Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
Transcriber's Note
A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a
[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
end of the text.
The following codes are used for characters that are not able to be
represented in the text format used for this version of the book.
[)a] a with breve
[c] open o
[[c].] open o with dot under
[=h] h with stroke
[p.] p with dot under
[^q] q with circumflex
[vs] s with caron
[vs.] s with caron and dot under
[t.] t with dot under
[ts.] ts with dot under
[+] Dagger
[++] Double dagger
PAPERS
OF THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
VOL. IV.--No. 3.
ANIMAL FIGURES
IN THE
MAYA CODICES
BY
ALFRED M. TOZZER, PH.D.
AND
GLOVER M. ALLEN, PH.D.
CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
FEBRUARY, 1910
Salem Press:
THE SALEM PRESS CO., SALEM MASS.
1910.
NOTE
It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the study of Maya
hieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the conventionalized animal
figures, which so frequently occur in the Maya codices, should be
undertaken. The Peabody Museum Committee on Central American Research
therefore requested Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject,
and to secure the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, a
zoologist familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, to
aid in the identification of the various species of animals which under
varying forms are used in connection with the glyphs.
While it is possible that some of the determinations given in this paper
may require further confirmation, it is evident that the combined
studies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to be useful to students
of the Maya hieroglyphic writing.
F. W. PUTNAM.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
August, 1909.
KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS
The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds with the
following exceptions:--
=[)a]= like _u_ in hut
=ai= like _i_ in island
=k= (Beltran's _c_) ordinary palatal _k_
=q= (Beltran's _k_) velar _k_
=[[c].]= (Beltran's _[c]_) _ts_ explosive or fortis
=[c]= (Beltran's _tz_) _ts_ non-explosive
=[vs]= (Beltran's _x_) like _sh_ in hush
=t[vs]= (Beltran's _ch_) like _ch_ in church
=[ts.]= (Beltran's _c[=h]_) _ch_ explosive
=[p.]= (Beltran's _pp_) _p_ explosive
=t= (Beltran's _t[=h]_) _t_ explosive
LIST OF PLATES
Plate.
1. Mollusca: _Fasciolaria gigantea, Oliva_.
2. Insecta: Honey bee (_Melipona_).
3. Insecta and Myriapoda.
4. Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea.
5. Myriapoda, Pisces.
6. Pisces.
7. Amphibia.
8. Amphibia, Reptilia.
9. Reptilia: Rattlesnake (_Crotalus_).
10. Reptilia: Serpents.
11. Reptilia: Serpents.
12. Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards.
13. Reptilia: Crocodile
14. Reptilia: Turtles.
15. Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird.
16. Aves: Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis ocellata_).
17. Aves: King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_).
18. Aves: King Vulture (_S. papa_), Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_).
19. Aves: Vultures.
20. Aves: Harpy Eagle (_Thrasaetos harpyia_).
21. Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_).
22. Aves: Yucatan Horned Ow[TN-1] (_B. v. mayensis_).
23. Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl (_Otus choliba thompsoni_).
24. Aves: Quetzal (_Pharomacrus mocinno_).
25. Aves: Blue Macaw (_Ara militaris_).
26. Aves: Parrots, Turkeys.
27. Aves: Miscellaneous.
28. Various animals.
29. Mammalia: Armadillo and miscellaneous.
30. Mammalia: Deer, Hare.
31. Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_).
32. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_),
Yucatan Deer (_O. yucatanensis_).
33. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_T. a. yucatanense_).
34. Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma.
35. Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear.
36, 37. Mammalia: Dog (_Canis_).
38. Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat (_Vampyrus_ or _Phyllostomus_).
39. Mammalia: Monkey (_Cebus_) and miscellaneous.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT
FIG.
1. Top of Altar T, Copan (Mandslay,[TN-2] I. Pl. 95) 320
2. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras, representing a
vulture. Peabody Museum Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15 332
3. }
4. } Glyphs of Maya month _Moan_ showing moan-bird
5. } characteristics 339
6. }
7. Quetzal from the bas-relief of the Temple of the Cross,
Palenque 341
8. }
9. } Glyphs for Maya month _Kankin_ (Ribs of dogs) 364
10. }
11. }
12. }
13. } Glyphs for Maya month _Zotz_ (Bats) 365
14. }
15. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras (Peabody Museum
Memoirs, I, No. 4, fig. 14), representing an ape 366
16. }
17. }
18. } Glyphs for Maya day _Chuen_ 367
19. }
20. }
21. }
22. } Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody Museum Papers, IV, 368
23. } No. 1)
24. }
INTRODUCTION.
The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central America in early
pre-Columbian times were accustomed to record various events, especially
in regard to their calendar and the religious ceremonials in relation to
it, on long strips of skin or bark. These were usually painted on both
sides and folded together like a screen. Several of these codices are
still in existence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but only
three have come down to us from the Maya region which is included in the
peninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, and
portions of Guatemala and Honduras. These three manuscripts are the
Dresden Codex in the Royal Public Library at Dresden, the
Tro-Cortesianus (formerly considered to have been two, the Troano and
the Cortesianus) in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, and
the Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Columbian
manuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See bibliography.)
These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence not only of
considerable intellectual attainments on the part of their authors but
also of a high degree of artistic skill in the drawings and
hieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these manuscripts of
representations of animals showing various degrees of elaboration and
conventionalization has led us to undertake the task of identifying
these figures as far as possible and studying the uses and significance
of the several species, a field practically untouched.[284-*]
Foerstemann in his various commentaries on the Maya codices (1902, 1903,
1906), Brinton (1895), and deRosny[TN-3] (1876) have only commented briefly
upon this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and some
others have written short papers on special animals. During the
preparation of this paper there has appeared a brief account by Stempell
(1908) of the animals in the Maya codices. The author has, however,
omitted a number of species and, as we believe, misidentified others. In
making our identifications we have given the reasons for our
determinations in some detail and have stated the characteristics
employed to denote the several species.
We have not limited ourselves entirely to the Maya manuscripts as we
have drawn upon the vast amount of material available in the stone
carvings, the stucco figures, and the frescoes found throughout the Maya
area. This material has by no means been exhausted in the present paper.
In addition to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively few
from other sources in the Maya region, we have introduced for comparison
in a number of cases figures from a few of the ancient manuscripts of
the Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the north. The calendar of these two
peoples is fundamentally the same as that of the Mayas. The year is made
up in the same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days each
with five days additional at the end of the year. There is therefore a
more or less close connection as regards subject matter in all the
pre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central America but the manner of
presentation differs among the different peoples of this region.
FOOTNOTES:
[284-*] The first two parts of Dr. Seler's Treatise, "Die Tierbilder der
mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften" published in the _Zeitschrift
fuer Ethnologie_, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time when this paper
was passing through the press. The most excellent and exhaustive
treatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paper
unnecessary. It has seemed best, however, to continue with its
publication inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devoted
to the Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr.
Seler, on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, has
spent more time in explaining the Mexican figures.
I
SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS
Before taking up the different animals in the codices it may be well to
consider some of the more common ways in which the figures occur and
their connection with the surrounding figures.
MANNER OF REPRESENTATION. The entire body of the animal may be
represented realistically or the head alone may be shown. The animal
head is frequently attached to a human body. The animal may appear
conventionalized to a greater or less extent and the head in turn may
change in the same way until only a single characteristic of the animal
remains by which to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguar
or the feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of the
glyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually square
characters appearing in lines or columns throughout the codices and
inscriptions, we find both the realistic drawing and that where
conventionalism has come in.
THE TONALAMATL. The Maya codices are made up, for the most part, of the
records of the sacred period of two hundred and sixty days, a period
called in Nahuatl, _tonalamatl_, and other numerical calculations. The
_tonalamatl_ was used for purposes of divination in order to find out
whether good or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is not
necessary at this place to go into the different means taken to record
this period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, however, to
explain the usual distribution of the pictures in the codices, including
those of animals, in connection with the representation of the
_tonalamatl_. A normal period is shown in Dresden 6c-7c. A column of
five day signs occurs in the middle of 6c with a single red dot over it.
To the right of this column stretches a horizontal line of numbers
consisting of alternate groups of black and red lines and dots. Under
each pair of red and black numbers there is usually a human form and
over each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below.
Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods appearing in
these vignettes of the _tonalamatl_ and lettered them. References
throughout the paper will be made to the gods by letters and the reader
is referred to Schellhas' paper. Animal figures often take the place of
these gods as in the second picture in Dresden 7c where the screech owl
is shown with human body. The greater number of animal figures in the
codices occur in some connection with these _tonalamatls_.
MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS. Where figures are shown with human body and animal
head standing alone in the place usually occupied by one of the various
deities in the _tonalamatl_, there can be little doubt that they have a
mythological meaning and are to be taken, either as gods themselves, or
as representing certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no means
shown in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden
10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture (Dresden 8a),
the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden 40b) come next in
descending importance. The animals represented as copulating (as in
Dresden 13c) might also be considered as mythological animals as well as
the full drawings of the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals when
they occur alone in the regular vignette of the _tonalamatl_. The four
priests in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, in
all probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea of
worshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by noting the
ease with which the Maya people worshipped the horse which was left
behind by Cortes in his march from Mexico across to Honduras
(Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101).
ASTRONOMICAL IDEAS. Animals frequently have a part to play in relation
to the constellations. Throughout the codices and, to a less degree, in
the stone carvings, we find what have usually been considered to be
glyphs for several of the constellations. Numerous calculations in the
codices make it clear that the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy.
These glyphs are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arranged
together end to end. We have called these the constellation bands.
Various attempts have been made to identify these signs of the various
constellations. Animals frequently are pictured below these bands. The
dog with fire brands in his paws and often attached to his tail is shown
in several places coming head downward from one of these bands (as in
Dresden 36a). The peccary is also shown in the same position although
the fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with macaw head
occurs once standing beneath one of these bands with fire brands in his
hands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as in Dresden 36a), the
lizard-crocodile-like animal in Dresden 74, the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus
71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b), the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b), and
the deer (Tro-Cortesianus 47a) all appear in connection with these
constellation bands. It is impossible at this time to decide upon the
part these various animals play in relation to distinct constellations.
In addition to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B,
are found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified by
Foerstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head of the
crocodile more or less conventionalized.
Foerstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer solstice
and the snail as the animal associated with the winter solstice. There
does not seem to be any one animal used in connection with any one of
the cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to be
associated with the north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarily
regarded as connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and an
unidentifiable bird sitting on a _Cimi_ (death) sign with the south. The
east is connected in this place with a human figure. It should be
stated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that the usual
assignment of the cardinal points, each to its special direction, is
correct. The signs for the east and west as well as those for the north
and south may be reversed. With the exception of the assignment of the
offering-glyphs to the various cardinal points which will be discussed
later (p. 290) this is almost the only case where a clear relation can
be made out between the various animals and the signs for the four
directions. There is no definite relation as is seen, for example, in
the Vaticanus 3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on the
tree of the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird on
that of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south.
COPULATION. The conception, the period of pregnancy, the infant baptism,
and possibly, the naming of children are shown in both the
Tro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden (13-23). Animals are frequently
shown copulating with various gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c,
the deer and god M and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture and
a woman; in Tro-Cortesianus 91d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, an
armadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals probably
represent in some way the totems of the man or woman in question and are
shown in place of the human figure. The Lacandones, a Maya people, show
at the present time the remains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp.
40-42). The deer (_Ke_) gens is found at the present time. In the
greater number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a female
figure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born children by women
with bird head-dresses, also occurring in this same section of both
manuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291).
ANIMAL SACRIFICES. Various ceremonials occurring at intervals throughout
the Maya year which included sacrifices to the gods, evidently took up a
large part of the time of the people. Animals composed by far the major
part of the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regard
to the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. According to
the Maya calendar there were four days only which could come at the
beginning of the year and these came in succession. Landa (1864, pp.
210-233), the first Bishop of Yucatan, gives a minute description of the
rites of the four years which were named according to the initial day.
He also relates the manner in which the various animals are employed as
offerings in these rites and also in others taking place at the
beginning of the various months.[289-*]
The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of the year are
shown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus 34-37. The dog, the deer,
and the turkey are the most important of the animals shown as being
offered to the gods in this connection. It will not be necessary to
consider these animals in detail at this place as they are each taken up
later.
OFFERINGS SHOWN BY GLYPHS. It is, however, in another connection than
that just considered that the animals are shown as offerings far more
frequently throughout the Maya manuscripts. In the ceremonies of the
four years, the animals and birds are, for the most part, represented
entire and purely as pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form of
glyphs. These may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or in
the lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used in the
former relation they are usually shown as resting in a bowl or dish
(Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when a god is making an
offering represented by the entire animal or a glyph of the animal in
the main picture, there is a corresponding glyph of the offering above
in the line of hieroglyphics (Dresden 23b).
The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard are the usual
animals shown as glyphs in this connection. The frigate bird occurs once
in the Dresden (35a) and once in the Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as an
offering. The dog, curiously enough, does not seem to be represented by
an offering-glyph although he has a glyph of his own when appearing in
other connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although drawn
very small; the head is the only part usually shown of the turkey and
the haunch of venison of the deer. The head and feet of the lizard, as
has been noted, may also be shown by a glyph. The turkey and iguana
glyphs are very often found with a _Kan_ sign indicating an offering of
maize and bread as well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphs
showing various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especially
in the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of points
themselves running to a point over a _Kan_ sign. This, as will be
pointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The jar
containing a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-Cortesianus
107b) might come in here in the consideration of the offering-glyphs.
In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs are found
associated with the signs for the four cardinal points but there does
not seem to be any strict uniformity as to the special offering
associated with each direction. In Dresden 29b, the lizard glyph is
found in the same group with the sign commonly assigned to the east, the
turkey with the south, the iguana with the west, and the fish with the
north while in Dresden 29c, the deer is associated with the east, the
fish with the south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with the
north. The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and the
fish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the assignment
of the various directions.
Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, "the
sprouting kernel of maize or (according to Foerstemann, parts of a
mammal, game)" and a vulture's head are symbols of the four elements.
The head which Schellhas interprets as that of the vulture is certainly
the head of a turkey. He remarks that these signs of the four elements
appear with god B in the Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he also
notes, are found with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be a
fifth glyph, however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted as
that of a lizard.
ANIMALS AS RAIN BEARERS. Various animals are associated with the rain
and water. The serpent is most frequently represented in this
connection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog, as well as the
lizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally found associated
with water. The vulture-headed figure in Dresden 38b and the vulture as
a bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a both appear in the rain. The peccary
(Dresden 68a), and the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associated
with the rain as well as with the constellation bands. The scorpion
(Tro-Cortesianus 7a) encloses the rain within its legs.
The connection of an old female figure occurring in many places in the
codices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316) when considering
the serpent. It remains at this place to comment upon the woman in
Tro-Cortesianus 30b from whose breasts water is flowing. She is
represented as having animal figures seated on her two outstretched
hands and on her right foot together with another animal at her side.
God B sits on her left foot. This picture immediately recalls
representations in the Mexican codices where the various parts of the
body of a god are associated with various day signs, ten of which have
animal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the right hand,
a peccary on the left, a dog on the right foot, and a rabbit beside the
body at her right. The peccary is not represented among the Nahua day
signs but the other three are found, namely the _oceolotl_ (jaguar),
_itzcuintli_ (dog), and _tochtli_ (rabbit).
ANIMAL HEAD-DRESSES. Animal figures appear perhaps most frequently as
head-dresses of the various gods in the codices. Here, as elsewhere,
from all that can be made out, the religious character is uppermost as
in addition to being a decoration, they undoubtedly have some religious
signification. Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Both
male and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The same bird
is often found as the head-dress of several different gods as, for
example, the turkey which appears with gods A, B, C, E, and N. The
vulture, on the other hand, when used as a head-dress for male figures,
appears exclusively with god F. The whole bird is seldom represented on
the head-dress of the male figures. It is usually only the head and a
part of the body of the bird which forms but a portion of the whole
head-covering. Landa (1864, p. 148)[292-*] notes the dress of the leader
in the rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with other
feathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a feather
head-dress.
Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in connection with
female figures and then only in one section of the Dresden (16-18) and a
parallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus (94-95). In both these places
the conception and the bearing of children are shown together with their
baptism. The bird above the head of each female figure seems to be a
badge of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women and
given to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl and the
horned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted that the birds
associated with these women are not really represented as head-dresses
at all. They are quite different from the head decoration composed of a
bird's head and feathers seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In the
Dresden especially, these birds above the women's heads are shown in
almost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace at the
back of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an interesting account
of the method of baptising children. He also states (p. 304)[292-[+]]
that in the month _Yaxkin_ an old woman brought the little girls to the
general feast. This old woman was dressed in a garment of feathers. It
was understood that this devoted old woman was not permitted to become
intoxicated[293-*] lest she should lose in the road the plume of her
office.
The serpent appears as a head-dress exclusively with female figures and
then usually when the woman is in the act of offering something or is
associated with water or rain. The centipede occurs only with god D.
Quadrupeds are employed as head-dresses only very seldom. The head of a
deer is, in three places, used as a part of the head decoration of god M
and the head of a jaguar appears in two places only.
SECULAR OCCUPATIONS. Animals appear frequently in scenes showing various
occupations. These, although appearing at first sight as secular, have
to do with the religion of the people and they show in every case acts
undertaken in behalf of the deities. It is almost exclusively in the
Tro-Cortesianus that these religious-secular occupations are shown.
Hunting scenes occur in one section of this codex (38-49). The whole aim
of the hunt in these pages is to obtain animals for sacrifice. In almost
every case the various animals are shown as being captured alive, either
in a pitfall or a trap of the "jerk-up" type. This was undoubtedly in
order that the animal might be killed the moment it was offered to the
gods by having its heart cut out. Deer are most commonly represented in
this hunting section although peccaries and armadillos also appear.
Fishing is shown in one place at least (Dresden 33a).
The practice of agriculture is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 24-28. The
sprouting grain is represented as being eaten by a vulture and a jaguar.
Certain gods in this section which relates to the planting of maize are
shown as being attacked by vultures and blow-flies. Another occupation
of the natives depicted in the Tro-Cortesianus (103-112) is apiculture.
This, again, has clearly some religious significance. Pottery-making is
shown in the same manuscript (95-101). It is, however, a purely
religious ceremony. The renewal of the incense-burners is shown.
Animals occur very infrequently in this section. The quetzal and two
vultures are noted seated on top of an oven-like covering under which is
the head of god C, probably representing the idol. There are several
other occupations shown in this codex such as weaving (79c) and the
gathering of the sap of the rubber tree (102b), but as animals do not
occur in any connection with these operations, it is not necessary to
dwell upon them.
ANIMAL GLYPHS. It remains finally to speak of the various animals which
are represented in glyph form as well as drawn in full in the pictures
proper. The creatures pictured in the codices are often accompanied by
their glyphs which appear in the lines of signs directly above. In many
cases, the animal pictured below is not represented by its glyph above
and, vice versa, the animal glyph may appear without its picture below.
The same is seen also in connection with the representation of the gods
and their glyphs. Both the picture and the glyph usually appear but
either may appear alone. Many times when the glyph, either of a god or
an animal, is shown with no accompanying picture, the reason seems to be
that there is no room for the latter on account of the numerical
calculations which take up all the space.
There are some animals in the codices which are represented by glyphs
very frequently. Among these are the screech owl (the Moan, the bird of
death), which has several different glyphs by which it is recognized,
the dog which, in addition to its own glyph, may be represented by the
day sign _Oc_, the king vulture, the turtle, the bee (if we consider the
day sign _Cauac_ stands for this insect), and the centipede. Among the
animals whose glyphs only seldom appear may be mentioned the macaw, the
peccary, the tree-toad (god P), the quetzal, and the jaguar. The glyph
for the black vulture (Tro-Cortesianus 26c), the ape (Tro-Cortesianus
88c), the deer (Peresianus 10), the eagle (Tro-Cortesianus 107c), and
the serpent (Tro-Cortesianus 106c) seem to appear but once. It might
also be well to mention in this place the glyphs for various molluscs
which are used not to represent the shell but to give the value of zero
to the numerical calculations.
In the inscriptions glyphs frequently occur which represent animals
either showing the whole body or simply the head. In the eastern facade
of the Monjas at Chichen Itza there are glyphs for both the king and the
black vulture and the peccary. The macaw and the turtle seem also to be
represented by glyphs in the inscriptions. The _Tun_ period glyph shows
vulture-like characteristics and the _Uinal_ period glyph certainly
resembles the lizard. The glyphs representing the various animal
offerings have already been discussed under a special heading (p. 289).
FOOTNOTES:
[289-*] p. 162. "Las mugeres no usavan destos derrammamientos, aunque
eran harto santeras; mas de todas las cosas que aver podian que son aves
del cielo, animales de la tierra, o pescados de la agua, siempre les
embadurnavan los rostros al demonio con la sangre dellos."
p. 164. "Y otras cosas que tenian ofrecian; a algunos animales les
sacavan el corazon y lo ofrecian, a otros enteros, unos vivos, otros
muertos, unos crudos, otros guisados.... Que sin las fiestas en las
quales, para la solemnidad de ellas, se secrificavan animales, tambien
por alguna tribulacion o necessidad."
p. 254. "Tenian buscados todos animales y savandijas del campo que
podian aver y en la tierra avia, y con ellos se juntavan en el patio del
templo en el qual se ponian los _Chaques_.... Sacavan con liberalidad
los coracones a las aves y animales, y echavanlos a quemar en el fuego;
y sino podian aver los animales grandes como tigres, leones o largartos,
hazian los coracones de su encienso, y si los matavan trayanles los
coracones para aquel fuego."
[292-*] "Vestido salia con un jaco de pluma colorado y labrado de otras
plumas de colores, y que le cuelgan de los estremos otras plumas largas
y una como coroza en la cabeca de las mesmas plumas."
[292-[+]] "Y a las ninas se les dava una vieja, vestida de un habito de
plumas, que las traia alli y por esto la llamavan _Ixmol_, la
allegadera.... Aquella devota vieja allegaria con que se emborachava en
casa por no perder la pluma del officio en el camino."
[293-*] "Intoxication was obligatory with the men in many of the
religious rites. This is reported by the early Spanish historians and is
the case at the present time among the Lacandones." (See Tozzer, 1907,
p. 136.)
II
ZOOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION AND ETHNOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF ANIMAL FORMS.
In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general plan will be
to consider first the identification purely from a zoological point of
view, and, secondly, the connection and, wherever possible, the meaning
of the use of the various animal figures wherever they occur.
MOLLUSCA
FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA. Representations of this marine shell are found in
several places in the codices. It is the only large _Fusus_-like species
on the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, indeed, is the largest
known American shell. It is therefore not strange that it should have
attracted the attention of the Mayas and found a place in their
writings. Several figures are shown that represent _Fasciolaria_ (Pl. 1,
figs. 1-9). One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 1, fig. 3) in common
with those shown in Pl. 1, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented by
segments of successively smaller size. The species of _Fasciolaria_
occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is characterized by
numerous prominent bosses or projections on its later whorls, and these,
too, appear in conventionalized form in most of the representations. In
Pl. 1, fig. 2, the second whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl is
shown with three stout tubercles in side view, corresponding to those
found in this region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (Pl. 1) are glyphs
representing the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted,
though the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidently
intended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (Pl. 1).
Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is made
like the head of a serpent.
The _Mollusca_ in the codices are not always associated with the water
although this is usually the case. God N (Pl. 1, fig. 1) sitting with
the shell around his body is represented as in the rain and the shells
in Pl. 1, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The snail (Maya, _[vs]ot_) is
considered by the Nahuas as the symbol of birth and death. The first
idea is well brought out in Pl. 1, fig. 2, where the human figure is
emerging from a shell. The same idea among the Mayas is seen in Pl. 1,
fig. 1, where god N is coming from a shell. As god N is usually
associated with the end of the year, we may have here the complementary
idea of death associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought out
in the Bologna Codex (Pl. 1, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated with
flint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often identified
with the summer solstice, as previously pointed out, so the snail is
associated with the winter solstice.
Foerstemann's identification of the head-dress of god D (Dresden 5c), god
A (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden 11c) as representing snails is
not clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also follows the same course thinking
that the knob-like prominences represent the stalked eyes of snails.
This seems quite unlikely as such representations are usually short and
occur in too widely dissimilar connections. Moreover, there are
sometimes three of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). A
similar attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress of
the death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden 13a and
13b associated with god A looks far more like the head and upper jaw of
some mammal.
OLIVA. A univalve shell frequently represented is of an oval shape,
pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a short spire at one
extremity. This is doubtless a species of _Oliva_, a marine shell. Mr.
Charles W. Johnson informs us that _O. reticulata_ is the species
occurring on the Yucatan shores, while _O. splendidula_ is found in
other parts of the Gulf of Mexico. Representations of this shell are
shown in Pl. 1, figs. 10-12. In figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire are
apparent but in fig. 12 the lip only is seen as a white fissure against
the general dark background. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir
(Pl. 28, fig. 1) shows a string of _Oliva_ shells about the animal's
neck and similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by the
personages represented on the stelae of Copan.
The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent zero in the
Maya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the meaning five, and a
dot one, so the shell often has the signification of zero. This is seen
especially in the numeration by position in the codices (Pl. 1, figs. 7,
8, 10-14).
OTHER MOLLUSCA. In addition to the species just described at least two
or three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so conventionalized that
it is out of the question to hazard a guess at their identity. One (Pl.
1, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long pointed shell, another (Pl. 1,
figs. 18-20) is rounder with conventionalized scroll-like markings.
Figs. 21, 22 (Pl. 1) may be a side view of the closed bivalve shown in
figs. 16, 17, or possibly a species of cowry. In like manner, fig. 13 is
probably a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seen
that in each case the figure showing the two opened valves has a
bipartite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple.
This doubling of the single median foot of the bivalve may be an
artistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps represents both
foot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (Pl. 1) seem to represent
molluscs still further reduced and conventionalized. These molluscs from
the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 1, figs. 15-24) are almost all found represented
in the blue water, whereas those which stand for zero in the Maya
codices have no immediate association with either water or rain.
INSECTA
THE HONEY BEE (_Melipona_). A portion of the Tro-Cortesianus appears to
treat of apiculture, as previously noted, or, at all events, contains
numerous figures of bees, some of which are shown in Pl. 2. As stated by
Stempell (1908, p. 735) this is doubtless a species of _Melipona_,
probably _M. fulvipes_ or _domestica_. It is well known that this bee
was kept by the ancient Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hives
are shown in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted depending
from the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of cells
roughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11 several
hexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by the black god,
M. Darwin, in his _Origin of Species_, has called attention to the form
of the comb built by this bee, and considers its irregular cells of from
three to six sides intermediate in their degree of perfection between
those of the bumble bee (_Bombus_) and the honey bee of Europe (_Apis
mellifica_). The _Caban_ form in connnection[TN-4] with the hive in fig.
10 may have some phonetic signifiance[TN-5] as _kab_ is honey in Maya.
This sign occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture.
The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of interesting
variations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conventionalized
than in figs. 4, 6 (Pl. 2). The hairy feet are well indicated as well as
the segmented body and a single pair of wings. All the figures show an
anterodorsal view so that, on account of the size of the first pair of
legs, only the tops of the second pair appear in Pl. 2, figs. 1, 3, 5.
In fig. 2, however, two pairs are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, the
anthropomorphic tendency is further shown by providing the insect with
two pairs of limbs each with four or five digits, and a conventionalized
face, eyes and mouth. In Pl. 2, fig. 1, the bee is represented without
mouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or a queen bee
that takes no active part in the work of gathering honey or making comb.
Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of any of the figures and shows the
worker bee with antennae and mouthparts.
The so-called "cloud balls" of the day sign _Cauac_ (Pl. 2, fig. 8) may
represent the honey comb. _Cauac_ is usually supposed to have some
connection with lightening[TN-6] and thunder although Valentini agrees with
the authors in associating _Cauac_ with the bees and honey. The
_Cauac_-like forms in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, have been described above as
hives. The representation of legs in the full drawing of a bee as four
large limbs, an anterior and a posterior pair, coupled with the method
of drawing the insect as seen from above and in front, may have led to
its final expression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with the
hives (Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign _Cauac_.
Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Central America and
Mexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees and Gomara states that the
bees were small and the honey rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. 1, p.
68)[300-*] mentions six varieties of bees which were found in
Mexico;--the first is the same as the common bee of Europe, the second
differs from the first only in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatan
and Chiapas which makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. The
third species resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller than
the common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee, smaller
than the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting. The fifth is a
small bee without a sting which constructs hives of an orbicular form in
subterranean cavities and the honey is sour and somewhat bitter. The
_Tlalpipiolli_, which is the sixth species, is black and yellow, of the
size of the common bee, but has no sting.
The natives of the country at the present time often cultivate hives of
bees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose and keep in a
specially constructed shelter. It is, however, rather the ceremonial
side of apiculture that is the interesting feature and this is clearly
emphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus. The section in this manuscript (80b,
103-112), as has been noted, is taken up almost exclusively with the
culture of the bee and in all probability represents a definite
religious ceremony or series of rites which are connected intimately
with bees and honey. Landa (1864, p. 292)[300-[+]] states that in the
month _Tzoz_ the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the bees
which takes place in the following month, _Tzec_. In the month _Mol_
another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that the
gods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees (Landa, 1864, p.
306).[301-*]
It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the pages of the
Tro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in this connection.
The more or less realistic drawings of the bees (Pl. 2, figs. 1-6, 9)
represent the god of the bees and to him offerings of food and incense
are being made. Pl. 2, fig. 11, shows the war god (M) with his eagle
head-dress offering a mass of honey in the comb to the god of the bees.
Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in the Dresden
Codex. Foerstemann's identification of the head-dress of the goddess in
Dresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us to be correct.
In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4 (Pl. 3,
fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed beak-like
structure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its human-like body.
It is engaged in apparent conflict with a man and may represent a
hornet.
BLOW-FLY (_Sarcophaga_). Two figures in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 3,
figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear to have been
frequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking men. These are
thick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by the curious conformation
of the mouth and by a lateral row of dots that may represent the
metameric spiracles or, as commonly, a demarcation between dorsal and
ventral surfaces. That these are maggots of a blow-fly (_Sarcophaga_)
there can be little doubt, not only on account of their mouth parts
which are similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but also
because of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latter
in fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is the
habit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of dead
animals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that in each case a
maggot is attacking the god's nose may indicate that this habit was
known to the artist who, consequently, shows the larvae in this
position. In Pl. 3, fig. 2, the god's eye is not closed but his passive
attitude while the maggot devours his hand and nose does not indicate
that he is in full possession of his strength. In addition to the
blow-fly, a screw-fly (_Chrysomyia_) lays its eggs on the bodies of
animals, often on persons sleeping, and these may hatch almost at once
into small maggots that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, that
the larvae here considered belong to this genus.
In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is another
representation of the same god being attacked by a vulture. This bird is
evidently eating his nose. In this case the god is shown with the closed
eye as in 27d. In Tro-Cortesianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking the
mouth of god F. From the fact that no other god is ever found in this
connection it may be suggested that there may be some relation between
god F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead body is
being eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of the body of the
person sacrificed was usually eaten by those taking part in the
ceremony.
LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS. In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (Pl. 3, fig. 3) is shown a
second insect larva with curiously formed mouth parts. It is represented
as attacking agave which is springing from the ground as shown by the
_Caban_ signs in the codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to be
the larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_ Felder, "called by the Mexicans
_guson_, and in Nahuatl _mescuillin_." This grub, he says, is white,
about an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It is
greatly prized as an article of food for "_gusones_ to this day are
collected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave, sold
on the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To all appearances
they are nourishing and palatable, and it is said that connoisseurs
prefer them to oysters or swallows' nests." Hough believes "that the
discovery of the sap-yielding quality of the agave was through search
for these larvae."
In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of insects, some of
which appear to represent butterflies or moths (Pl. 3, figs. 5-8) but
these are quite unidentifiable. That shown in fig. 6 is colored blue in
the original, while the others are of various colors. Possibly the round
markings on the wings in figs. 5, 8, represent the ocelli on the wings
of certain species of moths. In this connection, too, it is interesting
to compare the conventionalized butterfly with its single eye and
pointed antennae from the Aubin manuscript (Pl. 3, fig. 9) with one
drawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 3, fig. 8).
MYRIAPODA
Representations of a centipede (probably a species of _Scolopendra_)
occur in the Dresden Codex and in several others examined. That shown in
Pl. 5, fig. 1, from the Vaticanus 3773, is perhaps the least
conventionalized.[303-*] This figure appears partly to encircle a
temple, behind which the major portion of its length is hidden and hence
is not here shown. The bipartite structure coming from the animal's head
doubtless represents the mouthparts, and at its base on either side
arise antennae. The first pair only of legs is shown with a pinching
claw, possibly intended as a conventionalized hand, while the rest are
simple. The plumes decorating the posterior extremity are of course
extraneous and represent the tail of the quetzal or trogon.
In the Dresden Codex, god D constantly appears in connection with a
head-dress from which depends a centipede, greatly reduced and
conventionalized. Two forms of this centipede are shown in Pl. 3, figs.
15, 18. The body appears to consist of four or five segments each with
its pair of ambulatory appendages (though there may not always be the
same number of each) terminated by a circular segment with a
conventionalized three-knobbed structure, apparently corresponding to
the portion that bears the quetzal plume in Pl. 5, fig. 1. The outline
of the head in Pl. 3, fig. 15, is shown in dotted line but by solid line
in fig. 18. One of the antennae appears to be omitted from the former
figure, also, but both are present in the latter. The insect-like head
is made on much the same plan as that of the bee (Pl. 2, fig. 11), the
facial portion divided by a median line into a right and a left half
with a small triangle below for a mouth. The eyes, however, instead of
being circular like those of the bee are made as narrow elongated
projections extending inward from the dorsal margin of the facial disc.