I felt should be made more familiar to
the public. So I wrote a small book called "Radiology and the War," in
which I aimed to demonstrate the vital importance of radiology and to
compare its development during war time with its use in the previous
time of peace.
I come now to the account of the founding of the service of
radiumtherapy at the Radium Institute.
In 1915, the radium, which had been safely deposited in Bordeaux, was
brought back to Paris, and not having time for regular scientific
research, I decided to use it to cure the wounded, without, however,
risking the loss of this precious material. I proceeded to place at the
disposal of the Health Service not the radium itself, but the emanation
which can be obtained from it at regular intervals. The technique of the
use of the emanation can readily be employed in the larger radiumtherapy
institutes, and, in many ways, is more practicable than the direct use
of radium. In France, however, there was no national institute of
radiumtherapy, and the emanation was not used in hospitals.
I offered to furnish regularly to the Health Service bulbs of radium
emanation. The offer was accepted, and the "Emanation Service," started
in 1916, was continued until the end of the war and even longer. Having
no assistants, I had, for a long time, to prepare these emanation bulbs
alone, and their preparation is very delicate. Numbers of wounded and
sick, military and civil, were treated by means of these bulbs.
During the bombardment of Paris, the Health Board took special measures
to protect from shells the laboratory in which the bulbs were prepared.
Since the handling of radium is far from being free of danger (several
times I have felt a discomfort which I consider a result of this cause),
measures were taken to prevent harmful effects of the rays on the
persons preparing emanation.
While the work in connection with the hospitals remained my major
interest, I had many other preoccupations during the war.
After the failure of the German offensive in the summer of 1918, at the
request of the Italian government, I went to Italy to study the question
of her natural resources in radioactive materials. I remained a month
and was able to obtain certain results in interesting the public
authorities in the importance of this new subject.
It was in 1915 that I had to move my laboratory to the new building in
the rue Pierre Curie. This was a trying and complicated experience, for
which, once more, I had no money nor any help. So it was only between my
journeys that I was able, little by little, to do the transportation of
my laboratory equipment, in my radiologic cars. Afterwards, I had much
work in classifying and distributing my materials, and arranging the new
place in general, with the help of my daughter and of my mechanic, who,
unfortunately, was often ill.
One of my first cares was to have trees planted in the limited grounds
of my laboratory. I feel it very necessary for the eyes to have the
comfort of fresh leaves in spring and summer time. So I tried to make
things pleasant for those who were to work in the new building. We
planted a few lime trees and plane trees, as many as there was room for,
and did not forget flowerbeds and roses. I well remember the first day
of bombardment of Paris with the big German gun; we had gone, in the
early morning, to the flower-market, and spent all that day busy with
our plantation, while a few shells fell in the vicinity.
In spite of the great difficulties, the new laboratory was organized
little by little, and I had the satisfaction of having it quite ready
for the beginning of the school-year 1919-20, the period of
demobilization. In the spring of 1919, I organized special courses for
some American soldier students, who also studied with much zeal the
practical exercises directed by my daughter.
[Illustration: _Photo by U. S. Signal Corps._
Mme. Curie instructing American soldiers in her Paris laboratory.]
The entire period of the war was for me, as for many others, a period of
great fatigue. I took almost no vacation, except for a few days, now and
then, when I went to see my daughters on their holidays. My older
daughter would scarcely take any, and I was obliged to send her away
sometimes to preserve her health. She was continuing her studies in the
Sorbonne, and besides, as said before, was helping me with my war work,
while the younger daughter was still in the preparatory college. Neither
of them wished to leave Paris during the bombardment.
After more than four years of a war which caused ravages without
precedent, the armistice came at last, in the autumn of 1918, followed
by laborious efforts to reëstablish peace, which is not yet general nor
complete. It was a great relief to France to see the end of that dark
period of cruel losses. But the griefs are too recent and life still too
hard for calm and happiness yet to be restored.
Nevertheless, a great joy came to me as a consequence of the victory
obtained by the sacrifice of so many human lives. I had lived, though I
had scarcely expected it, to see the reparation of more than a century
of injustice that had been done to Poland, my native country, and that
had kept her in slavery, her territories and people divided among her
enemies. It was a deserved resurrection for the Polish nation, which
showed herself faithful to her national memories during the long period
of oppression, almost without hope. The dream that appeared so difficult
to realize, although so dear, became a reality following the storm that
swept over Europe. In these new conditions I went to Warsaw and saw my
family again, after many years of separation, in the capital of free
Poland. But how difficult are the conditions of life of the new Polish
republic, and how complicated is the problem of reorganization after so
many years of abnormal life!
In France, partly devastated and suffering from the loss of so many of
her citizens, the difficulties created by the war are not yet effaced,
and the return to normal work is being attained only gradually. The
scientific laboratories feel this state of affairs and the same
condition prevails for the Radium Institute.
The various radiologic organizations created during the war still
partially exist. The Radiographic Nurses' School has been maintained at
the request of the Board of Health. The emanation service, which could
not be abandoned, is also continued in a considerably enlarged form. It
has passed under the direction of Doctor Regaud, Director of the Pasteur
Laboratory of the Radium Institute, and is developing into a great
national service of radiumtherapy.
The work of the laboratory has been reorganized, with the return of the
mobilized personnel and the students. But in the restrained
circumstances under which the country still exists, the laboratory lacks
ways and means for its efficient development. Particularly are wanted an
independent hospital for radiumtherapy (which is called _Curietherapy_
in France), and an experimental station, outside of Paris, for
experiments on great quantities of material, such as are needed for the
progress of our knowledge of radioactive elements.
I myself am no longer young, and I frequently ask myself whether, in
spite of recent efforts of the government aided by some private
donations, I shall ever succeed in building up for those who will come
after me an Institute of Radium, such as I wish to the memory of Pierre
Curie and to the highest interest of humanity.
However, a precious encouragement came to me in the year 1921. On the
initiative of a generous daughter of the United States, Mrs. W. B.
Meloney, the women of that great American country collected a fund, the
"Marie Curie Radium Fund," and offered me the gift of a gramme of radium
to be placed entirely at my disposal for scientific research. Mrs.
Meloney invited me with my daughters to come to America and to receive
the gift, or the symbol of it, from the hands of the President of the
great republic, at the White House.
The fund was collected by a public subscription, as well by small as by
important gifts, and I was very thankful to my sisters of America for
this genuine proof of their affection. So I started for New York at the
beginning of May, after a ceremony given in my honor at the Opera of
Paris, to greet me before my departing.
I keep a grateful memory of my sojourn in the United States for several
weeks, of the impressive reception at the White House, where President
Harding addressed me in generous and affectionate words, of my visits to
the universities and colleges which welcomed me and bestowed on me their
honorary degrees, of the public reunions where I could not but feel the
deep sympathy of those who came to meet me and to wish me good luck.
[[Illustration: _Henri Manuel, Paris._
Madame Curie in her laboratory at the Institut Curie, Paris.]
I had also the opportunity of a visit to the Niagara Falls and to the
Grand Canyon, and admired immensely these marvelous creations of nature.
Unhappily, the precarious state of my health did not permit of the
complete fulfilment of the general plan established by my visit to
America. However, I saw and learned much, and my daughters enjoyed to a
full extent the opportunities of their unexpected vacation and the pride
in the recognition of their mother's work. We left for Europe at the end
of June, with the real sorrow of parting from excellent friends whom we
would not forget.
I came back to my work, made easier by the precious gift, with an even
stronger desire to carry it forward with renewed courage. But as my aims
are still wanting support in essential parts, I am frequently compelled
to give thought to a very fundamental question concerning the view a
scientist ought to take of his discovery.
My husband, as well as myself, always refused to draw from our discovery
any material profit. We have published, since the beginning, without any
reserve, the process that we used to prepare the radium. We took out no
patent and we did not reserve any advantage in any industrial
exploitation. No detail was kept secret, and it is due to the
information we gave in our publications that the industry of radium has
been rapidly developed. Up to the present time this industry hardly uses
any methods except those established by us. The treatment of the
minerals and the fractional crystallizations are still performed in the
same way, as I did it in my laboratory, even if the material means are
increased.
As for the radium prepared by me out of the ore we managed to obtain in
the first years of our work, I have given it all to my laboratory.
The price of radium is very high since it is found in minerals in very
small quantities, and the profits of its manufacture have been great, as
this substance is used to cure a number of diseases. So it is a fortune
which we have sacrificed in renouncing the exploitation of our
discovery, a fortune that could, after us, have gone to our children.
But what is even more to be considered is the objection of many of our
friends, who have argued, not without reason, that if we had guaranteed
our rights, we could have had the financial means of founding a
satisfactory Institute of Radium, without experiencing any of the
difficulties that have been such a handicap to both of us, and are still
a handicap to me. Yet, I still believe that we have done right.
Humanity, surely, needs practical men who make the best of their work
for the sake of their own interests, without forgetting the general
interest. But it also needs dreamers, for whom the unselfish following
of a purpose is so imperative that it becomes impossible for them to
devote much attention to their own material benefit. No doubt it could
be said that these idealists do not deserve riches since they do not
have the desire for them. It seems, however, that a society well
organized ought to assure to these workers the means for efficient
labor, in a life from which material care is excluded so that this life
may be freely devoted to the service of scientific research.
CHAPTER IV
A VISIT TO AMERICA
My beautiful voyage to the United States of America resulted, as is
known, from the generous initiative of an American woman, Mrs. Meloney,
editor of an important magazine, the _Delineator_, who, having planned
the gift of a gramme of radium to me by her countrywomen, succeeded in a
few months in bringing this plan to execution, and asked me to come over
and receive the gift personally.
The idea was that the gift would come exclusively from the American
women. A committee including several prominent women and distinguished
scientific men received some important gifts, and made an appeal for a
public subscription, to which a great number of women's organizations,
especially colleges and clubs, responded. In many cases gifts came from
persons who had experienced the benefit of radiumtherapy. In this way
was collected the "Marie Curie Radium Fund" of more than one hundred
thousand dollars for the purchase of a gramme of radium. The President
of the United States, Mr. Harding, kindly agreed to deliver the gift in
a ceremony at the White House.
The Committee invited me and my daughters to the United States in May,
and even though it was not vacation time for me, I accepted the
invitation with the consent of the University of Paris.
All care of the voyage was taken away from me. Mrs. Meloney came to
France in time to be present at a manifestation organized on the 28th of
April in favor of the Radium Institute of Paris by the magazine _Je Sais
Tout_, and accompanied by sincere expressions of sympathy for the
American nation. On May 4th, we took passage at Cherbourg on the
_Olympic_ for New York.
The program of my voyage prepared by the Committee seemed very
intimidating. It was announced that I would not only attend the ceremony
at the White House, but also visit many universities and colleges in
several towns. Some of these institutions had contributed to the Fund;
all desired to offer me honors. The vitality and the activity of the
American nation produces programs on a large scale. On the other hand,
the wideness of the country has developed in American citizens the
custom of long travel. But during all that travel I was protected with
the greatest care, in order to lighten as far as possible the inevitable
fatigue of the voyage and the receptions. America not only gave me a
generous welcome, but also true friends whom I could not thank enough
for their kindness and their devotion.
After having admired the grand view of the harbors of New York, and
having been greeted by groups of students, Girl Scouts, and Polish
delegates, and welcomed by many gifts of flowers, we took possession of
a peaceful apartment in town. The following day I made the acquaintance
of the Reception Committee at a luncheon given by Mrs. Carnegie in her
beautiful home still filled with memories of her husband, Andrew
Carnegie, whose philanthropic achievements are well known in France. The
following day we went for a visit of a few days to Smith College, and
Vassar College, a few hours from New York. Later I also visited the
colleges of Bryn Mawr and Wellesley, and I saw some others on my way.
These colleges, or universities for women, are very characteristic of
American life and culture. My short visit could not permit me to give an
authorized opinion on the intellectual training, but even in such a
visit as I made one may notice important differences between the French
and American conception of girls' education, and some of these
differences would not be in favor of our country. Two points have
particularly drawn my attention: the care of the health and the physical
development of the students, and the very independent organization of
their life which allows a large degree of individual initiative.
The colleges are excellent in their construction and organization. They
are composed of several buildings, often scattered in very large grounds
between lawns and trees. Smith is on the shore of a charming river. The
equipment is comfortable and hygienic, of extreme cleanliness, with
bathrooms, showers, distribution of cold and hot water. The students
have cheerful private rooms and common gathering rooms. A very complete
organization of games and sports exists in every college. The students
play tennis and baseball; they have gymnasium, canoeing, swimming, and
horseback riding. Their health is under the constant care of medical
advisers. It seems to be a frequent opinion of American mothers that the
existing atmosphere of cities like New York is not favorable to the
education of young girls, and that a life in the country in the open air
gives more suitable conditions for the health and the tranquillity of
studying.
In every college the young girls form an association and elect a
committee which has to establish the internal rules of the college. The
students display a great activity: they take part in educational work;
they publish a paper; they are devoted to songs and music; they write
plays, and act them in college and out of it. These plays have
interested me very much in their subjects and the execution. The
students are also of different social conditions. Many of them are of
wealthy families, but many others live on scholarships. The whole
organization may be considered as democratic. A few students are
foreigners, and we have met some French students very well pleased with
the college life and the studies.
Every college takes four years of study with examinations from time to
time. Some students afterwards do personal work, and acquire the degree
of Doctor, which does not exactly correspond to the same title in
France. The colleges have laboratories with many good facilities for
experimentation.
I have been strongly impressed by the joy of life animating these young
girls and expanding on every occasion, like that of one of my visit. If
the ceremonies of the reception were performed in a nearly military
order, a spontaneity of youth and happiness expressed itself in the
songs of greeting composed by the students, in the smiling and excited
faces, and in the rushing over the lawns to greet me at my arrival. This
was indeed a charming impression which I could not forget.
Back in New York, several ceremonies awaited me before my leaving for
Washington. A luncheon of the Chemists, a reception at the Museum of
Natural History and the Mineralogical Club, a dinner at the Institute of
Social Sciences, and a great meeting at Carnegie Hall, where many
delegations represented the faculties and students of women's colleges
and universities. At all these receptions I was greeted in warm
addresses by prominent men and women, and I received honors very
precious to me because of the sincerity of the givers. Neither has the
part of national friendships been forgotten; the address of
Vice-President Coolidge was a noble recognition of the past where French
and Polish citizens have been helpful to the young American Republic,
and is also a statement of fraternity strengthened by the tempest of the
last years.
It was in this atmosphere of affection created by the convergence of
intellectual and social sympathies that there took place on May 20th the
beautiful ceremony at the White House. It was a deeply moving ceremony
in all its simplicity, occurring before a democratic gathering including
the President and Mrs. Harding, cabinet officers, Judges of the Supreme
Court, high officers of Army and Navy, foreign diplomats,
representatives of women's clubs and societies, and prominent citizens
of Washington and other cities. It comprised a short presentation by the
French ambassador, M. Jusserand, a speech by Mrs. Meloney for the
American women, the address of President Harding, a few words of
gratitude said by me, a defile of the guests, and a group picture for a
souvenir, all this in the admirable setting of the White House, peaceful
and dignified, white indeed between its green lawns with wide prospects
on that beautiful afternoon of May. A remembrance never to be forgotten
was left by this reception in which the chief representative of a great
nation offered me homage of infinite value, the testimonial of the
recognition of his country's citizens.
The address of the President had been inspired by the same sentiments as
that of Vice-President Coolidge, as far as concerned his appreciation of
France and Poland. This address gave also an expression of the American
feeling which was emphasized by an exceptional solemnity in the
delivering of the gift.
[Illustration: _Copyright International._
Mme. Curie and President Harding at the White House, May 20, 1921, when
a gram of radium was presented to its discoverer by the women of
America.]
The American nation is generous, and always ready to appreciate an
action inspired by considerations of general interest. If the discovery
of radium has so much sympathy in America, it is not only because of its
scientific value, and of the importance of medical utilization; it is
also because the discovery has been given to humanity without
reservation or material benefits to the discoverers. Our American
friends wanted to honor this spirit animating the French science.
The radium itself was not brought to the ceremony. The President
presented me with the symbol of the gift, a small golden key opening the
casket devised for the transportation of the radium.
Our sojourn at Washington following the principal ceremony included a
very agreeable reception at the French Embassy and the Polish Legation,
a reception at the National Museum, and some laboratory visits.
The itinerary of our journey from Washington included visits to the
cities of Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Buffalo, Boston, and New
Haven, a visit to the Grand Canyon, and to Niagara Falls. On that trip I
was the guest of several universities which did me the honor of
bestowing honorary degrees on me. I have to thank for these the
universities of Pennsylvania, of Pittsburgh, of Chicago, the
Northwestern University, Columbia University, Yale University, the
Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania, the University of Pennsylvania,
Smith College, and Wellesley College, while I thank Harvard University
for her reception.
The delivery of honorary degrees in American universities is accompanied
by solemnities. In principle, the presence of the candidate is required,
and the delivery takes place at the annual commencement, but, in some
cases, special ceremonies were organized in my favor. The university
ceremonies in America are more frequent than in France, and play a more
important part in the university life. Especially is this true at the
annual commencement, which begins with an academic procession over the
grounds of the university, the procession including the officials, the
professors, and graduates in academic caps and gowns. Afterwards all
assemble in a hall where are announced the diplomas corresponding to the
grades of bachelor, master, and doctor. There is always a musical part
in the program, and addresses are delivered by the officials of the
university or invited orators. These addresses are naturally devoted to
dignifying the ideals and the humanitarian purposes of education; but in
certain cases it seems permitted to introduced point of American humor.
These ceremonies are on the whole very impressive, and certainly
contribute to keep a bond between the university and the alumni. This is
a favorable circumstance for those great American universities which are
sustained entirely on private foundations. It is only in more recent
times that most States have created universities supported by the State.
At Yale University I had the pleasure of representing the University of
Paris at the inauguration of President Angell, fourteenth president of
the University. I was also pleased to attend at Philadelphia a meeting
of the American Philosophical Society and a meeting of the College of
Physicians, and at Chicago a meeting of the American Chemical Society at
which I delivered a lecture on the Discovery of Radium. The medals of
John Scott, Benjamin Franklin, and Willard Gibbs have been presented to
me by these societies.
Several meetings organized in my honor by the American women's
organizations have particularly interested the American public. I have
already mentioned the meeting of the University Women at Carnegie Hall
of New York; a similar meeting was held at Chicago, where I was also
received by the Association of Polish Women. I was also greeted by
women's organizations in the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, and by a
delegation of Canadian university women at Buffalo. In all these
meetings it was impossible not to recognize the sincerity of the emotion
in the women who gave me their best wishes, at the same time expressing
their confidence in the future of feminine intelligence and activity. I
did not feel any opposition between these feministic aspirations and the
masculine opinion. As far as I could notice, the men in America approve
of these aspirations and encourage them. This is a very favorable
condition for the social activity of the American women which reveals
itself in a strong interest in work for education, for hygiene, and for
the improvement of conditions of labor. But any other unselfish purpose
may rely on their support, as is proved by the success of Mrs. Meloney's
plan, and by the sympathy this plan encountered in women of all social
conditions.
I could not, to my deep regret, give time enough to the visit to
laboratories and scientific institutes. These too brief visits were of
great interest to me. I found everywhere the greatest care for
developing scientific activity and for improving the facilities. New
laboratories are in building, and in older laboratories very modern
equipment may be found. The available room never gives that impression
of insufficiency from which we suffer too often in France. The means are
provided by private initiative expressed in gifts and foundations of
various kinds. There exists also a National Council of Research
established by private funds for stimulating and improving scientific
work, and for assuring its connection with industry.
I have visited with special interest the Bureau of Standards, a very
important national institution at Washington for scientific measurements
and for study connected with them. The tubes of radium presented to me
were at the Bureau, whose officials had kindly offered to make the
measurements, and to take care of the packing and delivery to the ship.
A new laboratory has been created at Washington for researches on very
low temperatures with the use of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium. I
had the honor of dedicating this laboratory to its service.
I had the great pleasure of meeting in their laboratories several very
important American scientific men. The hours I spent in their company
are among the best of my travel.
The United States possesses several hospitals for radiumtherapy. These
hospitals are generally provided with laboratories for the extraction of
radium emanation which is sealed up in small tubes for medical use.
These institutions own important quantities of radium, have a very good
equipment, and treat a great number of patients. I have visited some of
them, and this made me feel more deeply, if possible, the regret of not
having in France even one national institute capable of rendering the
same services. I hope that this lack will be filled in the near future.
The industry of radium has been started in France, but it is in America
that it has had its greatest development, owing to the presence of a
sufficient supply of the ore carnotite.[15] I was very much interested
in my visit to the most important of the factories, and I gladly
recognize the spirit of initiative in this undertaking. The factory owns
a collection of documentary films which enable one to appreciate the
effort made each day in collecting the ore scattered in the immense
fields of Colorado, in carrying and concentrating this ore originally
very poor in radium. On the other hand, the means of extraction of
radium are still the same which have been described in earlier chapters.
The greatest courtesy was paid me in my visit to the radium plant and
laboratory. I found the same reception at a factory of mesothorium which
presented me with some material, and where the officials expressed the
desire to help in my scientific work.
To make complete these travel impressions it would be necessary to speak
of the nature of the country. I recoil before the task, being incapable
of expressing in a few words the immensity and the variety of the spaces
which opened before my eyes. The general impression is one of unlimited
possibilities for the future. I keep a particularly vivid remembrance of
the great falls of Niagara, and of the magnificent colors of the Grand
Canyon.
On June 28th I embarked in New York on the same ship which had brought
me to the United States less than two months before. I would not take
the liberty, after so short a period of time, of giving an opinion on
America and the Americans. I would only say how deeply I have been
touched by the warm reception which was tendered everywhere to me and my
daughters. Our hosts wanted to make us feel that we were not with
strangers; and, on the other hand, many of them assured me that they
felt in entirely friendly surroundings when on the soil of France. I got
back to France with a feeling of gratitude for the precious gift of the
American women, and with a feeling of affection for their great country
tied with ours by a mutual sympathy which gives confidence in a peaceful
future for humanity.
[Footnote 15: Quite recently there has been started near Anverst an
important radium industry as a result of the discovery of uranium ore in
the Belgian Congo.]