PART II.

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HISTORY OF GREECE.

by

GEORGE GROTE, Esq.

VOL. VIII.

Reprinted from the London Edition.

New York:

Harper & Brothers, Publishers,

329 and 331 Pearl Street.

1879.

PREFACE TO VOL. VIII.

I had hoped to be able, in this Volume, to carry the history of

Greece down as far as the battle of Knidus; but I find myself

disappointed.

A greater space than I anticipated has been necessary, not merely to

do justice to the closing events of the Peloponnesian war, especially

the memorable scenes at Athens after the battle of Arginusæ, but

also to explain my views both respecting the Sophists and respecting

Sokratês.

It has been hitherto common to treat the sophists as corruptors

of the Greek mind, and to set forth the fact of such corruption,

increasing as we descend downwards from the great invasion of Xerxês,

as historically certified. Dissenting as I do from former authors,

and believing that Grecian history has been greatly misconceived,

on both these points, I have been forced to discuss the evidences,

and exhibit the reasons for my own way of thinking, at considerable

length.

To Sokratês I have devoted one entire Chapter. No smaller space would

have sufficed to lay before the reader any tolerable picture of that

illustrious man, the rarest intellectual phenomenon of ancient times,

and originator of the most powerful scientific impulse which the

Greek mind ever underwent.

G. G.

London, February, 1850.

CONTENTS.

VOL. VIII.

PART II.

CONTINUATION OF HISTORICAL GREECE.

CHAPTER LXII. TWENTY-FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR.—OLIGARCHY OF FOUR

HUNDRED AT ATHENS.

Rally of Athens, during the year after the defeat at

Syracuse. B.C. 412.—Commencement of the conspiracy of the

Four Hundred at Athens—Alkibiadês.—Order from Sparta to

kill Alkibiadês.—He escapes, retires to Tissaphernês, and

becomes adviser of the Persians.—He advises the satrap

to assist neither of the Grecian parties heartily—but

his advice leans towards Athens, with a view to his own

restoration.—Alkibiadês acts as negotiator for Tissaphernês

at Magnesia.—Diminution of the rate of pay furnished by

Tissaphernês to the Peloponnesians.—Alkibiadês opens

correspondence with the Athenian officers at Samos. He

originates the scheme of an oligarchical revolution at

Athens.—Conspiracy arranged between the Athenian officer

and Alkibiadês.—Oligarchical Athenians—the hetæries,

or political clubs. Peisander is sent to push forward

the conspiracy at Athens.—Credulity of the oligarchical

conspirators.—Opposition of Phrynichus at Samos to

the conspirators, and to Alkibiadês.—Manœuvres and

counter-manœuvres of Phrynichus and Alkibiadês.—Proceedings

of Peisander at Athens—strong opposition among the

people both to the conspiracy and to the restoration

of Alkibiadês.—Unwilling vote of the assembly to

relinquish their democracy, under the promise of Persian

aid for the war. Peisander is sent back to negotiate

with Alkibiadês.—Peisander brings the oligarchical

clubs at Athens into organized action against the

democracy.—Peisander leaves Athens for Samos—Antiphon takes

the management of the oligarchical conspiracy—Theramenês

and Phrynichus.—Military operations near the Asiatic

coast.—Negotiations of Peisander with Alkibiadês.—Tricks

of Alkibiadês—he exaggerates his demands, with a view of

breaking off the negotiation—indignation of the oligarchs

against him.—Reconciliation between Tissaphernês and

the Peloponnesians.—Third convention concluded between

them.—Third convention compared with the two preceding.—Loss

of Orôpus by Athens.—Peisander and his colleagues persist

in the oligarchical conspiracy, without Alkibiadês.—They

attempt to subvert the democracy at Samos—assassination of

Hyperbolus and others.—The democracy at Samos is sustained

by the Athenian armament.—The Athenian Parali—defeat of the

oligarchical conspiracy at Samos.—The Paralus is sent to

Athens with the news.—Progress of the oligarchical conspiracy

at Athens—dextrous management of Antiphon.—Language of the

conspirators—juggle about naming Five Thousand citizens to

exercise the political franchise exclusively.—Assassination

of the popular speakers by Antiphon and the oligarchical

party.—Return of Peisander to Athens—oligarchical government

established in several of the allied cities.—Consummation

of the revolution at Athens—last public assembly at

Kolônus.—Abolition of the Graphê Paranomôn.—New government

proposed by Peisander—oligarchy of Four Hundred.—Fictitious

and nominal aggregate called the Five Thousand.—The

Four Hundred install themselves in the senate-house,

expelling the senators by armed force.—Remarks on this

revolution.—Attachment to constitutional forms at Athens—use

made of this sentiment by Antiphon, to destroy the

constitution.—Demagogues the indispensable counterpoise

and antithesis to the oligarchs.—Proceedings of the Four

Hundred in the government.—They make overtures for peace to

Agis, and to the Spartans.—They send envoys to the camp at

Samos.—First news of the revolution is conveyed to the camp

by Chæreas—strong sentiment in the camp against the Four

Hundred.—Ardent democratical manifestation, and emphatic

oath, taken both by the Athenian armament at Samos and

by the Samians.—The Athenian democracy is reconstituted

by the armament—public assembly of the soldiers—new

generals chosen.—Alkibiadês opens correspondence with the

democratical armament at Samos.—Alkibiadês comes to Samos,

on the invitation of the armament.—Confidence placed by

the armament in his language and promises—they choose him

one of their generals.—New position of Alkibiadês—present

turn of his ambition.—The envoys of the Four Hundred reach

Samos—are indignantly sent back by the armament.—Eagerness

of the armament to sail to Peiræus—is discountenanced

by Alkibiadês—his answer to the envoys.—Dissuasive

advice of Alkibiadês—how far it is to be commended as

sagacious.—Envoys sent from Argos to the “Athenian Demos

at Samos.”—Return of the envoys of the Four Hundred from

Samos to Athens—bad prospects of the oligarchy.—Mistrust and

discord among the Four Hundred themselves. An opposition

party formed under Theramenês.—Theramenês demands that

the Five Thousand shall be made a reality.—Measures

of Antiphon and the Four Hundred—their solicitations

to Sparta—construction of the fort of Ectioneia, for

the admission of a Spartan garrison.—Unaccountable

backwardness of the Lacedæmonians.—Assassination of

Phrynichus—Lacedæmonian fleet hovering near Peiræus.—Rising

at Athens against the Four Hundred—demolition of the new

fort at Ectioneia.—Decline of the Four Hundred—concessions

made by them—renewal of the public assembly.—Lacedæmonian

fleet threatens Peiræus—passes by to Eubœa.—Naval battle

near Eretria—Athenians defeated—Eubœa revolts.—Dismay at

Athens—her ruin inevitable, if the Lacedæmonians had acted

with energy.—The Four Hundred are put down—the democracy in

substance restored.—Moderation of political antipathies,

and patriotic spirit, now prevalent.—The Five Thousand—a

number never exactly realized—were soon enlarged into

universal citizenship.—Restoration of the complete democracy,

all except pay.—Psephism of Demophantus—democratical oath

prescribed.—Flight of most of the leaders of the Four

Hundred to Dekeleia.—Theramenês stands forward to accuse

the remaining leaders of the Four Hundred, especially in

reference to the fort at Ectioneia, and the embassy to

Sparta.—Antiphon tried, condemned, and executed.—Treatment of

the Four Hundred generally.—Favorable judgment of Thucydidês

on the conduct of the Athenians.—Oligarchy at Athens,

democracy at Samos—contrast. 1-93

CHAPTER LXIII.

THE RESTORED ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY, AFTER THE DEPOSITION OF THE

FOUR HUNDRED, DOWN TO THE ARRIVAL OF CYRUS THE YOUNGER IN

ASIA MINOR.

Embarrassed state of Athens after the Four

Hundred.—Peloponnesian fleet—revolt of Abydos

from Athens.—Strombichidês goes from Chios to the

Hellespont—improved condition of the Chians.—Discontent in

the Peloponnesian fleet at Milêtus.—Strombichidês returns

from Chios to Samos.—Peloponnesian squadron and force at

the Hellespont—revolt of Byzantium from Athens.—Discontent

and meeting against Astyochus at Milêtus.—The Spartan

commissioner Lichas enjoins the Milesians to obey

Tissaphernês—discontent of the Milesians.—Mindarus

supersedes Astyochus as admiral.—Phenician fleet at

Aspendus—duplicity of Tissaphernês.—Alkibiadês at

Aspendus—his double game between Tissaphernês and the

Athenians.—Phenicians sent back from Aspendus without

action—motives of Tissaphernês.—Mindarus leaves Milêtus

with his fleet—goes to Chios—Thrasyllus and the Athenian

fleet at Lesbos.—Mindarus eludes Thrasyllus, and reaches

the Hellespont.—Athenian Hellespontine squadron escapes

from Sestos in the night.—Thrasyllus and the Athenian

fleet at the Hellespont.—Battle of Kynossêma—victory

of the Athenian fleet.—Rejoicing at Athens for the

victory.—Bridge across the Euripus, joining Eubœa with

Bœotia.—Revolt of Kyzikus.—Zeal of Pharnabazus against

Athens—importance of Persian money.—Tissaphernês again

courts the Peloponnesians.—Alkibiadês returns from Aspendus

to Samos.—Farther combats at the Hellespont.—Theramenês

sent out with reinforcements from Athens.—Renewed troubles

at Korkyra.—Alkibiadês is seized by Tissaphernês and

confined at Sardis.—Escape of Alkibiadês—concentration of

the Athenian fleet—Mindarus besieges Kyzikus.—Battle of

Kyzikus—victory of the Athenians—Mindarus is slain, and

the whole Peloponnesian fleet taken.—Discouragement of the

Spartans—proposition to Athens for peace.—The Lacedæmonian

Endius at Athens—his propositions for peace.—Refused by

Athens—opposition of Kleophon.—Grounds of the opposition

of Kleophon.—Question of policy as it then stood, between

war and peace.—Strenuous aid of Pharnabazus to the

Peloponnesians—Alkibiadês and the Athenian fleet at the

Bosphorus.—The Athenians occupy Chrysopolis, and levy toll on

the ships passing through the Bosphorus.—The Lacedæmonians

are expelled from Thasus.—Klearchus the Lacedæmonian

is sent to Byzantium.—Thrasyllus sent from Athens to

Ionia.—Thrasyllus and Alkibiadês at the Hellespont.—Pylos is

retaken by the Lacedæmonians—disgrace of the Athenian Anytus

for not relieving it.—Capture of Chalkêdon by Alkibiadês and

the Athenians.—Convention concluded by the Athenians with

Pharnabazus.—Byzantium captured by the Athenians.—Pharnabazus

conveys some Athenian envoys towards Susa, to make terms with

the Great King. 93-135

CHAPTER LXIV.

FROM THE ARRIVAL OF CYRUS THE YOUNGER IN ASIA MINOR DOWN TO

THE BATTLE OF ARGINUSÆ.

Cyrus the younger—effects of his coming down to

Asia Minor.—Pharnabazus detains the Athenian

envoys.—Lysander—Lacedæmonian admiral in Asia.—Proceedings

of the preceding admiral, Kratesippidas.—Lysander visits

Cyrus at Sardis.—His dexterous policy—he acquires the

peculiar esteem of Cyrus.—Abundant pay of the Peloponnesian

armament, furnished by Cyrus.—Factions organized by Lysander

among the Asiatic cities.—Proceedings of Alkibiadês in

Thrace and Asia.—His arrival at Athens.—Feelings and details

connected with his arrival.—Unanimous welcome with which

he is received.—Effect produced upon Alkibiadês.—Sentiment

of the Athenians towards him.—Disposition to refrain from

dwelling on his previous wrongs, and to give him a new

trial.—Mistaken confidence and intoxication of Alkibiadês.—He

protects the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries by

land, against the garrison of Dekeleia.—Fruitless attempt of

Agis to surprise Athens.—Alkibiadês sails with an armament

to Asia—ill-success at Andros—entire failure in respect to

hopes from Persia.—Lysander at Ephesus—his cautious policy,

refusing to fight—disappointment of Alkibiadês.—Alkibiadês

goes to Phokæa, leaving his fleet under the command of

Antiochus—oppression by Alkibiadês at Kymê.—Complaints

of the Kymæans at Athens—defeat of Antiochus at Notium

during the absence of Alkibiadês.—Dissatisfaction and

complaint in the armament against Alkibiadês.—Murmur and

accusation against him transmitted to Athens.—Alteration

of sentiment at Athens—displeasure of the Athenians

against him.—Reasonable grounds of such alteration and

displeasure.—Different behavior towards Nikias and

towards Alkibiadês.—Alkibiadês is dismissed from his

command—ten generals named to succeed him—he retires to the

Chersonese.—Konon and his colleagues—capture and liberation

of the Rhodian Dorieus by the Athenians.—Kallikratidas

supersedes Lysander—his noble character.—Murmurs and

ill-will against Kallikratidas—energy and rectitude whereby

he represses them.—His spirited behavior in regard to

the Persians.—His appeal to the Milesians—Pan-Hellenic

feelings.—He fits out a commanding fleet—his success at

Lesbos—he liberates the captives and the Athenian garrison

at Methymna.—Noble character of this proceeding—exalted

Pan-Hellenic patriotism of Kallikratidas.—He blocks up Konon

and the Athenian fleet at Mitylênê.—Triumphant position of

Kallikratidas.—Hopeless condition of Konon—his stratagem

to send news to Athens and entreat relief.—Kallikratidas

defeats the squadron of Diomedon.—Prodigious effort of

the Athenians to relieve Konon—large Athenian fleet

equipped and sent to Arginusæ—Kallikratidas withdraws

most of his fleet from Mitylênê, leaving Eteonikus to

continue the blockade.—The two fleets marshalled for

battle.—Comparative nautical skill, reversed since the

beginning of the war.—Battle of Arginusæ—defeat of the

Lacedæmonians—death of Kallikratidas.—It would have been

better for Greece, and even for Athens, if Kallikratidas

had been victor at Arginusæ.—Safe escape of Eteonikus

and his fleet from Mitylênê to Chios.—Joy of Athens for

the victory—indignation arising from the fact that the

Athenian seamen on the disabled ships had not been picked

up after the battle.—State of the facts about the disabled

ships, and the men left in them.—Despatch of the generals

to Athens, affirming that a storm had prevented them from

saving the drowning men.—Justifiable wrath and wounded

sympathy of the Athenians—extreme excitement among the

relatives of the drowned men.—The generals are superseded,

and directed to come home.—Examination of the generals

before the senate and the people at Athens.—Debate in the

public assembly—Theramenês accuses the generals as guilty of

omitting to save the drowning men.—Effect of the accusation

by Theramenês upon the assembly.—Defence of the generals—they

affirm that they had commissioned Theramenês himself to

undertake the duty.—Reason why the generals had not mentioned

this commission in their despatch.—Different account given

by Diodorus.—Probable version of the way in which the facts

really occurred.—Justification of the generals—how far

valid?—The alleged storm. Escape of Eteonikus.—Feelings of

the Athenian public—how the case stood before them—decision

adjourned to a future assembly.—Occurrence of the festival

of Apaturia—the great family solemnity of the Ionic

race.—Burst of feeling at the Apaturia—misrepresented

by Xenophon.—Proposition of Kallixenus in the senate

against the generals—adopted and submitted to the public

assembly.—Injustice of the resolution—by depriving the

generals of the customary securities for judicial trial.

Psephism of Kannônus.—Opposition taken by Euryptolemus on the

ground of constitutional form.—Graphê Paranomôn.—Excitement

of the assembly—constitutional impediment overruled.—The

prytanes refuse to put the question—their opposition

overruled, all except that of Sokratês.—Altered temper

of the assembly when the discussion had begun—amendment

moved and developed by Euryptolemus.—Speech of

Euryptolemus.—His amendment is rejected—the proposition

of Kallixenus is carried.—The six generals are condemned

and executed.—Injustice of the proceeding—violation of the

democratical maxims and sentiments.—Earnest repentance of the

people soon afterwards—disgrace and end of Kallixenus.—Causes

of the popular excitement.—Generals—not innocent men. 135-210

CHAPTER LXV.

FROM THE BATTLE OF ARGINUSÆ TO THE RESTORATION OF THE

DEMOCRACY AT ATHENS, AFTER THE EXPULSION OF THE THIRTY.

Alleged propositions of peace from Sparta to

Athens—doubtful.—Eteonikus at Chios—distress of his

seamen—conspiracy suppressed.—Solicitations from

Chios and elsewhere that Lysander should be sent out

again.—Arrival of Lysander at Ephesus—zeal of his

partisans—Cyrus.—Violent revolution at Milêtus by the

partisans of Lysander.—Cyrus goes to visit his dying

father—confides his tributes to Lysander.—Inaction of the

Athenian fleet after the battle of Arginusæ.—Operations of

Lysander.—Both fleets at the Hellespont.—Athenian fleet

at Ægospotami.—Battle of Ægospotami—surprise and capture

of the entire Athenian fleet.—Capture of the Athenian

commanders, all except Konon.—Slaughter of the captive

generals and prisoners.—The Athenian fleet supposed to

have been betrayed by its own commanders.—Distress and

agony at Athens, when the defeat of Ægospotami was made

known there.—Proceedings of Lysander.—Miserable condition

of the Athenian kleruchs, and of the friends of Athens

in the allied dependencies.—Suffering in Athens.—Amnesty

proposed by Patrokleidês, and adopted.—Oath of mutual

harmony sworn in the acropolis.—Arrival of Lysander.

Athens is blocked up by sea and land.—Resolute holding-out

of the Athenians—their propositions for capitulating are

refused.—Pretences of Theramenês—he is sent as envoy—his

studied delay.—Misery and famine in Athens—death of

Kleophon.—The famine becomes intolerable—Theramenês is

sent to obtain peace on any terms—debate about the terms

at Sparta.—Peace is granted by Sparta, against the general

sentiment of the allies.—Surrender of Athens—extreme

wretchedness—number of deaths from famine.—Lysander

enters Athens—return of the exiles—demolition of the Long

Walls—dismantling of Peiræus—fleet given up.—The exiles

and the oligarchical party in Athens—their triumphant

behavior and devotion to Lysander.—Kritias and other

exiles—past life of Kritias.—Kritias at the head of

the oligarchs at Athens.—Oligarchical leaders named

at Athens.—Seizure of Strombichidês and other eminent

democrats.—Nomination of the Thirty, under the dictation

of Lysander.—Conquest of Samos by Lysander—oligarchy

restored there.—Triumphant return of Lysander to Sparta—his

prodigious ascendency throughout Greece.—Proceedings of

the Thirty at Athens—feelings of oligarchical men like

Plato.—The Thirty begin their executions—Strombichidês

and the imprisoned generals put to death—other democrats

also.—Senate appointed by the Thirty—is only trusted to

act under their intimidation. Numerous executions without

trial.—The senate began by condemning willingly everyone

brought before them.—Discord among the Thirty—dissentient

views of Kritias and Theramenês.—Lacedæmonian garrison

introduced—multiplied executions by Kritias and the

Thirty.—Opposition of Theramenês to these measures—violence

and rapacity still farther increased—rich and oligarchical

men put to death.—Plan of Kritias to gain adherents

by forcing men to become accomplices in deeds of

blood—resistance of Sokratês.—Terror and discontent in

the city—the Thirty nominate a body of Three Thousand as

partisan hoplites.—They disarm the remaining hoplites

of the city.—Murders and spoliations by the Thirty.

Seizure of the Metics.—Seizure of Lysias the rhetor and

his brother Polemarchus. The former escapes—the latter

is executed.—Increased exasperation of Kritias and the

majority of the Thirty against Theramenês.—Theramenês

is denounced by Kritias in the Senate—speech of

Kritias.—Reply of Theramenês.—Extreme violence of Kritias

and the Thirty.—Condemnation of Theramenês.—Death of

Theramenês—remarks on his character.—Increased tyranny of

Kritias and the Thirty.—The Thirty forbid intellectual

teaching.—Sokratês and the Thirty.—Growing insecurity

of the Thirty.—Gradual alteration of feeling in Greece,

since the capture of Athens.—Demand by the allies of

Sparta to share in the spoils of the war—refused by

Sparta.—Unparalleled ascendency of Lysander.—His overweening

ambition—oppressive dominion of Sparta.—Disgust excited

in Greece by the enormities of the Thirty.—Opposition to

Lysander at Sparta—king Pausanias.—Kallikratidas compared

with Lysander.—Sympathy at Thebes and elsewhere with the

Athenian exiles.—Thrasybulus seizes Phylê—repulses the

Thirty in their attack.—Farther success of Thrasybulus—the

Thirty retreat to Athens.—Discord among the oligarchy

at Athens—seizure of the Eleusinians.—Thrasybulus

establishes himself in Peiræus.—The Thirty attack him

and are defeated—Kritias is slain.—Colloquy during the

burial-truce—language of Kleokritus.—Discouragement of

the oligarchs at Athens—deposition of the Thirty and

appointment of the Ten—the Thirty go to Eleusis.—The Ten

carry on the war against the exiles.—Increasing strength

of Thrasybulus.—Arrival of Lysander in Attica with a

Spartan force.—Straightened condition of the exiles in

Peiræus.—Spartan king Pausanias conducts an expedition into

Attica; opposed to Lysander.—His dispositions unfavorable

to the oligarchy; reaction against the Thirty.—Pausanias

attacks Peiræus; his partial success.—Peace party in

Athens—sustained by Pausanias.—Pacification granted by

Pausanias and the Spartan authorities.—The Spartans evacuate

Attica—Thrasybulus and the exiles are restored—harangue

of Thrasybulus.—Restoration of the democracy.—Capture of

Eleusis—entire reunion of Attica—flight of the survivors of

the Thirty. 210-290

CHAPTER LXVI.

FROM THE RESTORATION OF THE DEMOCRACY TO THE DEATH OF

ALKIBIADES.

Miserable condition of Athens during the two preceding

years.—Immediate relief caused by the restoration.—Unanimous

sentiment towards the renewed democracy.—Amnesty—treatment

of the Thirty and the Ten.—Disfranchising proposition

of Phormisius.—The proposition rejected—speech composed

by Lysias against it.—Revision of the laws—the

Nomothetæ.—Decree, that no criminal inquiries should

be carried back beyond the archonship of Eukleidês,

B.C. 403.—Oath taken by the senate and the dikasts

modified.—Farther precautions to insure the observance of

the amnesty.—Absence of harsh reactionary feeling, both

after the Thirty and after the Four Hundred.—Generous

and reasonable behavior of the demos—contrasted with

that of the oligarchy.—Care of the people to preserve

the rights of private property.—Repayment to the

Lacedæmonians.—The horsemen, or knights.—Revision of

the laws—Nikomachus.—Adoption of the fuller Ionic

alphabet, in place of the old Attic, for writing up the

laws.—Memorable epoch of the archonship of Eukleidês.

The rhetor Lysias.—Other changes at Athens—abolition

of the Board of Hellenotamiæ—restriction of the

right of citizenship.—Honorary reward to Thrasybulus

and the exiles.—Position and views of Alkibiadês in

Asia.—Artaxerxes Mnêmon, the new king of Persia. Plans

of Cyrus—Alkibiadês wishes to reveal them at Susa.—The

Lacedæmonians conjointly with Cyrus require Pharnabazus to

put him to death.—Assassination of Alkibiadês by order of

Pharnabazus.—Character of Alkibiadês. 290-316

CHAPTER LXVII.

THE DRAMA.—RHETORIC AND DIALECTICS.—THE SOPHISTS.

Athens immediately after Eukleidês—political history

little known.—Extraordinary development of dramatic

genius.—Gradual enlargement of tragedy.—Abundance of new

tragedy at Athens.—Accessibility of the theatre to the

poorest citizens.—Theôrikon, or festival-pay.—Effect of

the tragedies on the public mind of Athens.—Æschylus,

Sophoklês, and Euripidês—modifications of tragedy.—Popularity

arising from expenditure of money on the festivals.—Growth

and development of comedy at Athens.—Comic poets before

Aristophanês—Kratinus, etc.—Exposure of citizens by name

in comedy—forbidden for a time—then renewed—Kratês and the

milder comedy.—Aristophanês.—Comedy in its effect on the

Athenian mind.—Mistaken estimate of the comic writers,

as good witnesses or just critics.—Aversion of Solon to

the drama when nascent.—Dramatic poetry as compared with

the former kinds of poetry.—Ethical sentiment, interest,

and debate, infused into the drama.—The drama formed the

stage of transition to rhetoric, dialectics, and ethical

philosophy.—Practical value and necessity of rhetorical

accomplishments.—Rhetoric and dialectics.—Empedoklês of

Agrigentum—first name in the rhetorical movement.—Zeno

of Elea—first name in the dialectical movement.—Eleatic

school—Parmenidês.—Zeno and Melissus—their dialectic attacks

upon the opponents of Parmenidês.—Zeno at Athens—his

conversation both with Periklês and with Sokratês.—Early

manifestation, and powerful efficacy, of the negative arm

in Grecian philosophy.—Rhetoric and dialectics—men of

active life and men of speculation—two separate lines of

intellectual activity.—Standing antithesis between these

two intellectual classes—vein of ignorance at Athens,

hostile to both.—Gradual enlargement of the field of

education at Athens—increased knowledge and capacity of the

musical teachers.—The sophists—true Greek meaning of that

word—invidious sentiment implied in it.—The name sophist

applied by Plato in a peculiar sense, in his polemics against

the eminent paid teachers.—Misconceptions arising from

Plato’s peculiar use of the word sophist.—Paid teachers or

sophists of the Sokratic age—Protagoras, Gorgias, etc.—Plato

and the sophists—two different points of view—the reformer

and theorist against the practical teacher.—The sophists

were professional teachers for active life, like Isokratês

and Quintilian.—Misinterpretations of the dialogues of

Plato as carrying evidence against the sophists.—The

sophists as paid teachers—no proof that they were greedy

or exorbitant—proceeding of Protagoras.—The sophists as

rhetorical teachers—groundless accusations against them in

that capacity, made also against Sokratês, Isokratês, and

others.—Thrasymachus—his rhetorical precepts.—Prodikus—his

discrimination of words analogous in meaning.—Protagoras—his

treatise on Truth—his opinions about the pagan gods.—His view

of the cognitive process and its relative nature.—Gorgias—his

treatise on physical subjects—misrepresentations of the scope

of it.—Unfounded accusations against the sophists.—They

were not a sect or school, with common doctrines or

method; they were a profession, with strong individual

peculiarities.—The Athenian character was not really

corrupted, between 480 B.C. and 405 B.C.—Prodikus—The

choice of Hercules.—Protagoras—real estimate exhibited of

him by Plato.—Hippias of Elis—how he is represented by

Plato.—Gorgias, Pôlus, and Kalliklês.—Doctrine advanced by

Pôlus.—Doctrine advanced by Kalliklês—anti-social.—Kalliklês

is not a sophist.—The doctrine put into his mouth could

never have been laid down in any public lecture among the

Athenians.—Doctrine of Thrasymachus in the “Republic” of

Plato.—Such doctrine not common to all the sophists—what

is offensive in it is, the manner in which it is put

forward.—Opinion of Thrasymachus afterwards brought out

by Glaukon—with less brutality, and much greater force of

reason.—Plato against the sophists generally. His category

of accusation comprehends all society, with all the poets

and statesmen.—It is unjust to try either the sophists or

the statesmen of Athens, by the standard of Plato.—Plato

distinctly denies that Athenian corruption was to be

imputed to the sophists.—The sophists were not teachers

of mere words, apart from action.—General good effect of

their teaching upon the youth.—Great reputation of the

sophists—evidence of respect for intellect and of a good

state of public sentiment. 317-399

CHAPTER LXVIII.

SOKRATES.

Different spirit shown towards Sokratês and towards the

sophists.—Birth and family of Sokratês.—His physical and

moral qualities.—Xenophon and Plato as witnesses.—Their

pictures of Sokratês are in the main accordant.—Habits of

Sokratês.—Leading peculiarities of Sokratês.—His constant

publicity of life and indiscriminate conversation.—Reason

why Sokratês was shown up by Aristophanês on the stage.—His

persuasion of a special religious mission.—His dæmon, or

genius—other inspirations.—Oracle from Delphi declaring that

no man was wiser than he.—His mission to test the false

conceit of wisdom in others.—Confluence of the religious

motive with the inquisitive and intellectual impulse in his

mind—numerous enemies whom he made.—Sokratês a religious

missionary, doing the work of philosophy.—Intellectual

peculiarities of Sokratês.—He opened ethics as a new subject

of scientific discussion.—Circumstances which turned the

mind of Sokratês towards ethical speculations.—Limits of

scientific study as laid down by Sokratês.—He confines study

to human affairs, as distinguished from divine—to man and

society.—Importance of the innovation—multitude of new and

accessible phenomena brought under discussion.—Innovations

of Sokratês as to method—dialectic method—inductive

discourses—definitions.—Commencement of analytical

consciousness of the mental operations—genera and

species.—Sokratês compared with previous philosophers.—Great

step made by Sokratês in laying the foundation of formal

logic, afterwards expanded by Plato, and systematized by

Aristotle.—Dialectical process employed by Sokratês—essential

connection between method and subject.—Essential

connection also between the dialectic process and the

logical distribution of subject-matter—one in many and

many in one.—Persuasion of religious mission in Sokratês,

prompting him to extend his colloquial cross-examination

to noted men.—His cross-examining purpose was not confined

to noted men, but of universal application.—Leading

ideas which directed the scrutiny of Sokratês—contrast

between the special professions and the general duties

of social life.—Platonic dialogues—discussion whether

virtue is teachable.—Conceit of knowledge without real

knowledge—universal prevalence of it.—Such confident

persuasion, without science, belonged at that time to

astronomy and physics, as well as to the subjects of man

and society—it is now confined to the latter.—Sokratês

first lays down the idea of ethical science, comprising the

appropriate ethical end with theory and precepts.—Earnestness

with which Sokratês inculcated self-examination—effect of

his conversation upon others.—Preceptorial and positive

exhortation of Sokratês chiefly brought out by Xenophon.—This

was not the peculiarity of Sokratês—his powerful method

of stirring up the analytical faculties.—Negative and

indirect scrutiny of Sokratês produced strong thirst,

and active efforts, for the attainment of positive

truth.—Inductive process of scrutiny, and Baconian spirit, of

Sokratês.—Sokratic method tends to create minds capable of

forming conclusions for themselves—not to plant conclusions

ready-made.—Grecian dialectics—their many-sided handling of

subjects—force of the negative arm.—The subjects to which

they were applied—man and society—essentially required such

handling—reason why.—Real distinction and variance between

Sokratês and the sophists.—Prodigious efficacy of Sokratês in

forming new philosophical minds.—General theory of Sokratês

on ethics—he resolved virtue into knowledge, or wisdom.—This

doctrine defective as stating a part for the whole.—He was

led to this general doctrine by the analogy of special

professions.—Constant reference of Sokratês to duties of

practice and detail.—The derivative reasonings of Sokratês

were of larger range than his general doctrine.—Political

opinions of Sokratês.—Long period during which Sokratês

exercised his vocation as a public converser.—Accusation

against him by Melêtus, Anytus, and Lykon.—The real

ground for surprise is, that that accusation had not

been preferred before.—Inevitable unpopularity incurred

by Sokratês in his mission.—It was only from the general

toleration of the Athenian democracy and population, that

he was allowed to go on so long.—Particular circumstances

which brought on the trial of Sokratês.—Private offence of

Anytus.—Unpopularity arising to Sokratês from his connection

with Kritias and Alkibiadês.—Enmity of the poets and rhetors

to Sokratês.—Indictment—grounds of the accusers—effects

of the “Clouds” of Aristophanês, in creating prejudice

against Sokratês.—Accusation of corruption in teaching was

partly founded on political grounds.—Perversion of the

poets alleged against him.—Remarks of Xenophon upon these

accusations.—The charges touch upon the defective point of

the Sokratic ethical theory.—His political strictures.—The

verdict against Sokratês was brought upon him partly

by his own concurrence.—Small majority by which he was

condemned.—Sokratês defended himself like one who did not

care to be acquitted.—The “Platonic Apology.”—Sentiment

of Sokratês about death.—Effect of his defence upon the

dikasts.—Assertion of Xenophon that Sokratês might have been

acquitted if he had chosen it.—The sentence—how passed in

Athenian procedure.—Sokratês is called upon to propose some

counter-penalty against himself—his behavior.—Aggravation

of feeling in the dikasts against him in consequence of

his behavior.—Sentence of death—resolute adherence of

Sokratês to his own convictions.—Satisfaction of Sokratês

with the sentence, on deliberate conviction.—Sokratês in

prison for thirty days—he refuses to accept the means of

escape—his serene death.—Originality of Sokratês.—Views

taken of Sokratês as a moral preacher and as a skeptic—the

first inadequate, the second incorrect.—Sokratês, positive

and practical in his end; negative only in his means.—Two

points on which Sokratês is systematically negative.—Method

of Sokratês of universal application.—Condemnation of

Sokratês one of the misdeeds of intolerance.—Extenuating

circumstances—principle of orthodox enforcement recognized

generally in ancient times.—Number of personal enemies made

by Sokratês.—His condemnation brought on by himself.—The

Athenians did not repent it. 399-496

HISTORY OF GREECE.

PART II.

CONTINUATION OF HISTORICAL GREECE.