HOW TO KNOW THE WILD FLOWERS
=A Guide=
_TO THE NAMES, HAUNTS, AND HABITS OF OUR COMMON WILD FLOWERS_
BY
MRS. WILLIAM STARR DANA
ILLUSTRATED BY
MARION SATTERLEE
“The first conscious thought about wild flowers was to find out their
names—the first conscious pleasure—and then I began to see so many that
I had not previously noticed. Once you wish to identify them, there is
nothing escapes, down to the little white chickweed of the path and the
moss of the wall.”
—RICHARD JEFFERIES
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
1893
COPYRIGHT, 1893, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
TROW DIRECTORY
PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY
NEW YORK
CONTENTS
PAGE
_Preface_, vii
_How to Use the Book_, ix
_Introductory Chapter_, _1_
_Explanation of Terms_, _8_
_Notable Plant Families_, _13_
_Flower Descriptions_:
_I. White_, _22_
_II. Yellow_, _113_
_III. Pink_, _173_
_IV. Red_, _213_
_V. Blue and Purple_, _229_
_VI. Miscellaneous_, _276_
_Index to Latin Names_, _287_
„ _to English Names_, _292_
„ _of Technical Terms_, _298_
One of these days some one will give us a hand-book of our wild flowers,
by the aid of which we shall all be able to name those we gather in our
walks without the trouble of analyzing them. In this book we shall have
a list of all our flowers arranged according to color, as white flowers,
blue flowers, yellow flowers, pink flowers, etc., with place of growth
and time of blooming.
JOHN BURROUGHS.
PREFACE
The pleasure of a walk in the woods and fields is enhanced a hundredfold
by some little knowledge of the flowers which we meet at every turn.
Their names alone serve as a clew to their entire histories, giving us
that sense of companionship with our surroundings which is so necessary
to the full enjoyment of outdoor life. But if we have never studied
botany it has been no easy matter to learn these names, for we find that
the very people who have always lived among the flowers are often
ignorant of even their common titles, and frequently increase our
eventual confusion by naming them incorrectly. While it is more than
probable that any attempt to attain our end by means of some “Key,”
which positively bristles with technical terms and outlandish titles,
has only led us to replace the volume in despair, sighing with Emerson,
that these scholars
Love not the flower they pluck, and know it not,
And all their botany is Latin names!
So we have ventured to hope that such a book as this will not be
altogether unwelcome, and that our readers will find that even a bowing
acquaintance with the flowers repays one generously for the effort
expended in its achievement. Such an acquaintance serves to transmute
the tedium of a railway journey into the excitement of a tour of
discovery. It causes the monotony of a drive through an ordinarily
uninteresting country to be forgotten in the diversion of noting the
wayside flowers, and counting a hundred different species where formerly
less than a dozen would have been detected. It invests each boggy meadow
and bit of rocky woodland with almost irresistible charm. Surely Sir
John Lubbock is right in maintaining that “those who love Nature can
never be dull,” provided that love be expressed by an intelligent
interest rather than by a purely sentimental rapture.
Ninety-seven of the one hundred and four plates in this book are from
original drawings from nature. Of the remaining seven plates, six (Nos.
LXXX., XCIX., CI., XXII., XLII., LXXXI.), and the illustration of the
complete flower, in the Explanation of Terms, are adapted with
alterations from standard authors, part of the work in the first three
plates mentioned being original. Plate IV. has been adapted from
“American Medicinal Plants,” by kind permission of the author, Dr. C. F.
Millspaugh. The reader should always consult the “Flower Descriptions”
in order to learn the actual dimensions of the different plants, as it
has not always been possible to preserve their relative sizes in the
illustrations. The aim in the drawings has been to help the reader to
identify the flowers described in the text, and to this end they are
presented as simply as possible, with no attempt at artistic arrangement
or grouping.
We desire to express our thanks to Miss Harriet Procter, of Cincinnati,
for her assistance and encouragement. Acknowledgment of their kind help
is also due to Mrs. Seth Doane, of Orleans, Massachusetts, and to Mr.
Eugene P. Bicknell, of Riverdale, New York. To Dr. N. L. Britton, of
Columbia College, we are indebted for permission to work in the College
Herbarium.
NEW YORK, March 15, 1893.
HOW TO USE THE BOOK
Many difficulties have been encountered in the arrangement of this guide
to the flowers. To be really useful such a guide must be of moderate
size, easily carried in the woods and fields; yet there are so many
flowers, and there is so much to say about them, that we have been
obliged to control our selection and descriptions by certain regulations
which we hope will commend themselves to the intelligence of our readers
and secure their indulgence should any special favorite be conspicuous
by its absence.
These regulations may be formulated briefly as follows:
1. Flowers so common as to be generally recognized are omitted, unless
some peculiarity or fact in their history entitles them to special
mention.
Under this, Buttercups, Wild Roses, Thistles, and others are ruled out.
2. Flowers so inconspicuous as generally to escape notice are usually
omitted.
Here Ragweed, Plantain, and others are excluded.
3. Rare flowers and escapes from gardens are usually omitted.
4. Those flowers are chosen for illustration which seem entitled to
prominence on account of their beauty, interest, or frequent occurrence.
5. Flowers which have less claim upon the general public than those
chosen for illustration and full description, yet which are sufficiently
common or conspicuous to arouse occasional curiosity, are necessarily
dismissed with as brief a description as seems compatible with their
identification.
In parts of New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and in the
vicinity of Washington, I have been enabled to describe many of our wild
flowers from personal observation; and I have endeavored to increase the
usefulness of the book by including as well those comparatively few
flowers not found within the range mentioned, but commonly encountered
at some point this side of Chicago.
The grouping according to color was suggested by a passage in one of Mr.
Burroughs’s “Talks about Flowers.” It seemed, on careful consideration,
to offer an easier identification than any other arrangement. One is
constantly asked the name of some “little blue flower,” or some “large
pink flower,” noted by the wayside. While both the size and color of a
flower fix themselves in the mind of the casual observer, the color is
the more definitely appreciated characteristic of the two and serves far
better as a clew to its identification.
When the flowers are brought in from the woods and fields they should be
sorted according to color and then traced to their proper places in the
various sections. As far as possible the flowers have been arranged
according to the seasons’ sequence, the spring flowers being placed in
the first part of each section, the summer flowers next, and the autumn
flowers last.
It has sometimes been difficult to determine the proper position of a
flower—blues, purples, and pinks shading so gradually one into another
as to cause difference of opinion as to the color of a blossom among the
most accurate. So if the object of our search is not found in the first
section consulted, we must turn to that other one which seems most
likely to include it.
It has seemed best to place in the White section those flowers which are
so faintly tinted with other colors as to give a white effect in the
mass, or when seen at a distance. Some flowers are so green as to seem
almost entitled to a section of their own, but if closely examined the
green is found to be so diluted with white as to render them describable
by the term _greenish-white_. A white flower veined with pink will also
be described in the White section, unless its general effect should be
so pink as to entitle it to a position in the Pink section. Such a
flower again as the Painted Cup is placed in the Red section because its
floral leaves are so red that probably none but the botanist would
appreciate that the actual flowers were yellow. Flowers which fail to
suggest any definite color are relegated to the Miscellaneous section.
With the description of each flower is given—
1. Its common English name—if one exists. This may be looked upon as its
“nickname,” a title attached to it by chance, often endeared to us by
long association, the name by which it may be known in one part of the
country but not necessarily in another, and about which, consequently, a
certain amount of disagreement and confusion often arises.
2. Its scientific name. This compensates for its frequent lack of
euphony by its other advantages. It is usually composed of two Latin—or
Latinized—words, and is the same in all parts of the world (which fact
explains the necessity of its Latin form). Whatever confusion may exist
as to a flower’s English name, its scientific one is an accomplished
fact—except in those rare cases where an undescribed species is
encountered—and rarely admits of dispute. The first word of this title
indicates the _genus_ of the plant. It is a substantive, answering to
the last or family name of a person, and shows the relationship of all
the plants which bear it. The second word indicates the _species_. It is
usually an adjective, which betrays some characteristic of the plant, or
it may indicate the part of the country in which it is found, or the
person in whose honor it was named.
3. The English title of the larger Family to which the plant belongs.
All flowers grouped under this title have in common certain important
features which in many cases are too obscure to be easily recognized;
while in others they are quite obvious. One who wishes to identify the
flowers with some degree of ease should learn to recognize at sight such
Families as present conspicuously characteristic features.
For fuller definitions, explanations, and descriptions than are here
given, Gray’s text-books and “Manual” should be consulted. After some
few flowers have been compared with the partially technical description
which prefaces each popular one, little difficulty should be experienced
in the use of a botanical key. Many of the measurements and technical
descriptions have been based upon Gray’s “Manual.” It has been thought
best to omit any mention of species and varieties not included in the
latest edition of that work.
An ordinary magnifying glass (such as can be bought for seventy-five
cents), a sharp penknife, and one or two dissecting-needles will be
found useful in the examination of the smaller flowers. The use of a
note-book, with jottings as to the date, color, surroundings, etc., of
any newly identified flower, is recommended. This habit impresses on the
memory easily forgotten but important details. Such a book is also
valuable for further reference, both for our own satisfaction when some
point which our experience had already determined has been forgotten,
and for the settlement of the many questions which are sure to arise
among flower-lovers as to the localities in which certain flowers are
found, the dates at which they may be expected to appear and disappear,
and various other points which even the scientific books sometimes fail
to decide.
Some of the flowers described are found along every country highway. It
is interesting to note that these wayside flowers may usually be classed
among the foreign population. They have been brought to us from Europe
in ballast and in loads of grain, and invariably follow in the wake of
civilization. Many of our most beautiful native flowers have been
crowded out of the hospitable roadside by these aggressive,
irresistible, and mischievous invaders; for Mr. Burroughs points out
that nearly all of our troublesome weeds are emigrants from Europe. We
must go to the more remote woods and fields if we wish really to know
our native plants. Swamps especially offer an eagerly sought asylum to
our shy and lovely wild flowers.
LIST OF PLATES
PLATE PAGE
I. BLOOD-ROOT, _Sanguinaria Canadensis_, 23
II. RUE ANEMONE, _Anemonella thalictroides_, 25
WOOD ANEMONE, _Anemone nemorosa_, 25
III. STAR-FLOWER, _Trientalis Americana_, 27
—— _Maianthemum Canadense_, 27
IV. MAY-APPLE, _Podophyllum peltatum_, 31
V. SPRING BEAUTY, _Claytonia Virginica_, 33
VI. DUTCHMAN’S BREECHES, _Dicentra Cucullaria_, 35
VII. FOAM-FLOWER, _Tiarella cordifolia_, 37
VIII. PAINTED TRILLIUM, _Trillium erythrocarpum_, 41
IX. WILD SARSAPARILLA, _Aralia nudicaulis_, 43
X. SOLOMON’S SEAL, _Polygonatum biflorum_, 45
XI. FALSE SOLOMON’S SEAL, _Smilacina racemosa_, 47
XII. BELLWORT, _Uvularia perfoliata_, 51
„ _Oakesia sessilifolia_, 51
XIII. WHITE BANEBERRY, _Actæa alba_, 53
XIV. BUNCH-BERRY, _Cornus Canadensis_, 55
XV. MOUNTAIN LAUREL, _Kalmia latifolia_, 57
XVI. AMERICAN RHODODENDRON, _Rhododendron maximum_, 61
XVII. WOOD SORREL, _Oxalis Acetosella_, 63
XVIII. SHIN-LEAF, _Pyrola elliptica_, 67
XIX. PIPSISSEWA, _Chimaphila umbellata_, 69
XX. WINTERGREEN, _Gaultheria procumbens_, 73
XXI. INDIAN PIPE, _Monotropa uniflora_, 75
XXII. BLACK COHOSH, _Cimicifuga racemosa_, 79
XXIII. PARTRIDGE VINE, _Mitchella repens_, 81
XXIV. —— —— _Dalibarda repens_, 85
XXV. TALL MEADOW RUE, _Thalictrum polygamum_, 87
XXVI. MEADOW-SWEET, _Spiræa salicifolia_, 89
XXVII. POKEWEED, _Phytolacca decandra_, 93
XXVIII. WILD CARROT, _Daucus Carota_, 95
YARROW, _Achillea Millefolium_, 95
XXIX. ARROW-HEAD, _Sagittaria variabilis_, 99
XXX. TURTLE-HEAD, _Chelone glabra_, 101
XXXI. TRAVELLER’S JOY, _Clematis Virginiana_, 103
XXXII. BONESET, _Eupatorium perfoliatum_, 107
XXXIII. LADIES’ TRESSES, _Spiranthes cernua_, 109
XXXIV. GRASS OF PARNASSUS, _Parnassia Caroliniana_, 111
XXXV. MARSH MARIGOLD, _Caltha palustris_, 115
XXXVI. YELLOW ADDER’S TONGUE, _Erythronium Americanum_, 117
XXXVII. DOWNY YELLOW VIOLET, _Viola pubescens_, 119
XXXVIII. SHRUBBY CINQUEFOIL, _Potentilla fructicosa_, 121
XXXIX. —— —— _Clintonia borealis_, 123
XL. SMALLER YELLOW LADY’S _Cypripedium parviflorum_,
SLIPPER, 125
XLI. INDIAN CUCUMBER-ROOT, _Medeola Virginica_, 129
XLII. WINTER-CRESS, _Barbarea vulgaris_, 131
XLIII. RATTLESNAKE-WEED, _Hieracium venosum_, 133
XLIV. BUSH-HONEYSUCKLE, _Diervilla trifida_, 135
XLV. MEADOW LILY, _Lilium Canadense_, 137
XLVI. FOUR-LEAVED LOOSESTRIFE, _Lysimachia quadrifolia_, 139
XLVII. YELLOW LOOSESTRIFE, _Lysimachia stricta_, 141
XLVIII. YELLOW STAR-GRASS, _Hypoxis erecta_, 143
XLIX. BUTTER-AND-EGGS, _Linaria vulgaris_, 147
L. COMMON ST. JOHN’S-WORT, _Hypericum perforatum_, 149
LI. COMMON MULLEIN, _Verbascum Thapsus_, 151
LII. YELLOW FRINGED ORCHIS, _Habenaria ciliaris_, 153
LIII. PALE JEWEL-WEED, _Impatiens pallida_, 155
LIV. EVENING PRIMROSE, _Œnothera biennis_, 159
LV. BLACK-EYED SUSAN, _Rudbeckia hirta_, 161
LVI. ELECAMPANE, _Inula Helenium_, 163
LVII. WILD SUNFLOWER, _Helianthemum giganteus_, 165
LVIII. STICK-TIGHT, _Bidens frondosa_, 167
LIX. SMOOTH FALSE FOXGLOVE, _Gerardia quercifolia_, 169
LX. TANSY, _Tanacetum vulgare_, 171
LXI. TRAILING ARBUTUS, _Epigæa repens_, 175
TWIN-FLOWER, _Linnæa borealis_, 175
LXII. SHOWY ORCHIS, _Orchis spectabilis_, 177
LXIII. TWISTED STALK, _Streptopus roseus_, 179
LXIV. PINK LADY’S SLIPPER, _Cypripedium acaule_, 181
LXV. PINK AZALEA, _Rhododendron nudiflorum_, 183
LXVI. MILKWORT, _Polygala polygama_, 187
„ „ _sanguinea_, 187
LXVII. SPREADING DOGBANE, _Apocynum androsæmifolium_, 189
LXVIII. PURPLE-FLOWERING RASPBERRY, _Rubus odoratus_, 191
LXIX. HERB ROBERT, _Geranium Robertianum_, 195
LXX. BOUNCING BET, _Saponaria officinalis_, 197
LXXI. PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE, _Lythrum Salicaria_, 199
LXXII. MEADOW-BEAUTY, _Rhexia Virginica_, 201
LXXIII. SEA PINK, _Sabbatia stellaris_, 203
LXXIV. —— —— _Sabbatia chloroides_, 205
LXXV. ROSE MALLOW, _Hibiscus Moscheutos_, 207
LXXVI. FIREWEED, _Epilobium angustifolium_, 209
LXXVII. JOE-PYE-WEED, _Eupatorium purpureum_, 211
LXXVIII. WILD COLUMBINE, _Aquilegia Canadensis_, 215
LXXIX. WAKE ROBIN, _Trillium erectum_, 217
LXXX. WOOD LILY, _Lilium Philadelphicum_, 221
LXXXI. BUTTERFLY-WEED, _Asclepias tuberosa_, 223
LXXXII. OSWEGO TEA, _Monarda didyma_, 225
LXXXIII. CARDINAL-FLOWER, _Lobelia cardinalis_, 227
LXXXIV. LIVERWORT, _Hepatica triloba_, 231
LXXXV. BLUETS, _Houstonia cærulea_, 233
LXXXVI. ROBIN’S PLANTAIN, _Erigeron bellidifolius_, 237
LXXXVII. WILD GERANIUM, _Geranium maculatum_, 239
LXXXVIII. BLUE-EYED GRASS, _Sisyrinchium
angustifolium_, 243
LXXXIX. FLEUR-DE-LIS, _Iris versicolor_, 245
XC. AMERICAN BROOKLIME, _Veronica Americana_, 247
XCI. MONKEY-FLOWER, _Mimulus ringens_, 251
XCII. BLUE VERVAIN, _Verbena hastata_, 263
XCIII. SELF-HEAL, _Brunella vulgaris_, 255
XCIV. BLUEWEED, _Echium vulgare_, 259
XCV. GREAT LOBELIA, _Lobelia syphilitica_, 261
XCVI. INDIAN TOBACCO, _Lobelia inflata_, 263
XCVII. BEACH PEA, _Lathyrus maritimus_, 265
XCVIII. CHICORY, _Cichorium Intybus_, 267
XCIX. BLAZING STAR, _Liatris scariosa_, 271
C. CLOSED GENTIAN, _Gentiana Andrewsii_, 273
CI. FRINGED GENTIAN, _Gentiana crinita_, 275
CII. SKUNK CABBAGE, _Symplocarpus fœtidus_, 277
CIII. WILD GINGER, _Asarum Canadense_, 279
CIV. JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT, _Arisæma triphyllum_, 281
Most young people find botany a dull study. So it is, as taught from the
text-books in the schools; but study it yourself in the fields and
woods, and you will find it a source of perennial delight.
JOHN BURROUGHS.
HOW TO KNOW THE WILD FLOWERS
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
Until a comparatively recent period the interest in plants centred
largely in the medicinal properties, and sometimes in the supernatural
powers, which were attributed to them.
—O who can tell
The hidden power of herbes and might of magick spell?—
sang Spenser in the “Faerie Queene;” and to this day the names of many
of our wayside plants bear witness, not alone to the healing properties
which their owners were supposed to possess, but also to the firm hold
which the so-called “doctrine of signatures” had upon the superstitious
mind of the public. In an early work on “The Art of Simpling,” by one
William Coles, we read as follows: “Yet the mercy of God which is over
all his works, maketh Grasse to grow upon the Mountains and Herbes for
the use of men, and hath not only stamped upon them a distinct forme,
but also given them particular signatures, whereby a man may read, even
in legible characters, the use of them.” Our hepatica or liver-leaf,
owes both its generic and English titles to its leaves, which suggested
the form of the organ after which the plant is named, and caused it to
be considered “a sovereign remedy against the heat and inflammation of
the liver.”[1]
Although his once-renowned system of classification has since been
discarded on account of its artificial character, it is probably to
Linnæus that the honor is due of having raised the study of plants to a
rank which had never before been accorded it. The Swedish naturalist
contrived to inspire his disciples with an enthusiasm and to invest the
flowers with a charm and personality which awakened a wide-spread
interest in the subject. It is only since his day that the unscientific
nature-lover, wandering through those woods and fields where
—wide around, the marriage of the plants
Is sweetly solemnized—
has marvelled to find the same laws in vogue in the floral as in the
animal world.
To Darwin we owe our knowledge of the significance of color, form, and
fragrance in flowers. These subjects have been widely discussed during
the last twenty-five years, because of their close connection with the
theory of natural selection; they have also been more or less enlarged
upon in modern text-books. Nevertheless, it seems wiser to repeat what
is perhaps already known to the reader, and to allude to some of the
interesting theories connected with these topics, rather than to incur
the risk of obscurity by omitting all explanation of facts and
deductions to which it is frequently necessary to refer.
It is agreed that the object of a flower’s life is the making of seed,
_i.e._, the continuance of its kind. Consequently its most essential
parts are its reproductive organs, the stamens, and the pistil or
pistils.
The stamens (p. 11) are the fertilizing organs. These produce the
powdery, quickening material called pollen, in little sacs which are
borne at the tips of their slender stalks.
The pistil (p. 11) is the seed-bearing organ. The pollen-grains which
are deposited on its roughened summit throw out minute tubes which reach
the little ovules in the ovary below and quicken them into life.
These two kinds of organs can easily be distinguished in any large,
simple, complete flower (p. 10). The pollen of the stamens, and the
ovules which line the base of the pistil, can also be detected with the
aid of an ordinary magnifying glass.
Now, we have been shown that nature apparently prefers that the pistil
of a flower should not receive its pollen from the stamens in the same
flower-cup with itself. Experience teaches that, sometimes, when this
happens no seeds result. At other times the seeds appear, but they are
less healthy and vigorous than those which are the outcome of
_cross-fertilization_—the term used by botanists to describe the
quickening of the ovules in one blossom by the pollen from another.
But perhaps we hardly realize the importance of abundant health and
vigor in a plant’s offspring.
Let us suppose that our eyes are so keen as to enable us to note the
different seeds which, during one summer, seek to secure a foothold in
some few square inches of the sheltered roadside. The neighboring herb
Roberts and jewel-weeds discharge—catapult fashion—several small
invaders into the very heart of the little territory. A battalion of
silky-tufted seeds from the cracked pods of the milkweed float downward
and take lazy possession of the soil, while the heavy rains wash into
their immediate vicinity those of the violet from the overhanging bank.
The hooked fruit of the stick-tight is finally brushed from the hair of
some exasperated animal by the jagged branches of the neighboring
thicket and is deposited on the disputed ground, while a bird passing
just overhead drops earthward the seed of the partridge berry. The
ammunition of the witch-hazel, too, is shot into the midst of this
growing colony; to say nothing of a myriad more little squatters that
are wafted or washed or dropped or flung upon this one bit of earth,
which is thus transformed into a bloodless battle-ground, and which is
incapable of yielding nourishment to one-half or one-tenth or even one
hundredth of these tiny strugglers for life!
So, to avoid diminishing the vigor of their progeny by
_self-fertilization_ (the reverse of cross-fertilization), various
species take various precautions. In one species the pistil is so placed
that the pollen of the neighboring stamens cannot reach it. In others
one of these two organs ripens before the other, with the result that
the contact of the pollen with the stigma of the pistil would be
ineffectual. Often the stamens and pistils are in different flowers,
sometimes on different plants. But these pistils must, if possible,
receive the necessary pollen in some way and fulfil their destiny by
setting seed. And we have been shown that frequently it is brought to
them by insects, occasionally by birds, and that sometimes it is blown
to them by the winds.
Ingenious devices are resorted to in order to secure these desirable
results. Many flowers make themselves useful to the insect world by
secreting somewhere within their dainty cups little glands of honey, or,
more properly speaking, nectar, for honey is the result of the bees’
work. This nectar is highly prized by the insects and is, in many cases,
the only object which attracts them to the flowers, although sometimes
the pollen, which Darwin believes to have been the only inducement
offered formerly, is sought as well.
But of course this nectar fails to induce visits unless the bee’s
attention is first attracted to the blossom, and it is tempted to
explore the premises; and we now observe the interesting fact that those
flowers which depend upon insect-agency for their pollen, usually
advertise their whereabouts by wearing bright colors or by exhaling
fragrance. It will also be noticed that a flower sufficiently
conspicuous to arrest attention by its appearance alone is rarely
fragrant.
When, attracted by either of these significant characteristics,—color or
fragrance,—the bee alights upon the blossom, it is sometimes guided to
the very spot where the nectar lies hidden by markings of some vivid
color. Thrusting its head into the heart of the flower for the purpose
of extracting the secreted treasure, it unconsciously strikes the
stamens with sufficient force to cause them to powder its body with
pollen. Soon it flies away to another plant _of the same kind_, where,
in repeating the process just described, it unwittingly brushes some of
the pollen from the first blossom upon the pistil of the second, where
it helps to make new seeds. Thus these busy bees which hum so restlessly
through the long summer days are working better than they know and are
accomplishing more important feats than the mere honey-making which we
usually associate with their ceaseless activity.
Those flowers which are dependent upon night-flying insects for their
pollen, contrive to make themselves noticeable by wearing white or pale
yellow,—red, blue, and pink being with difficulty detected in the
darkness. They, too, frequently indicate their presence by exhaling
perfume, which in many cases increases in intensity as the night falls,
and a clue to their whereabouts becomes momentarily more necessary. This
fact partially accounts for the large proportion of fragrant white
flowers. Darwin found that the proportion of sweet-scented white flowers
to sweet-scented red ones was 14.6 per cent. of white to 8.2 of red.
We notice also that some of these night-fertilized flowers close during
the day, thus insuring themselves against the visits of insects which
might rob them of their nectar or pollen, and yet be unfitted by the
shape of their bodies to accomplish their fertilization. On the other
hand, many blossoms which are dependent upon the sun-loving bees close
at night, securing the same advantage.
Then there are flowers which close in the shade, others at the approach
of a storm, thus protecting their pollen and nectar from the dissolving
rain; others at the same time every day. Linnæus invented a famous
“flower-clock,” which indicated the hours of the day by the closing of
different flowers. This habit of closing has been called the “sleep of
flowers.”
There is one far from pleasing class of flowers which entices
insect-visitors,—not by attractive colors and alluring fragrance—but “by
deceiving flies through their resemblance to putrid meat—imitating the
lurid appearance as well as the noisome smell of carrion.”[2] Our common
carrion-flower, which covers the thickets so profusely in early summer
that Thoreau complained that every bush and copse near the river emitted
an odor which led one to imagine that all the dead dogs in the
neighborhood had drifted to its shore, is probably an example of this
class, without lurid color, but certainly with a sufficiently noisome
smell! Yet this foul odor seems to answer the plant’s purpose as well as
their delicious aroma does that of more refined blossoms, if the
numberless small flies which it manages to attract are fitted to
successfully transmit its pollen.
Certain flowers are obviously adapted to the visits of insects by their
irregular forms. The fringed or otherwise conspicuous lip and long
nectar-bearing spur of many orchids point to their probable dependence
upon insect-agency for perpetuation; while the papilionaceous blossoms
of the Pulse family also betray interesting adaptations for
cross-fertilization by the same means. Indeed it is believed that
irregularity of form is rarely conspicuous in a blossom that is not
visited by insects.
The position of a nodding flower, like the harebell, protects its pollen
and nectar from the rain and dew; while the hairs in the throat of many
blossoms answer the same purpose and exclude useless insects as well.
Another class of flowers which calls for special mention is that which
is dependent upon the wind for its pollen. It is interesting to observe
that this group expends little effort in useless adornment. “The wind
bloweth where it listeth” and takes no note of form or color. So here we
find those
Wan flowers without a name,
which, unheeded, line the wayside. The common plantain of the country
dooryard, from whose long tremulous stamens the light, dry pollen is
easily blown, is a familiar example of this usually ignored class.
Darwin first observed, that “when a flower is fertilized by the wind it
never has a gayly colored corolla.” Fragrance and nectar as well are
usually denied these sombre blossoms. Such is the occasional economy of
that at times most reckless of all spendthrifts—nature!
Some plants—certain violets and the jewel-weeds among others—bear small
inconspicuous blossoms which depend upon no outside agency for
fertilization. These never open, thus effectually guarding their pollen
from the possibility of being blown away by the wind, dissolved by the
rain, or stolen by insects. They are called _cleistogamous_ flowers.
Nature’s clever devices for securing a wide dispersion of seeds have
been already hinted at. One is tempted to dwell at length upon the
ingenious mechanism of the elastically bursting capsules of one species,
and the deft adjustment of the silky sails which waft the seeds of
others; on the barbed fruits which have pressed the most unwilling into
their prickly service, and the bright berries which so temptingly invite
the hungry winter birds to peck at them till their precious contents are
released, or to devour them, digesting only the pulpy covering and
allowing the seeds to escape uninjured into the earth at some
conveniently remote spot.
Then one would like to pause long enough to note the slow movements of
the climbing plants and the uncanny ways of the insect-devourers. At our
very feet lie wonders for whose elucidation a lifetime would be far too
short. Yet if we study for ourselves the mysteries of the flowers, and,
when daunted, seek their interpretation in those devoted students who
have made this task part of their life-work, we may hope finally to
attain at least a partial insight into those charmed lives which find
—tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones, and good in everything.
EXPLANATION OF TERMS
The comprehension of the flower descriptions and of the opening chapters
will be facilitated by the reading of the following explanation of
terms. For words or expressions other than those which are included in
this section, the Index of Technical Terms at the end of the book should
be consulted.
The =Root= of a plant is the part which grows downward into the ground
and absorbs nourishment from the soil. True roots bear nothing besides
root-branches or =rootlets=.
“The =Stem= is the axis of the plant, the part which bears all the other
organs.” (Gray.)
A =Rootstock= is a creeping stem which grows beneath the surface of the
earth. (See Blood-root and Solomon’s Seal. Pls. I. and X.)
A =Tuber= is a thickened end of a rootstock, bearing buds,—“eyes,”—on
its sides. The common Potato is a familiar example of a tuber, being a
portion of the stem of the potato plant.
A =Corm= is a short, thick, fleshy underground stem which sends off
roots from its lower face. (See Jack-in-the-Pulpit, Pl. CIV.)
A =Bulb= is an underground stem, the main body of which consists of
thickened scales, which are in reality leaves or leaf bases, as in the
onion.
A =Simple Stem= is one which does not branch.
A =Stemless= plant is one which bears no obvious stem, but only leaves
and flower-stalks, as in the Common Blue Violet and Liver-leaf (Pl.
LXXXIV.).
A =Scape= is the leafless flower-stalk of a stemless plant. (See
Liver-leaf (Pl. LXXXIV.).)
An =Entire Leaf= is one the edge of which is not cut or lobed in any
way. (See Rhododendron, Pl. XVI., and Closed Gentian, Pl. C.)
A =Simple Leaf= is one which is not divided into leaflets; its edges may
be either lobed or entire. (See Rhododendron, Pl. XVI.; also Fig. 1.)
[Illustration:
Fig. 1.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 2.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 3.
]
A =Compound Leaf= is one which is divided into leaflets, as in the Wild
Rose, Pink Clover, and Travellers’ Joy (Pl. XXXI., also Fig. 2).
A =Much-divided Leaf= is one which is several times divided into
leaflets (Fig. 3).
The =Axil= of a leaf is the upper angle formed by a leaf or leaf-stalk
and the stem.
Flowers which grow from the axils of the leaves are said to be
=Axillary=.
A cluster in which the flowers are arranged—each on its own stalk—along
the sides of a common stem or stalk is called a =Raceme=. (See
Cardinal-flower, Pl. LXXXIII.; Shin-leaf, Pl. XVIII.)
A cluster in which the flower-stalks all spring from apparently the same
point, as in the Milkweeds, somewhat suggesting the spreading ribs of an
umbrella, is called an =Umbel= (Pl. LXXXI.).
A cluster which is formed of a number of small umbels, all of the stalks
of which start from apparently the same point, is called a =Compound
Umbel=. (See Wild Carrot, Pl. XXVIII.)
A close, circular flower-cluster, like that of Pink Clover or Dandelion,
is called a =Head=. (See Oswego Tea, Pl. LXXXII.; Sunflower, Pl. LVII.)
A flower-cluster along the lengthened axis of which the flowers are
sessile or closely set is called a =Spike=. (See Vervain, Pl. XCII.;
Mullein, Pl. LI.)
A =Spadix= is a fleshy spike or head, with small and often imperfect
flowers, as in the Jack-in-the-Pulpit, and Skunk Cabbage (Pls. CII. and
CIV., also Fig. 4).
[Illustration:
Fig. 4.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 5.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 6.
]
A =Spathe= is the peculiar leaf-like bract which usually envelopes a
spadix. (See Jack-in-the-Pulpit and Skunk Cabbage, Pls. CII. and CIV.,
also Fig. 5.)
A leaf or flower which is set so close in the stem as to show no sign of
a separate leaf or flower-stalk, is said to be =Sessile=.
A =Complete Flower= (Fig. 6) is “that part of a plant which subserves
the purpose of producing seed, consisting of stamens and pistils, which
are the essential organs, and the calyx and corolla, which are the
protecting organs.” (Gray.)
The green outer flower-cup, or outer set of green leaves, which we
notice at the base of many flowers, is the =Calyx= (Fig. 6 Ca). At times
this part is brightly colored and may be the most conspicuous feature of
the flower.
When the calyx is divided into separate leaves, these leaves are called
=Sepals=.
The inner flower-cup or the inner set of leaves is the =Corolla= (Fig.
6, C).
When the corolla is divided into separate leaves, these leaves are
called =Petals=.
We can look upon calyx and corolla as the natural tapestry which
protects the delicate organs of the flower, and serves as well, in many
cases, to attract the attention of passing insects. In some flowers only
one of these two parts is present; in such a case the single cup or set
of floral leaves is generally considered to be the calyx.
The floral leaves may be spoken of collectively as the =Perianth=. This
word is used especially in describing members of families where there
might be difficulty in deciding as to whether the single set of floral
leaves present should be considered calyx or corolla (see Lilies, Pls.
XLV. and LXXX.); or where the petals and sepals can only be
distinguished with difficulty, as with the Orchids.
[Illustration:
Fig. 7.
]
[Illustration:
Fig. 8.
]
The =Stamens= (Fig. 7) are the fertilizing organs of the flower. A
stamen usually consists of two parts, its =Filament= (F), or stalk, and
its =Anther= (A), the little sac at the tip of the filament which
produces the dust-like, fertilizing substance called =Pollen= (p.).
The =Pistil= (Fig. 8) is the seed-bearing organ of the flower. When
complete it consists of =Ovary= (O), =Style= (Sty.), and =Stigma=
(Stg.).
The =Ovary= is the hollow portion at the base of the pistil. It contains
the ovules or rudimentary seeds which are quickened into life by the
pollen.
The =Style= is the slender tapering stalk above the ovary.
The =Stigma= is usually the tip of the style. The pollen-grains which
are deposited upon its moist roughened surface throw out minute tubes
which penetrate to the little ovules of the ovary and cause them to
ripen into seeds.
A flower which has neither stamens nor pistils is described as
=Neutral=.
A flower with only one kind of these organs is termed =Unisexual=.
A =Male= or =Staminate= flower is one with stamens but without pistils.
A =Female= or =Pistillate= flower is one with pistils but without
stamens.
The =Fruit= of a plant is the ripened seed-vessel or seed-vessels,
including the parts which are intimately connected with it or them.
NOTABLE PLANT FAMILIES
Although the great majority of plant families can only be distinguished
by a combination of characteristics which are too obscure to obtain any
general recognition, there are some few instances where these family
traits are sufficiently conspicuous to be of great assistance in the
ready identification of flowers.
If, for instance, we recognize at sight a papilionaceous blossom and
know that such an one only occurs in the Pulse family, we save the time
and energy which might otherwise have been expended on the comparison of
a newly found blossom of this character with the descriptions of flowers
of a different lineage. Consequently it has seemed wise briefly to
describe the marked features of such important families as generally
admit of easy identification.
=Composite Family.=—It is fortunate for the amateur botanist that the
plant family which usually secures the quickest recognition should also
be the largest in the world. The members of the Composite family attract
attention in every quarter of the globe, and make themselves evident
from early spring till late autumn, but more especially with us during
the latter season.
The most noticeable characteristic of the Composites is the crowding of
a number of small flowers into a close cluster or _head_, which head is
surrounded by an involucre, and has the effect of a single blossom.
Although this grouping of small flowers in a head is not peculiar to
this tribe, the same thing being found in the clovers, the milkworts,
and in various other plants—still a little experience will enable one to
distinguish a Composite without any analysis of the separate blossoms
which form the head.
These heads vary greatly in size and appearance. At times they are large
and solitary, as in the dandelion. Again they are small and clustered,
as in the yarrow (Pl. XXVIII.).
In some genera they are composed of flowers which are all similar in
form and color, as in the dandelion, where all the corollas are
_strap-shaped_ and yellow; or, as in the common thistle, where they are
all _tubular-shaped_ and pinkish-purple.
In others they are made up of both kinds of flowers, as in the daisy,
where only the yellow central or _disk-flowers_ are tubular-shaped,
while the white outer or _ray-flowers_ are strap-shaped. The
flower-heads of the well-known asters and golden-rods are composed of
both ray and disk-flowers also; but while the ray-flowers of the aster,
like those of the daisy, wear a different color from the yellow
disk-flowers, both kinds are yellow in the golden-rod.
If the dandelion or the chicory (Pl. XCVIII.) is studied as an example
of a head which is composed entirely of strap-shaped blossoms; the
common thistle or the stick-tight (Pl. LVIII.) as an example of one
which is made up of tubular-shaped blossoms; and the daisy or the
sunflower (Pl. LVII.) as an example of one which combines ray and
disk-flowers—as the strap-shaped and tubular blossoms are called when
both are present—there need be little difficulty in the after
recognition of a member of this family. The identification of a
particular species or even genus will be a less simple matter; the
former being a task which has been known to tax the patience of even
advanced botanists.
Mr. Grant Allen believes that the Composites largely owe their universal
sway to their “co-operative system.” He says: “If we look close into the
Daisy we see that its centre comprises a whole mass of little yellow
bells, each of which consists of corolla, stamens, and pistil. The
insect which alights on the head can take his fill in a leisurely way,
without moving from his standing-place; and meanwhile he is proving a
good ally of the plant by fertilizing one after another of its numerous
ovaries. Each tiny bell by itself would prove too inconspicuous to
attract much attention from the passing bee; but union is strength for
the Daisy as for the State, and the little composites have found their
co-operative system answer so well, that late as was their appearance
upon the earth they are generally considered at the present day to be
the most numerous family both in species and individuals of all
flowering plants.” While those of us who know the country lanes at that
season when
—ranks of seeds their witness bear,
feel that much of their omnipresence is due to their unsurpassed
facilities for globe-trotting. Our roadsides every autumn are lined with
tall golden-rods, whose brown, velvety clusters are composed of masses
of tiny seeds whose downy sails are set for their aerial voyage; with
asters, whose myriad flower-heads are transformed into little puff-balls
which are awaiting dissolution by the November winds, and with others of
the tribe whose hooked seeds win a less ethereal but equally effective
transportation.
=Parsley Family.=—The most familiar representative of the Parsley family
is the wild carrot, which so profusely decks the highways throughout the
summer with its white, lace-like clusters; while the meadow parsnip is
perhaps the best known of its yellow members.
This family can usually be recognized by the arrangement of its minute
flowers in umbels (p. 9), which umbels are again so clustered as to form
a compound umbel (Wild Carrot, Pl. XXVIII.) whose radiating stalks
suggest the ribs of an umbrella, and give this Order its Latin name of
_Umbelliferæ_.
A close examination of the tiny flowers which compose these
umbrella-like clusters discovers that each one has five white or yellow
petals, five stamens, and a two-styled pistil. Sometimes the calyx shows
five minute teeth. The leaves are usually divided into leaflets or
segments which are often much toothed or incised.
The Parsleys are largely distinguished from one another by differences
in their fruit, which can only be detected with the aid of a microscope.
It is hoped, however, that the more common and noticeable species will
be recognized by means of descriptions which give their general
appearance, season of blooming, and favorite haunts.
=Pulse Family.=—The Pulse family includes many of our common wood- and
field-flowers. The majority of its members are easily distinguished by
those irregular, butterfly-shaped blossoms which are described as
_papilionaceous_. The sweet pea is a familiar example of such a flower,
and a study of its curious structure renders easy the after
identification of a papilionaceous blossom, even if it be as small as
one of the many which make up the head of the common pink clover.
The calyx of such a flower is of five more or less—and sometimes
unequally—united sepals. The corolla consists of five irregular petals,
the upper one of which is generally wrapped about the others in bud,
while it spreads or turns backward in flower. This petal is called the
_standard_. The two side petals are called _wings_. The two lower ones
are usually somewhat united and form a sort of pouch which encloses the
stamens and style; this is called the _keel_, from a fancied likeness to
the prow of an ancient vessel. There are usually ten stamens and one
pistil.
These flowers are peculiarly adapted to cross-fertilization through
insect agency, although one might imagine the contrary to be the case
from the relative positions of stamens and pistil. In the pea-blossom,
for example, the hairy portion of the style receives the pollen from the
early maturing stamens. The weight of a visiting bee projects the stigma
and the pollen-laden style against the insect’s body. But it must be
observed that in this action the _stigma first brushes against the bee_,
while the _pollen-laden style touches him later_, with the result that
the bee soon flies to another flower on whose fresh stigma the detached
pollen is left, while a new cargo of this valuable material is
unconsciously secured, and the same process is indefinitely repeated.
=Mint Family.=—A member of the Mint family usually exhales an aromatic
fragrance which aids us to place it correctly. If to this characteristic
is added a square stem, opposite leaves, a two-lipped corolla, four
stamens in pairs—two being longer than the others—or two stamens only,
and a pistil whose style (two-lobed at the apex) rises from a deeply
four-lobed ovary which splits apart in fruit into four little seed-like
nutlets, we may feel sure that one of the many Mints is before us.
Sometimes we think we have encountered one of the family because we find
the opposite leaves, two-lipped corolla, four stamens, and an ovary that
splits into four nutlets in fruit; but unless the ovary was also deeply
four-lobed in the flower, the plant is probably a Vervain, a tribe which
greatly resembles the Mints. The Figworts, too, might be confused with
the Mints did we not always keep in mind the four-lobed ovary.
In this family we find the common catnip and pennyroyal, the pretty
ground ivy, and the handsome bee balm (Pl. LXXXII.).
=Mustard Family.=—The Mustard family is one which is abundantly
represented in waste places everywhere by the little shepherd’s purse or
pickpocket, and along the roadsides by the yellow mustard, wild radish,
and winter-cress (Pl. XLII.).
Its members may be recognized by their alternate leaves, their biting
harmless juice, and by their white, yellow, or purplish flowers, the
structure of which at once betrays the family to which they belong.
The calyx of these flowers is divided into four sepals. The four petals
are placed opposite each other in pairs, their spreading blades forming
a cross which gives the Order its Latin name _Cruciferæ_. There are
usually six stamens, two of which are inserted lower down than the
others. The single pistil becomes in fruit a pod. Many of the Mustards
are difficult of identification without a careful examination of their
pods and seeds.
=Orchis Family.=—To the minds of many the term orchid only suggests a
tropical air-plant, which is rendered conspicuous either by its beauty
or by its unusual and noticeable structure.
This impression is, perhaps, partly due to the rude print in some old
text-book which endeared itself to our childish minds by those startling
and extravagant illustrations which are responsible for so many
shattered illusions in later life; and partly to the various exhibitions
of flowers in which only the exotic members of this family are
displayed.