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_HOME AND WORLD SERIES_
HOW WE ARE FED
A GEOGRAPHICAL READER
BY
JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN, ED.B., S.B.
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1912
_All rights reserved_
COPYRIGHT, 1903,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up, electrotyped, and published June, 1903. Reprinted
January, June, August, 1904: July, 1905; January, 1906;
August, December, 1907; September, 1909; August, 1910;
August, 1911; June, 1912.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U. S. A.
PREFACE
In the ordinary course of events, most individuals take some part in the
manifold industries which engage the mind and the hand of man, by which
alone our present-day civilization can be maintained. These great world
activities touch the daily life of _every_ member of society, whether
child or adult, worker or idler.
A chain of mutual dependence, too often unrecognized, binds together the
members of the human family, whether they belong to the same community
or dwell on opposite sides of the earth. The links of this chain are
made up of the articles which constitute our daily food, our clothing,
homes, fuel, light, our means of communication and transportation, and
only by continuous cooeperation are they kept together.
The highest motive in education is to present the conditions which will
lead to the most complete living; to build up the best possible members
of society; to develop character. An individual who does not understand
the life of which he finds himself a part, cannot be in full sympathy
with its conditions and hence cannot be of the most service to himself
or to others. Only to the extent that education and life follow the same
general course, can each be truly successful. Far too little is done in
our schools to acquaint children with their relations to the great
industrial and social organization of which they are members. Even grown
persons have, as a rule, a very indefinite knowledge of these relations.
It is a recognized principle that our knowledge of geography has its
foundation in our knowledge of the home. The natural connecting link
between the immediate surroundings and the outside world is the _present
daily life of the home_. Through the industries seen in the community,
the commodities in general use, and the history of their creation and
supply, the pupil acquires an insight into the life about him as well as
into that of other parts of the world. He also realizes the great truth
that the world and its people are in intimate touch with _him_. In this
way he is led back and forth along the routes which civilization has
followed in its progress, which it also follows to-day, as mankind clasp
hands across oceans and continents. Thus the remote and abstract become
immediate and concrete. Facts are seen in a setting of reason, and a
logical and interesting basis for the study of physical, climatic, and
human conditions is furnished.
This study begins with the commodities in constant use and finally
encompasses the whole world, but always with the home as the base of
operations. It will create a knowledge of the interdependence of
individuals, communities, and nations, and a genuine respect for the
work of the hands and for the worker. The importance of this respect is
not likely to be overestimated. Without it a true democracy cannot long
exist.
Reading should not only serve for the acquisition and the expression of
the thought contained in the printed page; it should, in addition,
stimulate to _new_ thought--to independent power in reasoning. On this
account questions are inserted which the pupil is left to answer. These
are suggestive of a much larger number, which should be worked out by
the teacher. Too many of the questions found in books do not "stimulate
thought" or "independent power in reasoning." They are purely
informatory and not at all formative.
No attempt has been made to treat every article of food. Those in most
general use, as well as those which will best serve to develop a
knowledge of geographical conditions and of man's relation to man, have
been chosen.
A given industry is pursued in somewhat different ways in different
places. It has not been thought wise to describe each modification in
these pages. For example, the method of handling wheat in California is
different from that employed in Minnesota. The value of the work will be
increased if the teacher will bring out these points.
_All places mentioned should he definitely located_, both as to position
on the map or globe and with reference to the home. When developed from
the standpoint of direct, personal interest, a knowledge of the
location of places as well as of other facts mentioned is most likely to
be retained.
The illustrations used have been very carefully selected for their
_teaching value_. They give a clearness to mental pictures which can be
derived only through observation of that which the illustrations
symbolize. Much experience in the use of geographical illustrations has
shown that pupils need to be directed in their examination of them. To
secure the best results they must be made the centers of
thought-developing questions.
Thanks are due the Pillsbury-Washburn Flour Mills Company of
Minneapolis, the Swift Packing Company of Chicago, the Walter Baker
Company of Dorchester, the United Fruit Company of New Orleans, and Dr.
Charles U. Shepard of Pinehurst Plantation, for the excellent
illustrations furnished by them.
JAMES FRANKLIN CHAMBERLAIN.
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,
LOS ANGELES, March, 1903.
CONTENTS
PAGE
THE PAST AND THE PRESENT 1
THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD 7
HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED 18
MARKET GARDENING 32
DAIRY PRODUCTS 41
BUTTER MAKING 44
CHEESE 50
THE FISHING INDUSTRY 54
OYSTER FARMING 64
A RICE FIELD 70
HOW SUGAR IS MADE 77
BEET SUGAR 84
MAPLE SUGAR 87
WHERE SALT COMES FROM 91
MACARONI AND VERMICELLI 99
ON A COFFEE PLANTATION 104
THE TEA GARDENS OF CHINA 113
A CUP OF COCOA 120
A CRANBERRY BOG 131
THE COCOANUT ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 139
A BUNCH OF BANANAS 146
HOW DATES GROW 155
THE ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 165
A VISIT TO A VINEYARD 174
NUTTING 184
A WALNUT VACATION 187
CHESTNUTS 193
A BAG OF PEANUTS 195
ASSORTED NUTS 201
A STRANGE CONVERSATION 206
HOW WE ARE FED
THE PAST AND THE PRESENT
Long, long ago people did not live as we do to-day. Their homes were
very different from ours, for they were made of the skins of wild
animals, of the limbs and bark of trees, or of tall grasses. There were
no stoves, chairs, tables, or beds in their houses. Instead of lamps,
gas, or electricity, a fire on the dirt floor or in front of the house,
furnished the light.
The clothing of these people was as simple as their homes. It was made
of skins and furs in cold countries and in warm countries of braided
grasses and the fibers of certain plants. You may be sure that tailors
and dressmakers were not consulted as to the latest styles, for the
styles did not change and there were neither tailors nor dressmakers to
talk to. Each family made its own clothing, and there was not a sewing
machine to be found.
How would you like to use a bone for a needle? Sometimes, instead of
sharpened bones, long thorns were used. The sinews of the deer, or of
some other animal, usually furnished the thread.
When the people were in need of food, they went into the forest and
gathered roots, nuts, and fruits. Wild animals were killed by means of
such weapons as bows and arrows and spears, and fish were caught in the
lakes and streams.
The food was not cooked as ours is; for, as I have told you, there were
no stoves. Sometimes the meat was broiled over the fire, sometimes baked
in a hole filled with ashes and coals, but it was often eaten raw. It
was not easy to have a variety of food, and there were times when it was
very difficult to obtain anything. When food was abundant, the people
feasted, and when it was scarce, they were often hungry. How would you
like to wait for your breakfast while your father went to the woods or
to the river in search of something to eat?
When the meals were prepared, they were not neatly served as yours are,
but each person took his portion and sat on the ground while he ate it.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Indians at Dinner.]
All of this seems very strange to you, I know. If you live in the city,
you are accustomed to seeing the butcher, the baker, the milkman, and
the grocer call every day. There are stores where people can buy
whatever they want to eat, drink, or wear. You wonder how any one could
live in such a way as I have described, but there _are_ people who live
in this fashion to-day, although you have never seen any of them. They
are _uncivilized_. Where do you think they are to be found? When people
live in this way, it takes most of their time to provide themselves with
the things that are necessary to life. They have little opportunity to
improve their ways of living and of thinking.
Civilized people divide their work. Some provide food, some make
clothing, some build houses, and some furnish fuel. Each one does his or
her part. In this way, you see, they learn to do their work better and
better, because each gives much time and thought to one kind of work.
This plan gives each one time to study and to learn something about the
world and its people. Think how much better our homes, our clothing, and
our food are, than are those of uncivilized people, and how many other
advantages we have.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--White People at Dinner.]
It is only possible to live as we do, when each one works for others as
well as for himself. If any one fails to do his part, the rest must
suffer until some one is found to take his place. It is to prepare
yourself to do _your part_ in some useful work for others, that you are
going to school day by day. You do not now know just what that work is
to be, but I want you to remember that _all_ honest work is noble. It is
not so important _what work_ you do, as it is that you should do your
work _well_. No matter what your work may be, you can carry sunshine in
your face and helpfulness in your heart. If you do this, you will be
known and loved. Hard work, coarse clothes, and lack of money can never
hide these things, neither will the finest of clothing cover a selfish
or untruthful nature.
Let us look at this dinner table loaded with good things to eat and
drink. There are bread, butter, meat, vegetables, milk, tea, fruits, and
other things. You see at once that many persons must have worked to
provide this food, for only a small part of the work was done in the
kitchen. If these things could but speak, they might tell you stories as
wonderful as fairy tales. They have been gathered here from the fertile
plains of the West, from the sunny South, from Brazil, from the islands
of the Pacific Ocean, from far-off China, and even from the waters of
the sea.
THE STORY OF A LOAF OF BREAD
In the dark granary of a farmer's barn in North Dakota once lived a
modest family of grains of wheat. The bright, warm days of the summer
time, during which they had been placed in this dark room, soon grew
shorter and cooler. The swallows, whose mud nests were in the rafters
overhead, told the wheat brothers that winter was coming, and then flew
away to the balmy southland.
Soon biting winds and blinding snow came sweeping over the level land.
Sometimes the farmhouse was almost hidden under the drifts, and the
farmer had to shovel out a path to the barn, so that he could feed the
horses and cattle. By and by the days grew warmer, the snow disappeared,
and the birds returned one by one. The farmer and his men got out their
plows and harrows, and prepared the soil for the seeds soon to be
planted.
The wheat was now shoveled into sacks and taken to the fields. Here it
was placed in great machines drawn by horses, which scattered it evenly
over the land and at the same time covered it with soft soil. The men
whistled and sang as they worked, and blackbirds, bluebirds, and larks
flew back and forth, singing and searching for bugs and worms, as well
as for the shining kernels of wheat.
The wheat was not content to remain underground, but kept trying to push
itself out into the world. One night there came a warm shower, and the
next morning what looked like tiny, green blades of grass appeared all
over the field.
All through the spring and summer the wheat kept growing, and finally
there appeared at the ends of the stalks clusters of kernels, just like
those which the farmer had planted. Some of these kernels had produced
families of twenty or thirty. These clusters are called _heads_.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Harvesting Wheat in Southern California.]
As the south wind passed over the field it brought the wheat messages
from Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and other states, telling of
relatives who were already turning golden in the summer sunshine. One
day some of the kernels thought they heard a voice from California. Do
you think they did?
The grain in some of the fields was called _winter wheat_. This was
because the grain had been sown the autumn before, and had remained in
the ground all winter, covered by a blanket of snow. Why was it sown in
the fall? The wheat of which I am telling you was called by the farmer
_spring wheat_.
Soon machines, each drawn by several horses, appeared. They cut the
waving grain, and bound it up in bundles called _sheaves_. These were
set up in double rows to dry, and afterward put into another machine
which separated the kernels from the stalks, which were now called
_straw_. This work the farmer calls _threshing_. See if you can find out
how this used to be done.
After threshing, the wheat was put into sacks and taken to the nearest
railroad station. Freight cars then carried it across the level prairies
to the beautiful city of Minneapolis, built beside the Falls of Saint
Anthony. What river is this city on? Of what use are the falls?
There are tall buildings called _elevators_ here in which the wheat was
stored for a time. Before being put into the elevators it was examined
and _graded_. As there was wheat from many farms it could not be kept
separate, so each farmer was told how much he had, and how it graded.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Threshing Wheat in Southern California.]
Some time after this the wheat was taken to one of the great mills to be
ground into flour. The largest of these mills manufactures about
fifteen thousand barrels of flour every day. This is the largest flour
mill in the world.
When the kernels reached the mill, they were put into machines called
_separators_, to be separated from all companions such as grass seed,
mustard seed, and wild buckwheat. They were then placed in an iron box
in which brushes were revolving rapidly, and were _scoured_ to free them
from fuzz and dirt. Those that were very dirty were washed.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The Flour Mills in Minneapolis.]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Largest Flour Mill in the World.]
The kernels were _steamed_, in order that the coating, called _bran_,
might not break into small pieces. This is called _tempering_. The
kernels now thought that their trials were over, but they were mistaken.
Soon they found themselves being _crushed_ between rollers. After they
came out they were _sifted_, and then run between other rollers. This
was repeated six times, and each time the flour was a little finer, for
the rollers were closer together. The flour was then run through tubes
of flannel. These took out whatever dust it contained. It was then
ground still finer. The flour was then put into sacks or barrels, which
were marked for shipment to other parts of the country.
Only the wheat intended for the very best grade of flour is treated as
carefully as this was.
What industry does the use of barrels bring in?
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Grinding Wheat.]
From the mills the flour was sent to many parts of the land to supply
stores, bakeries, hotels, and homes. Some of it found its way to the
bakery near your home. The bakers, in their clean suits of white,
weighed the flour which they were going to use, and then added a
certain amount of water to it. Some yeast and salt were added also. This
mixture they called _dough_. You have seen your mother mix or _knead_
dough, I am sure. The bakers did not do the kneading with their hands,
but by means of machinery made for this purpose.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Bolting Flour.]
When the dough had been thoroughly kneaded it was left to _rise_. It is
the yeast that causes the rising. This makes the bread light and spongy.
It was then cut into loaves and placed in the oven. The ovens in the
bakery are very much larger than those in your kitchen stove, for many
loaves are baked at once. When a nice shade of brown appeared on the
loaves, the bakers took them out of the oven by means of long shovels.
Soon the delivery wagons came and were loaded with the fresh bread to be
delivered to stores and homes. This loaf was just left at the door and
is still warm.
So, you see, a loaf of bread has quite a history. I have told you the
life story of this one from the time of its grandparents, who were
raised on the plains of North Dakota. Would it not be interesting to see
each of the people who have had something to do with its production, and
to make the journey which the wheat and the flour made? You can do both
in your thoughts.
HOW OUR MEAT IS SUPPLIED
Ramon lived in a plain, one-story house, built in the shade of some
cottonwood trees that fringed each side of a small river in the eastern
part of Colorado. A wide veranda extended entirely around the house, but
there were very few flowers and no lawn. I am afraid you would not think
it a very pleasant place for a home.
Not far from the _ranch house_, as it was called, were the barn and the
_corrals_. A corral is a yard with a strong, high fence about it, in
which cattle or horses may be placed. On the bottom land beside the
stream, there was a corn and an alfalfa patch, besides one containing
some potatoes and garden vegetables.
During most of the year the stream was quite shallow, and flowed quietly
over its bed, but when heavy rains occurred it rose rapidly, spreading
over much of the bottom land and carrying so much clay with it that it
was almost the color of coffee.
Except along the river, not a tree was in sight from Ramon's home, and
it was many miles to the nearest house. For hundreds of miles both north
and south, there stretched a vast plain. Little was to be seen but sand,
grass, and sagebrush. I had almost forgotten the prairie dogs, which
scamper across the plain or sit up straight and motionless on a little
mound of sand beside their burrows. They watch you closely, not moving
unless they regard you as a dangerous creature, when, quick as a flash,
they disappear.
The rainfall is very slight in this part of the country, being less than
twenty inches a year. On this account there is little attention paid to
farming, but instead, the settlers own great herds of cattle as well as
many horses. Ramon's father is one of the _cattlemen_ of Colorado. He
owns more than ten thousand head of cattle, and some of the cattlemen
own twice that number. Of course such great herds of cattle must have
much land to graze on. Some of the land is owned by the government and
any one may use it. Everywhere fences are far apart. These great
pastures are called _ranges_.
Ramon's life is not much like yours. His home is far from schools,
churches, stores, or railroads. He seldom sees strangers, but he enjoys
long rides on his own pony, _Prince_. Sometimes he goes with his father
and at other times he takes a gallop with one of the "cowboys" who herd
the cattle.
The "cowboys" almost live in the saddle. They are out in all kinds of
weather and are not boys at all, but strong, hardy men. They wear
broad-brimmed hats, and carry long ropes called lassos or _lariats_,
with which they catch the cattle.
Where there are so many herds they sometimes get mixed up. On this
account each cattleman marks or _brands_ his animals. These brands may
be the initial letter of the owner's name, or they may be in the form of
a horseshoe, a cross, a circle, or a crescent.
Each spring and fall the cowboys gather the cattle together. This is
called "rounding up" the cattle. They are then counted and the calves
born since the last "round up" are branded. In the fall, in addition to
this work, animals are selected for the market. Why is the fall a better
time for this than the spring?
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Branding Cattle.--Point to the Lariats.]
The cowboys, mounted upon their swift, strong ponies, single out the
animals that have never been branded, and swinging their lassos over
their heads, they throw them with such skill that the loop settles over
the head or about the leg of the one wanted. As soon as the rope
tightens, the pony braces its forefeet firmly and the animal is finally
thrown to the ground. It is then branded with a hot iron and allowed to
go. Ramon used to feel very sorry for them until his father explained
that it hurt them very little, for only the skin was burned.
Sometimes the cattle selected to be sold, are not quite fat enough for
the market. They are then taken farther east into the _corn belt_ and
fed for a time.
When they are shipped directly from the range to the market, they are
driven to the nearest railroad and put into yards beside the track. They
are then made to walk up an incline with high railings ending at the
open doors of a cattle car. The animals are arranged so that the first
faces one side of the car, the second the other, and so on. This is done
so that the cattle cannot hook one another, and also that they may be
fed and watered on the way from a long iron trough which is fastened to
each side of the car.
The great cattle markets of the United States are Omaha, Kansas City,
and Chicago. Find these cities.
One day when Ramon was about fourteen years old, his father told him
that he was going to take a train load of cattle to Chicago and that he
might go with him. It was a happy time for Ramon, you may be sure, for
he was very anxious to see some of the wonderful sights his father had
told him about.
At last the day when they were to start on their journey arrived. The
afternoon before, the cowboys had driven the cattle to the railroad so
as to load them early in the morning. Soon after breakfast Ramon kissed
his mother and his little sister good-by, and he and his father rode off
across the level plain.
Finding the cattle already loaded in the cars, Ramon and his father were
soon seated in the _caboose_, rolling over the miles of railroad which
connected them with Chicago. Whenever the train stopped for a few
minutes, they took a long stick and went from car to car making the
cattle that had lain down get up, so that they might not be injured by
the others.
When bedtime came, they made their beds on the benches along each side
of the caboose, which are covered with cushions. As they had brought
blankets with them, they were fairly comfortable.
Ramon did not sleep very soundly the first night. The engine shrieked
from time to time, and the car rocked and jolted so that he was afraid
of falling from his bed.
The next day they reached a part of the country where great cornfields
waved in the breeze. The leaves had already turned brown, and golden
ears of grain peeped out from the ends of the husks. There were stubble
fields, too, where wheat and oats had been harvested.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Bird's Eye View of Union Stock Yards, Chicago.]
The country became more thickly settled as they went on, and the towns
were nearer together. Streams were more common, and grass and timber
more abundant. The young traveler wondered why this was so. Can you
tell?
Early in the morning of the fourth day the train reached Chicago. After
much switching and backing the cars were run into the Union Stock Yards,
and the cattle were unloaded.
Ramon was thoroughly bewildered by what he saw and heard. Men were
shouting and cracking whips; others were riding up and down the alleys
that separate the yards; dogs were barking and turning the animals this
way and that, and gates were swinging back and forth.
The cattle were weighed and examined to see if they had any disease, and
were then placed in charge of a _commission merchant_ to be sold. Buyers
come to the yards and bargain with these commission merchants. When an
unusually large number of cattle come in, the prices are likely to fall;
when few arrive, the prices rise.
When the cattle had been yarded, Ramon's father said that they would go
and have breakfast. In the afternoon they visited the "yards," and the
slaughter and packing houses. The "yards" cover about a square mile of
territory. They are divided into countless pens or small yards,
containing sheds, feeding racks, and watering troughs.
Ramon asked how many cattle were unloaded in these yards daily. His
father handed him a copy of the _Chicago Live Stock World_, and at the
top of the first column he read that on the day previous there had been
received 18,500 cattle, 35,000 hogs, and 18,000 sheep. He was told that
sometimes the receipts are much larger than this and sometimes not so
large.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Dressing Beef.]
They followed the bodies of the cattle from the slaughterhouses where
they are dressed, into the cooling rooms. These are simply great
refrigerators. Wagons come to the cooling rooms and haul loads of the
meat to butcher shops, hotels, and depots. Within a few hours it finds
its way to smaller cities and towns in all directions. A great deal of
meat is shipped even to Europe. Why does not Europe produce its own
meat?
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Cooling Beef.]
When the meat has thoroughly hardened in the cooling rooms, it is sent
to the curing rooms, where it is cut up and packed. Each person here
does his particular work from morning until night.
Ramon learned, to his surprise, that every part of the animal is used.
Hair, hide, horns, hoofs, teeth, bones, and even blood, are made use of.
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Splitting Backbone of Hogs.]
Most of the hogs which enter the great meat-packing cities are raised in
the corn belt.
The sheep need much pasturage, and so the largest flocks are found in
the Western and Southwestern states. A single herder may take care of
several thousand sheep. His faithful companions and helpers are
intelligent shepherd dogs. After a great flock of sheep has fed on an
area, hardly a green thing is left. The people in the part of the West
where there is little rainfall, object to the pasturing of sheep around
the head waters of streams, because when the vegetation is removed the
water runs off too quickly.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Curing Pork in Salt.]
In the evening our friends watched the men, women, and children march
out of the "yards." They were told that not less than thirty-five
thousand persons were employed in the various establishments. There is
but one city in Colorado which contains so many people.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Chopping Sausage Meat.]
As they sat at breakfast next morning, Ramon wondered how many of the
people of Chicago were eating steaks from cattle which he had seen on
his father's ranch. The thought was a new one to him. His trip had shown
him that the cattlemen who lived and worked on those far-away plains
were doing their part in supplying people all over our country with
meat. Their lonely life, with all of its disadvantages, now had a new
meaning for him, and he went back to his Western home content with it,
yet very glad to have had this glimpse of another side of life.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Packing Poultry.]
MARKET GARDENING
Think of the immense quantities of fruits and vegetables that are used
daily on the tables of a great city such as New York or Chicago. As we
travel up and down the streets of any great city, we see rows of
buildings, sometimes built in solid blocks and sometimes a little
distance apart. Some have trees and small lawns in front of them; others
are without even this touch of nature. Nowhere, except in the outskirts,
do we find gardens.
_These people depend upon others to furnish them with their vegetable
food._
Now let us make some excursions into the region surrounding one of these
cities. For miles and miles we see on every hand _truck farms_ or
_market gardens_. The main business of those who live in these districts
is to furnish food for the people of the city, so that the latter may
devote their time to their various occupations.
We see growing potatoes, cabbages, tomatoes, beans, peas, squashes,
turnips, onions, sweet corn, celery, melons, and many other things.
Usually all of these will be found in one garden, but sometimes the
farmer raises only a few kinds, or perhaps but one.
Market gardening is very common in Germany, Holland, Italy, China, and
in other densely populated countries. Therefore we often find people who
have come from these countries to America engaged in this business.
Chinese gardeners are seldom seen in the East, but on the Pacific coast
they raise most of the vegetables used in the cities and towns.
In the early spring, before the ground is warm enough to make seeds
grow, the gardener starts his plants in "hotbeds." These are long wooden
boxes, or frames, without bottoms, covered with glass. They are usually
placed on the south side of some building or high fence. The glass
covers allow the warm sunshine to enter the "beds" freely, but they
prevent the rapid escape of the heat. You see now why they are called
"hotbeds." They are like small greenhouses.
A little later in the spring the fields are thoroughly cultivated and
the plants transplanted. Of course only the vegetables desired for the
early market are started in this way. What advantage is there in having
the vegetables ready for the market very early in the season?
Vegetable farming is not easy work, although it is a pleasure to see
things grow day by day as you care for them, and as nature supplies her
sunshine and her rain. The fields must be cultivated almost constantly,
to keep the soil loose, as well as to remove the weeds. Much of the
weeding has to be done by hand, which is tedious work.
We want our vegetables fresh every morning; and as the truck farms are
at some distance from the city, the farmer must load up his wagon the
night before. Of course much produce is sent to the cities on trains,
but where farmers live near enough to deliver it themselves, their crops
are more profitable to them. Why?
[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Market Scene.]
Everything is put in readiness before dark; and while others are still
in bed, the farmer mounts his wagon to start toward the sleeping city. I
have often ridden ten or fifteen miles on such a load before the stars
faded away.
It is a novel experience. At first the night seems strangely still, but
soon you are able to distinguish many voices coming from various places.
The frogs croak from the ponds by the roadside; crickets and locusts
send their shrill notes from grass and tree; a night owl startles you by
his dismal hoot; the lamps of the fireflies gleam, then disappear only
to shine out again a little farther on.
At last a faint glow appears in the eastern sky, which grows brighter
and brighter until the shining face of the sun is pushed above the
horizon. Do you not think such a ride would be more enjoyable than a
street car ride?
In the cities there are market places where produce from the country is
taken. In Chicago there is a very busy street where much of the buying
and selling is done. Study the picture carefully. Here the buyers from
hotels, restaurants, and stores, as well as the men who wish to peddle
the produce from house to house, go for their daily supplies. There are
also commission merchants whose stores are on this street. They sell the
produce for those who ship it to the city by train.
We go to the stores and get what we want each day, or the peddlers bring
it to the door. You see how necessary it is to have special workers to
supply us with the different kinds of food. We consider it very
important that we should have vegetables and fruits fresh daily. The
work of supplying us with this food is very important. Remember that
those who till the soil are entitled to as great respect as are those
who do not work with their hands. Contact with nature makes men and
women better, and many of the noblest souls that the world has known
have lived in the country and plowed, planted, and harvested the
products of the soil.
[Illustration: Market Scene. Chicago.]
[Illustration: Market Scene. New York.]
DAIRY PRODUCTS
Uncle Ben lives on a dairy farm in the western part of New York State.
It is a beautiful _rolling_ country with cultivated fields, woodland,
and pastures, and here and there a sparkling stream winding its way
through the lowlands. The farmhouses are large and well built, and are
surrounded by grand old maple, beech, and elm trees. Most of the barns
are painted red with white trimmings.
There are many dairy farms in the neighborhood. Some of the farmers send
their milk to the towns to be used directly, some sell it to creameries,
and some to cheese factories.
Last summer I spent my vacation on Uncle Ben's farm, and Cousin Frank
and I had happy times, you may be sure.
Every day, just before sundown, we went to the pasture for the cows.
There were about twenty-five of them, and they always seemed perfectly
contented after the long day of feasting on rich grass and clover.
After we drove them into the barnyard Uncle Ben helped us fasten them in
their _stanchions_ in the barn. Then the men brought the bright pails
and cans to begin milking. Cousin Frank and I always helped, although he
can milk much faster than I. Some of the cows gave but two or three
quarts, while others gave as many gallons.
We strained the milk into cans holding eight gallons each, and put them
into tanks of water to cool. After milking was finished we turned the
cattle into the barnyard for the night.
In the morning we commenced milking about sunrise. After breakfast the
cans were loaded into a spring wagon and Uncle Ben drove to the depot.
Here they were put on the "milk train," which took them to the city.
Many other people sent milk on this same train. It was sent to bakeries,
to hotels and restaurants, and to milkmen, who delivered it from house
to house. Usually the milkmen put the milk into pint or quart bottles
for people who like to have it in that form. Uncle Ben told us that
much of the milk that is sent to New York City is bottled before it is
sent. The bottling is done by machinery. He also told us that, because
of the great importance of having pure milk, there are, in all cities,
inspectors who carefully examine the milk and report to the Board of
Health. The cows also are inspected, and if any are sick, they are
usually killed.
Each evening some one drove to the depot again to get empty cans which
the milk train had brought home. These were always carefully washed in
hot water before being used again.
BUTTER MAKING
One day, after I had been on the farm about a week, Uncle Ben took Frank
and me to the _creamery_. A creamery is a place where the milk and cream
are separated and butter is made.
We found several wagonloads of milk being unloaded. The milk was weighed
as it was received, for it is sold by weight.
The milk was then strained into a large galvanized iron tub, from which
a pipe carried it into a circular machine called the _separator_. The
separator revolves rapidly, throwing the milk, which is heavier than the
cream, to the outer edge, where it passes through small holes into a
compartment by itself. The cream rises along the center and passes
through another set of openings into a special compartment. A pipe
carries it to a large vat, while another pipe conveys the milk to large
tanks.
Uncle Ben told me that when people make their own butter, they must wait
for the cream to _rise_ on the milk. The cream is then skimmed off, and
the milk is called _skimmed milk_. Although the milk in the creamery is
not skimmed, the same name is used for it.
I asked if the skimmed milk was used for anything. Uncle Ben gave me a
cupful of it to taste. It was very good. He then told me that the
separator takes out only the part needed in making butter, leaving all
of the sugar. I did not know before that milk contains sugar.
The farmers take home loads of this milk to feed it to their hogs. For
each hundred pounds of milk delivered, they get back seventy-five pounds
of skimmed milk, besides the pay for their cream.
The creamery man told me that he made from four to six pounds of butter
from one hundred pounds of milk.
The cream remains in the large vat about twenty-four hours before it is
churned. The churn, as you see by the picture, is a great barrel made
to revolve by machinery. It takes from thirty-five minutes to one hour
to churn. The man told me that I might look at the book in which he kept
the record of the churning. I saw that he made from two hundred fifty to
six hundred pounds of butter at a churning. He said that some churns
would produce more than one thousand pounds at a churning.
Not all of the cream is made into butter. There is left in the bottom of
the churn a liquid called _buttermilk_. This is drawn off, and the
butter is washed and _worked_ before being taken out of the churn. The
working is done by means of paddles in the churn. It continues for six
or eight minutes and squeezes the liquid out of the butter.
While the butter is being worked, it is salted. Some of the butter is
unsalted, but most of it is salted. When butter is made in the home, it
must be churned by hand. Only a few pounds at a time can be made in this
way.
When the butter was taken out of the churn, the men packed it solidly in
wooden boxes about two feet square and four inches deep. The bottom
of each box consisted of strips as wide as a _square_ of butter. These
were held together by a clamp, and the sides were hooked to the bottom
and to one another. When the butter is to be cut into squares, these
sides are removed and zinc ones take their places. In these there are
slits running from top to bottom. Through these slits a wire saw is run,
and so the butter is quickly cut into one or two pound squares. The
butter is then wrapped in fancy papers upon which the name of the butter
or of the creamery is stamped.
[Illustration: A Separator.]
[Illustration: A Churn.]
Of course some of the butter is packed in wooden tubs and shipped in
that form. This butter is a little cheaper than that put up in squares.
CHEESE
I was so much pleased with my visit to the creamery, that Uncle Ben
promised to show me how cheese is made. So one morning just after
breakfast he, Cousin Frank, and I started out. After a pleasant ride of
about five miles we reached the factory.
The first process here was the same as that at the creamery. After the
milk was weighed it was run into great zinc-lined vats. There were four
of these in the factory, each of which held about five thousand pounds.
Uncle Ben explained that the milk must _curdle_ before cheese can be
made. In order to make it curdle quickly, a little less than a pound of
a substance called _rennet_ was put into each vat.
A man worked at each vat with a long wooden rake, stirring the milk
constantly. I saw a glass tube standing in the milk and asked what it
was. Uncle Ben told me to look at it closely. I saw that it was a
thermometer, and that it registered eighty degrees. A little while after
I looked again, when it showed a temperature of ninety degrees. The milk
is kept warm, so as to help it to curdle quickly.
In about an hour I could see the curd very plainly, but the men kept on
stirring and cutting it. Presently one of them carried a piece of the
curd to a table. He heated a small iron rod and touched it with the
curd. When he pulled the curd away, little threads were drawn out to the
length of half an inch or more. This he called the "acid test," which
showed that the curd was in the right condition to be made into cheese.
Of course only a part of the milk had turned into curd; the rest was
_whey_, that was drawn off and run into tanks. Each man who had
delivered one hundred pounds of milk was given a check for seventy-five
pounds of the whey. It is fed to hogs. About two hours from the time
that the milk was put into the vats, the whey was drawn off.
One of the men now took a long knife and cut the curd into oblong cakes.
These he frequently lifted and turned over. After continuing this for
about twenty minutes, the pieces of curd were put into a small mill,
placed on a board over the vat, and the curd was chopped into strips
from one to six inches long and from one-half an inch to an inch thick.
Salt was scattered over the mass by one man, while another pitched it
about with a three-pronged wooden fork. The man told me that he used
three pounds of salt to each thousand pounds of milk.
Next, a piece of cloth was placed on a board about sixteen inches
square. Two circular metal frames or bands, about six inches high, were
fitted one within the other and placed on the cloth. The frame was
filled with curd, covered by a cloth, and another set placed on top of
it until there were five. They were then put on a table directly under a
block which was fastened to a screw. By turning the screw the block was
pressed against the top board, and so each frame of curd was pressed. I
saw the whey running out as the squeezing went on. The superintendent
told us that the curd would be left in the press until the next day.
We were then taken into the room where the cheese "ripens." Here we saw
large racks reaching nearly to the ceiling, filled with double rows of
cheeses. The smallest ones weighed but three pounds, while the largest
weighed fifty pounds. It may take but a few days and it may take many
months to "ripen" a cheese. It depends upon the flavor wanted. The man
said that in England "strong" cheese is generally liked, while in our
country "mild" cheese is preferred.
I asked how much cheese five thousand pounds of milk would make, and was
told that it would make between four and five hundred pounds.
On the way home Uncle Ben told us that although our country is a great
dairy country, we import certain kinds of cheese from Europe. He told us
how the Swiss people pasture their cattle on the steep mountain sides,
and that in every little mountain valley cheese is made, some of which
finds its way over the mountains and across the sea to the United
States.
THE FISHING INDUSTRY
Have you ever stood by the side of a stream and watched the fish dart
from one shadow of overhanging rock into another, or swim lazily at the
bottom of some deep pool? How gracefully they move and turn! How like
water jewels they flash as the sunlight falls upon them!
Most streams and lakes, like the ocean, contain fish. So we have
fresh-water and salt-water fish. There are a few bodies of water so full
of salt that fish cannot live in them. Do you know of any such bodies of
water?
Most of the fish used as food come from the ocean. In this, and in most
other countries, there are many men who do nothing but fish, in order
that other people may be supplied with this sort of food. They do not
depend upon hook and line alone, but use nets also.
Nets are great sacks made of cord, knotted or woven together in such a
way as to leave spaces or _meshes_. These meshes are not big enough to
allow large fish to escape. Sometimes the fishermen go out in rowboats
some distance from shore and then throw the net into the water. Corks or
floats keep the upper edge of the net near the surface, while weights
hold the lower edge on the bottom. Ropes are fastened to each end, and
so it is drawn toward the shore. How the fishermen wish that they could
see to the bottom of the restless water and know what their harvest is
to be! When the boats have almost reached the shore, horses are
sometimes driven into the water and hitched to the ropes. At last the
net is dragged out upon the sands and the uncertainty is past.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Drying Nets.]
Look! Within the folds of the net is a countless number of fishes, each
jumping, squirming, wriggling, trying to get back to its ocean home.
They are of many sizes, shapes, and colors. Those not good for food,
together with the smallest ones, are thrown back into the water.
Sometimes a net called a "dip-net" is dropped from a fishing schooner
and drawn about a "school" of fish. I have seen many barrels of fish
brought up at one time in this way.
The fishermen keep a close watch for the appearance of these "schools,"
you may be sure. Whales and dolphins pursue them, and gulls and
cormorants circle overhead, for they, too, are fishers. Their
appearance helps the men to tell where the "schools" are. There is a
great rush for the fishing grounds when they are sighted. The
white-sailed schooners skim over the waters almost like a flock of
birds.
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A Fishing Schooner.]
Large quantities of fish are caught by a method called _trawl fishing_.
This may be carried on miles from the shore. How do you suppose it is
done? To a very long and strong line, many shorter ones, each with a
hook at the end, are attached. These lines, to which large buoys are
fastened, are left in the water for several hours, and then fishermen in
flat-bottomed boats called _dories_ row out from the schooner and
examine them. The lines are then reset and the fish taken to the
schooner to be dressed. This is a common method of catching codfish,
which is carried on during summer and winter alike. Storms and fogs are
likely to occur while the men are out in their little boats, making
their work full of danger as well as of hardship.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Splitting Codfish.]
Many of the fish are packed in ice and sold fresh, while others are
cured on the boats or on shore. Some of the fishing schooners carry
great quantities of salt when they start out on a trip. The fish are
dressed and packed in this. Sometimes they are packed in brine, and
along the shores of some countries they are strung on poles to dry.
Codfish are dried in great quantities along the New England coast by
placing them on frames made of strips of wood and raised a little above
the wharf, so that the air can circulate freely. When the skin and bones
are removed and the flesh cut into strips, it is called "shredded"
codfish.
The principal food-fish are the cod, mackerel, herring, halibut, shad,
salmon, sardines, and whitefish. Whitefish are caught in the Great
Lakes. To this list the lobster may be added, although it is not a fish.
A common method of catching lobsters is to sink a box made of lath to
the bottom, where they crawl about on the rocks. A fish head is placed
in the box for bait. The lobsters crawl in and are likely to remain
until the box is examined.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Drying Codfish.]
Lobster steamers, fitted up with tanks containing salt water, run from
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland to Boston and New York. Here those not
wanted are placed on cars containing similar tanks and sent to interior
cities. In this way fresh lobsters are served thousands of miles from
where they were caught.
A lobster that would cost us from twenty-five to seventy-five cents
brings the fisherman not more than ten cents.
Along our New England coast there are many towns engaged extensively in
fishing. Portland, Gloucester, Boston, and Provincetown are among the
number. Gloucester is the most important fishing town in the United
States. From it fishing schooners go as far as Newfoundland, Greenland,
Iceland, and even to the coast of Ireland. There are also important
fisheries on the Pacific coast, from San Francisco to Alaska. Here the
salmon are taken in great numbers. They weigh from twenty to one hundred
pounds. The fish are canned and shipped to all parts of the country.
Besides being caught in nets and traps and on lines many are caught in
"fish wheels." These are fastened to the stern of a boat and revolve in
the water. The fish are caught in pockets and dropped in the boat as the
wheel brings them up over it.
There are very extensive fisheries along the shores of the British Isles
and on the western coast of Europe. Fishing is the chief industry in
the towns along the coast of Norway. The air is full of the odor of
fish, while drying fish, nets, and boats are everywhere in sight.