mentioned, and these explain the reason of the importance of this bird
among the Mayas. It is claimed by several old authorities that the
quetzal was reserved for the rulers, and that it was death for any
common person to kill this bird for his own use. It seems from a
statement in Landa (1864, p. 190)[341-*] that birds were domesticated
for the feathers. This bird occurs again and again in various
modifications throughout the Maya art. The feathers of the quetzal are
the ones usually associated with the serpent, making the rebus,
_Quetzalcoatl_, the feathered serpent, the culture hero of the Nahuas,
or _Kukulcan_, which has the same signification among the Mayas. It is
impossible to mention here all the various connections in which the
quetzal appears. The feathers play an important part in the composition
of the head-dresses of the priests and warriors, especially those in the
stone carvings. A quotation has already been given from Landa, showing
the use made of feathers in the dress of the people. Text fig. 7 shows
perhaps the most elaborate representation of this bird. It is found on
the sculptured tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. The
quetzal is shown seated on top of a branching tree which was long taken
to represent a cross. A similar representation is seen on the tablet of
the Temple of the Foliated Cross from the same ruined city. In the Codex
Fejervary-Mayer, there are four trees in each of which there is a bird.
A quetzal is perched in the one corresponding to the east, which is
regarded as the region of opulence and moisture. Seler (1901, p. 17)
suggests that the quetzal in the tree on the two bas-reliefs at Palenque
may represent a similar idea and that temples which would show the other
three trees and their respective birds had not been built in that
center.
The representation of the quetzal as an entire bird is, after all,
comparatively rare. The most realistic drawing is seen on a jar from
Copan in the collections of the Peabody Museum. The whole body of the
bird is shown as a head-dress in a few places in the codices where birth
and the naming of children are pictured. In Dresden 16c (Pl. 24, fig. 3)
and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 24, fig. 6), the quetzal is the head-dress
of women. In Dresden 13b (Pl. 24, fig. 2), a partial drawing of the bird
is shown as a part of the head-dress of god E, in Dresden 7c (Pl. 24,
fig. 1) of god H, and in Tro-Cortesianus 110c of god F. The feathers
alone appear as a female head decoration in Dresden 20c (Pl. 24, fig.
8). It occurs as a sacrifice among the rites of the four years in
Tro-Cortesianus 36b (Pl. 24, fig. 12). In Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 24,
fig. 5), it is found in the act of eating fruit growing over the "young
god." In Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 24, fig. 4), the bird is perched over
the encased head of god C.
There seems to be a glyph used for the quetzal. In those drawn in Pl.
24, figs. 10, 17, it is noticeable that the anterior part only of the
head is shown. The first is a glyph from the tablet of the Temple of the
Sun at Palenque, and at least suggests the quetzal by the feathers on
the top of the head, as also Pl. 24, fig. 13, a glyph from Copan, Stela
10, where the entire head appears in a much conventionalized form. Other
glyphs are shown in Pl. 24, figs. 14-16, in which there is a single
prominent recurved feather shown over the eye, succeeded by a few
conventionalized feathers, then one or more directed posteriorly. It is
to be noted that whereas in many previous examples of glyphs the full
drawing of the animal or bird has been found in connection with them,
here with the quetzal glyphs there is no instance where a drawing of the
bird occurs with them. A curious human figure (Pl. 24, fig. 19), with a
head decoration similar to the frontal curve and markings on the quetzal
glyphs (fig. 14-16), may possibly represent this bird in some relation.
BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_). A large macaw (Maya, _mox_ or _[t.]u[t.]_)
is undoubtedly pictured in the figures in Pl. 25. The least
conventionalized drawing found is that shown in Dresden 16c (Pl. 25,
fig. 2), a bird characterized by long narrow tail feathers, a heavy
bill, and a series of scale-like markings on the face and about the eye.
Further conventionalized drawings are found in Pl. 25, figs. 3, 10, 13,
and Pl. 26, fig. 1. In all these the tail is less characteristic, though
composed of long, narrow feathers, and the facial markings are reduced
to a ring of circular marks about the eye. These last undoubtedly
represent, as supposed by Stempell, the bare space about the eye found
in certain of these large parrots. In addition, the space between the
eye and the base of the bill is partially bare with small patches of
feathers scattered at somewhat regular intervals in rows. It is probable
that this appearance is represented by the additional round marks about
the base of the bill in Pl. 25, figs. 1, 2, 5, 8, the last two of which
show the head only. There has hitherto been some question as to the
identity of certain stone carvings, similar to that on Stela B from
Copan, of which a portion is shown in Pl. 25, fig. 8. This has even been
interpreted as the trunk of an elephant or a mastodon, but is
unquestionably a macaw's beak. In addition to the ornamental
crosshatching on the beak, which is also seen on the glyph from the same
stela (Pl. 25, fig. 5), there is an ornamental scroll beneath the eye
which likewise is crosshatched and surrounded by a ring of subcircular
marks that continue to the base of the beak. The nostril is the large
oval marking directly in front of the eye.
The animal in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) has always been considered
to be a tortoise (Schellhas, 1904, p. 44, and Foerstemann, 1904). This
animal, together with the dog, is found beneath the constellation signs
carrying firebrands; both are regarded as lightning beasts. By comparing
the head of the figure shown in Pl. 25, fig. 1, with figs. 2, 4, 5, of
the same plate, the reasonableness of the identification of this head as
that of a macaw and not that of a tortoise appears clear. The same
figure occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 12a (Pl. 25, fig. 3) carrying a torch.
In order to make this point clearer, we will take up the consideration
of the glyphs at this place, rather than at the end of the section as
usual. As the macaw in Pl. 25, fig. 1, has been hitherto identified as a
turtle, so the glyph found in connection with it (Pl. 25, fig. 6) has
been considered to stand for the turtle. Pl. 25, fig. 7, is another
drawing of the same glyph. By comparing the markings on the face of fig.
1, it is seen that a similar ring surrounds the eye shown on the glyph.
The second glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 7) is better drawn and shows, in addition
to the eye ring, the slightly erectile feathers at the back of the head.
Comparison with the glyphs representing turtles (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10)
hitherto confused with these macaw glyphs shows differences, the most
important of which are of course the eye ring and the feathers at the
back of the head.
Various other glyphs occur which undoubtedly represent the heads either
of macaws or smaller parrots. They are, for the most part, glyphs from
the stone inscriptions. A crest, resembling that depicted on the head of
the quetzal, is found on a glyph on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 25, fig.
10). The eye ring, however, seems to indicate the macaw which also has
slightly erectile feathers on the head. Much doubt is attached to the
identification of the glyph of the month _Kayae_[TN-8] from Stela A,
Quirigua (Pl. 25, fig. 9). It resembles closely the glyphs of the turtle
(Pl. 14, figs. 7-9) and especially that on Pl. 14, fig. 10. The Quirigua
glyph has a prominent fleshy tongue, however, like the parrot. From the
fact that the glyph is certainly that for the month _Kayab_ and the
_Kayab_ glyphs in the codices (Pl. 14, fig. 10) resemble the sign for
_a_, in the Landa alphabet which seems to stand for _ak_ (turtle), we
are led to identify this as a turtle rather than a parrot.
The use of the macaw as a lightning beast has already been commented
upon. The parrot is also used in the codices as a head-dress. As with
several other birds the only places in the manuscripts where the whole
bird is shown is in connection with the bearing of children and the
baptism. Here the parrot head-dress is seen on women, Dresden 16c (Pl.
25, fig. 2) and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 25, fig. 13). There seems to be
an exception to the whole bird appearing as a head-dress exclusively
with women in Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 26, fig. 1), where god F appears
with a head-dress composed of the whole bird. The bird is also seen as a
head-dress on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 26, fig. 3). The head of the macaw
appears as part of the head-dress of god H in Dresden 11a (Pl. 26, fig.
13), god E in Dresden 11b (Pl. 26, fig. 11), god F in Dresden 14b, god D
in Tro-Cortesianus 89a (Pl. 26, fig. 5) and of women in Dresden 12b (Pl.
26, fig. 6) and 19a (Pl. 26, fig. 9). In the rites of the four years in
Tro-Cortesianus 37b, there are two birds which are quite different from
those we have been considering, but which may represent macaws (Pl. 25,
fig. 12; Pl. 26, fig. 10).
In the Nuttall Codex, occur several figures of heavy-billed birds that
may be macaws or other smaller parrots of the genera _Amazona_ or
_Pachyrhynchus_. They are not, however, certainly identifiable (Pl. 26,
figs. 4, 7).
IMPERIAL WOODPECKER (_Campephilus imperialis_). We have here introduced
two drawings from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 27, figs. 5, 6) which seem to
represent the Imperial ivory-billed woodpecker, a large species that
occurs in the forests of certain parts of Mexico. The figures show a
long-billed bird with acutely pointed tail feathers, a red crest, and
otherwise black and white plumage. The red crest of the woodpecker is of
course highly conventionalized in the drawings where it is shown as of a
number of erect feathers instead of the prominent occipital tuft of
this bird. The crest and particularly the pointed tail feathers and long
beak combined with the characteristic coloring seem to leave little
doubt as to the identity of the species figured. This bird does not seem
to appear in the Maya drawings.
RAVEN (_Corvus corax sinuatus_) (?). There occurs in the Nuttall Codex a
figure of a large black bird (Pl. 27, fig. 7), which may be a black
vulture, but which, from the presence of what appear as prominent
bristles over the nostril, may also be a raven. These bristles are
rather prominent in ravens and quite lacking in the vulture, so that we
are led to identify the drawing as representing the former bird. We have
found no other figures that suggest ravens.
MISCELLANEOUS BIRDS. Four drawings of birds from the Aubin manuscript are
shown here (Pl. 27, figs. 8-11), in order that the conventionalization of
the bird form may be seen. The first two are supposed to represent the
parrot (_cocho_) and the last two the turkey cock (_uexolotl_). There is
little in the drawings by which they can be differentiated. In the codex,
the heads of the parrots are colored red. There is no doubt, however,
about the identification, as they occur in the same relative position on
every page of the manuscript and are two of the thirteen birds associated
with the thirteen gods, the "Lords of the House of Day" (Seler,
1900-1901, pp. 31-35). From the foregoing, it may be seen that where
there is no question about the identification, the drawing of the bird
form is rather carelessly done and no great attempt is made to indicate
the special characteristics of the different birds.
As has been shown previously, it is not always possible to identify
without question many of the forms appearing in the manuscripts. This is
especially true with birds. In Tro-Cortesianus 20c, an unidentifiable
bird, painted blue, appears on the top of the staff carried by god F.
The head-dress of this same god in Tro-Cortesianus 27c is a bird form
and in Tro-Cortesianus 55b, the _tonalamatl_ figure is a bird whose
identity cannot be made out with certainty.
MAMMALIA
OPOSSUM (_Didelphis yucatanensis_, _D. mesamericana_). Figures
representing opossums are not with certainty identifiable in the Maya
writings. We have provisionally identified as a frog the animal shown in
Pl. 29, fig. 6, although at first sight the two median round markings
might be taken to represent a marsupial pouch. Stempell considers the
animals found in the upper division of Dresden 25-28 as opossums of one
of the above species, and this seems very possible. They are shown with
long tails, slightly curved at the tips, and with long head and
prominent vibrissae. A rather similar figure is found in the Nuttall
Codex (Pl. 34, fig. 7). There is nothing, however, that seems to
preclude their being dogs and, in our opinion, they represent this
animal.
NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO (_Tatu novemcinctum_). This is the common species
of armadillo (Maya, _wet[vs]_) found throughout the warmer portion of
Mexico and Central America, where it is frequently used as an article of
food, and its shell-like covering is utilized in various ways. Several
representations of it occur in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 29, figs. 1-4),
where it is characterized by its scaly covering, long ears and tail, and
the moveable bands about the body.
This animal is associated with the bee culture, as it is represented
twice in Tro-Cortesianus 103a (Pl. 29, figs. 1, 3) seated below a bee
under an overhanging roof. The hunting scenes in the Tro-Cortesianus
also show the armadillo; in 48a (Pl. 29, fig. 4) and in 91a it is shown
in a pit-fall. In the last case the _Cauac_ signs are clearly seen on
top of the trap, whereas in the former case the same signs seem to be
indicated by the crosses. Finally, this same animal occurs seated in
Tro-Cortesianus 92d (Pl. 29, fig. 2) facing a female figure. There seems
to be no glyph used in connection with this animal.
YUCATAN BROCKET (_Mazama pandora_). Among the numerous representations
of deer in the Maya writings, there is but one that appears to show the
brocket. This occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 92a (Pl. 30, fig. 2), where a
hoofed animal with a single spike-like horn is shown, seemingly impaled
on a stake set in the bottom of a pit-fall. As stated by Stempell, this
animal from the character of its horns is probably to be identified as a
brocket, though there is nothing to preclude its being a young spike
buck of some species of _Odocoileus._
YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_; _O. thomasi_). Several species
of small deer (Maya, _ke_) occur in Mexico and Central America whose
relationships are not yet thoroughly understood (Pls. 30-32). The
species of Yucatan and southern Mexico have small lyrate antlers with
few, short tines, rather different from the broader type of the more
northern species with well developed secondary tines. The former type of
antlers seems to be indicated by the conventionalized structure shown in
Pl. 32, figs. 8-12. These probably represent the Yucatan deer or its
ally Thomas's deer of southern Mexico. Two of the figures, both from the
Nuttall Codex, show the lower incisor teeth (Pl. 32, figs. 8, 11),
though in other cases these are omitted. The larger part of the figures
of deer represent the does which have no antlers. For this reason it is
impossible to distinguish females of the brocket from those of the other
species of deer, if indeed, the Mayas themselves made such a
distinction. The characteristics of deer drawings are the long head and
ears, the prominently elevated tail with the hair bristling from its
posterior side (the characteristic position of the tail when the deer is
running), the hoofs, and less often the presence of incisors in the
lower jaw only and of a curious oblong mark at each end of the eye,
possibly representing the large tear gland.
The deer plays a large part in the Maya ceremonials. It is an important,
perhaps the most important animal offering as a sacrifice to the gods.
Several pages of the Tro-Cortesianus (38-49) are given over to the hunt
and the animal usually represented is the deer, the hunters are shown,
the methods of trapping, the return from the chase, and the rites in
connection with the animals slain. Tro-Cortesianus 48b (Pl. 30, fig. 1)
shows the usual method of trapping where the deer is caught by a cord
around one of the fore legs. Tro-Cortesianus 91a pictures the same
method and 92a (Pl. 30, figs. 2) shows where the deer is caught on a
spike in another type of trap. In Tro-Cortesianus 86a (Pl. 31, fig. 5)
the deer appears with a rope around his body held by a god who is not
easily identified.
Interesting descriptions of the hunt are given in several of the early
accounts.[349-*] It will be noted that the hunt was usually connected
with the religious rites and the offering of deer meat and various parts
of the body of the deer had a ceremonial importance. Attention is called
to similar practices among the Lacandones, the inhabitants of the
region of the Usumacinta at the present time (Tozzer, 1907), where the
greater part of the food of the people must, first of all, be offered to
the gods before it may be eaten by the natives.
The figures of the deer in the codices are clearly associated with god
M, and the latter may be considered a god of the hunt as well as a god
of war. It is very unusual to find a quadruped used as a head-dress in
any way, and yet in several cases we find god M has the head of a deer
as a sort of head covering, Tro-Cortesianus 50b (Pl. 31, fig. 6), 51c
(Pl. 31, fig. 7) and 68b. In the first two cases, the god seems to be
supplied with a bow and arrow. In a passage in Landa (1864, p.
290)[350-*] there is a description of this very scene.
In the month _Zip_, the hunters each took an arrow and a deer's head
which was painted blue; thus adorned they danced. God M is found in one
case in the Dresden in connection with the deer. In Dresden 13c the
animal is represented as female and is shown in intercourse with god M.
An offering of venison is frequently pictured in the manuscripts. Landa
(1864, p. 220)[350-[+]] also furnishes a parallel for this. The haunches
of venison arranged as offerings in dishes are realistically seen in a
number of representations of religious rites, as in Dresden 28c (Pl. 31,
fig. 14) in the last of the rites of the dominical days, 35a (Pl. 31,
fig. 12) and in Tro-Cortesianus 5a above the serpent enclosing the body
of water, 65a in front of god B or D and 105b (Pl. 31, fig. 13) and 108a
(Pl. 31, fig. 15), both of which are in connection with the bee
ceremonies.
The head of the deer, rather than the legs, is also shown as an
offering, in Tro-Cortesianus 69b with god B and Tro-Cortesianus 78 (Pl.
31, fig. 10) in the line of glyphs. The whole deer may be represented as
an offering in Tro-Cortesianus 2b (Pl. 31, fig. 8).[351-*]
There are some examples in the manuscripts where the deer is pictured
quite apart from any idea of the hunt or an offering. In Tro-Cortesianus
14b, it is shown on top of the body of one of the large snakes and in
Tro-Cortesianus 29c (Pl. 31, fig. 3), it appears seated on the end of a
snake-like curve. The deer occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (Pl. 30, fig.
6) in connection with the goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
God B appears in Dresden 41c (Pl. 31, fig. 1) seated on a red deer. The
same animal is also to be noted in Dresden 60a (Pl. 30, fig. 5) in
connection with the combat of the planets.[351-[+]] A deer is seen in
Tro-Cortesianus 92d seated on a mat opposite a female figure in the same
manner as the armadillo on the same page and a dog on the preceding
page. These, as previously noted, probably refer to cohabitation. On Pl.
32, fig. 9, is a deer from the Peresianus and Pl. 32, fig. 12, shows
another from Stela N, east, from Copan.
The Nahua day _Macatl_ signifies deer and we naturally find a large
number of glyphs representing this animal among the day signs in the
Mexican manuscripts (Pl. 31, fig. 9; Pl. 32, figs. 8, 10, 11).
YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_; _T. ringens_).
Peccaries (Maya, _qeqem_) of the _T. angulatum_ group are common in
Mexico and Yucatan, and a number of local forms have been named. The
white-lipped peccaries also occur, but in the figures it is impossible
to distinguish the species. These animals are characterized by their
prominent snout, curly tail, bristling dorsal crest, and rather
formidable tusks, as well as by the possession of hoofs. By these marks
most of the figures are readily identifiable (Pl. 32, fig. 1; Pl. 33,
figs. 1, 2, 4-6, 9). The tail is, however, often omitted as well as the
erect line of bristles down the back. The presence of hoofs and the
possession of a truncated pig-like snout are sufficiently
characteristic. In the Dresden Codex occur several figures of undoubted
peccaries. Two of these are pictured in Pl. 32, figs. 2, 4. In each the
hoofs and curly tail appear, and in the latter figure the bristling back
is conventionally drawn by a series of serrations. These marks are
sufficient to identify the animals. Their heads are further
conventionalized, however, by a great exaggeration of the snout beyond
that slightly indicated in Pl. 32, fig. 1, and Pl. 33, figs. 6, 9. Other
representations of the peccary, are shown in Pl. 32, fig. 5, a man with
a peccary's head, and fig. 7 in which the animal's hoofs are replaced by
human hands and feet. In both cases the form of the head remains
characteristic. A curious combination is shown in Pl. 32, fig. 3, an
animal whose head and fore feet are those of a peccary, while the hind
feet have five toes, and there is a long tail. The addition of what look
like scales is found in a figure from the Dresden (Pl. 32, fig. 6).
The peccary is found in several different connections in the
manuscripts. As deer are found associated with the hunt, so, but to a
much more limited extent, the peccary. It is represented pictured as
being captured in snares of the familiar "jerk-up" type. Similar
drawings show this animal caught by the foreleg and held partially
suspended, Tro-Cortesianus 49a (Pl. 33, fig. 9),[352-*] 49c (Pl. 33,
fig. 1), and 93a (Pl. 33, fig. 4). Tro-Cortesianus 41b also shows the
peccary associated with hunting scenes. Another realistic drawing of
this animal in Dresden 62 (Pl. 33, fig. 6)[352-[+]] represents him as
seated on the open jaws of a serpent connected with a long number
series. We are unable to explain the signification of the appearance of
the animal in this connection. The peccary is pictured in
Tro-Cortesianus 27b (Pl. 33, fig. 5) seated on the left hand of the
goddess from whose breasts water is flowing.
The peccary seems to be associated with the sky, as it is seen in a
conventionalized form in four instances (Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig.
4)[TN-9] coming from a band of constellation signs and in Dresden 68a (Pl.
32, fig. 2) coming from a similar band with god E sitting
underneath.[353-*] Above each of these conventionalized figures occur
the corresponding glyph forms (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8), which show merely
the head with the exaggerated upturned snout. There is a striking
resemblance between these snouts and those of the stone mask-like
figures so frequently represented as a facade decoration in northern
Yucatan. The presence in the mouths of the faces there represented of a
recurved tusk in addition to other teeth is a further resemblance to the
drawings of peccaries. Stempell (1908, p. 718) has reproduced a
photograph of these extraordinary carvings and considers them the heads
of mastodons, apparently solely on account of the shape of the upturned
snout, whose tip in many of the carvings turns forward. They certainly
do not represent the heads of mastodons, but we are not ready to say
that the peccary is the prototype of these carvings, although the
similarity between the glyphs (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8) and the masks is
worthy of note. One point which does not favor this explanation is the
fact that on the eastern facade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza where the
mask-like panel is seen at its best, we find a realistic drawing of a
peccary (Pl. 33, fig. 2) on the band of glyphs over the doorway, and it
in no way suggests the head on the panel and is quite different from the
head already noted as the glyph of the peccary in the codices.