RUSSIA IN THE FIELD OF WAR
The Outcome of Slavic Ambition
Siege of Sebastopol—Russia in Asia—The Russo-Japanese War—Port Arthur
Taken—The Russian Fleet Defeated
Among the most interesting phases of nineteenth-century history is that
of the conflict between Russia and Turkey, a struggle for dominion that
came down from the preceding centuries, and still seems only
temporarily laid aside for final settlement in the years to come. In
the eighteenth century the Turks proved quite able to hold their own
against all the power of Russia and all the armies of Catharine the
great, and they entered the nineteenth century with their ancient
dominion largely intact. But they were declining in strength while
Russia was growing, and long before 1900 the empire of the Sultan would
have become the prey of the Czar had not the other Powers of Europe
come to the rescue. The Czar Nicholas designated the Sultan as the
“sick man” of Europe, and such he and his empire had truly become.
Of the various wars which Russia waged against Turkey, the first of
modern historical importance was that of 1854–55, known as the “Crimean
War” and made notable by the fact that Britain, France and Sardinia
joined the Turks in their struggle against the Muscovite armies.
The Western powers had long been fearful of letting Constantinople fall
into the hands of Russia. They had interfered to prevent this after the
victory of Russia in 1829, when Adrianople was taken and Constantinople
threatened. War broke out again in 1853 and Russia seemed likely to
triumph. This led Britain and France to declare war in 1854. Armies
were sent by them to the Black Sea, and in September a strong force was
landed on the coast of the Crimean peninsula.
SIEGE OF SEBASTOPOL
Their purpose in this movement was the capture of the fortress of
Sebastopol and the destruction of the Russian fleet in its harbor. But
the Muscovite defense was vigorous and the stronghold proved difficult
to take. Battles took place on the banks of the Alma and at Balaclava,
in both of which the allies were successful, the latter being made
notable by the heroic British “Charge of the Light Brigade,” which has
since been famous in song and story.
But the fortress held out during the succeeding winter and until late
in 1855, despite the vigor of the siege. After the middle of August the
assault became almost incessant, cannon balls dropping like an
unceasing storm of hail in forts and streets. On the 5th of September
began a terrific bombardment, continuing day and night for three days,
and sweeping down more than 5,000 Russians on the ramparts. At length,
as the hour of noon struck on September 8th, the attack, of which this
play of artillery was the prelude, began, the French assailing the
Malakoff, the British the Redan, these being the most formidable of the
defensive works of the town. The French assault was successful and
Sebastopol became untenable. That night the Russians blew up their
remaining forts, sunk their ships of war, and marched out of the town,
leaving it as the prize of victory to the allies.
This success put an end to the war. Britain, Sardinia, which had joined
the coalition, and Turkey were eager to continue it, but Napoleon III
had reasons of his own for withdrawing his troops, and the other allies
found it desirable to consent to a treaty of peace. Russia was far from
being conquered, but its finances were in a deplorable state, and the
Czar proved ready to make terms with his enemies.
This did not end Russia’s efforts to win Constantinople. A new war
broke out in 1877, in which none of the Powers came to the aid of the
Turks, and their dominion in Europe would have been brought to an end
but for the jealousy or these Powers, which forced the conquering
Muscovites to withdraw from the hoped-for prize. The events of this war
are given in the following chapter, as part of the history of the
Balkan States.
RUSSIA IN ASIA
Russia, though so often checked in the effort to capture
Constantinople, and with it win an opening to the Mediterranean, was
long more successful in another field of ambition, that of Asiatic
conquest and the expansion of empire over the great Eastern continent.
Here it had gradually won a vast stretch of territory, including the
immense area of Siberia and the realms of the Caucasus and Turkestan.
The result of the Boxer outbreak in China in 1900 increased the Russian
dominion in Asia, giving the empire a hold upon Manchuria, with control
of the fine seaport of Port Arthur. It began to appear as if this whole
region would become Russian territory, possibly including Korea and
Japan.
THE RUSSO-JAPAN WAR
The danger of this roused Japan to action. When it became evident that
the Russians had no intention to respect the rights of China in
Manchuria, and showed signs of an aggressive movement against Korea,
the island empire lost no time in making war. In February, 1904, Japan
withdrew her minister from St. Petersburg and three days later, without
the formality of a declaration of war, attacked the Russian fleets at
Chemulpo and Port Arthur and landed troops in Korea.
The Japanese quickly proved themselves able warriors. On April 13th
admiral Togo drove back the Russian fleet, its flagship, the
PETROPAVLOVSK, striking a mine and sinking with its crew and admiral.
On land the Russians were defeated at the battle of the Yalu, Manchuria
was invaded and Port Arthur invested and bombarded. Battles followed in
rapid succession, with victory for the island warriors in every
instance. General Oka won a fierce battle on the heights of Nan-Shan
and captured the Russian port of Dalny. General Kuroki fought his way
northward to Liao-yang, where was fought one of the great battles of
the war, lasting seven days and ending in the retreat of the Russians.
The next field of action was at Mukden, the Manchurian capital, when
the armies met in September, and remained face to face until March of
the following year. It was not until then that a decisive action took
place, the armies numbering nearly 500,000 each. The struggle was long
continued, but finally ended in a second retreat of the Russians. There
were no further engagements of importance in this quarter, though the
armies remained face to face for months in a long line south of Harbin.
PORT ARTHUR TAKEN
Meanwhile Port Arthur had become closely invested. One by one the hills
surrounding the harbor were taken by the Japanese, after stubborn
resistance. Big siege guns were dragged up and began to batter the town
and the ships. On August 16th, General Stoessel, commander at Port
Arthur, having refused to surrender, a grand assault was ordered by
Nogi. It proved unsuccessful, while the assailants lost 14,000 men. The
bombardment continued, the buildings and ships suffering severely.
Finally tunnels were cut through the solid rock and on December 20th
the principal stronghold in the east was carried by storm. Other forts
were soon taken and on January 2, 1905, the place was surrendered, the
Japanese obtaining 40,000 prisoners, 59 forts, about 550 guns, and
other munitions. The fleet captured consisted of four damaged
battleships, two damaged cruisers and a considerable number of small
craft. These ships had been effectually blockaded in the harbor, lying
practically inactive during the siege.
THE RUSSIAN FLEET DEFEATED
Russia, finding its naval force in the Pacific put out of commission
through the activity of the doughty Togo, had meanwhile despatched
another fleet from the Baltic, comprising nearly forty vessels in all.
These made their way through the Suez Canal and the Indian Ocean and on
May 27, 1905, entered the Strait of Tsushuma, between Korea and Japan.
Hitherto not a hostile vessel had been seen. Togo had held his fleet in
ambush, while keeping scouts on the lookout for the coming Russians.
Suddenly the Russians found themselves surrounded by a long line of
enemies, which had suddenly appeared in their front. The attack was
furious and irresistible; the defense weak and ineffective. Night was
at hand, but before it came five Russian warships had gone to the
bottom. A torpedo attack was made during the night and the general
engagement resumed next morning. When a halt was called, Admiral Togo
had sunk, disabled or captured eight battleships, nine cruisers, three
coast-defense ships, and a large number of other craft, the great
Russian fleet being practically a total loss, while Togo had lost only
three torpedo boats and 650 men. The losses in men by the Russians was
4,000 killed, and 7,200 prisoners taken. It was a naval victory which
for completeness has rarely been equalled in history.
Russia, beaten on land and sea, was by this time ready to give up the
struggle, and readily accepted President Roosevelt’s suggestion to hold
a peace convention in the United States. The terms of the treaty were
very favorable to Russia, all things considered; but the power of Japan
had been strained to the utmost, and that Power felt little inclined to
put obstacles in the way. The island of Sakhalin was divided between
them, both armies evacuated Manchuria, leaving it to the Chinese, and
Port Arthur and Dalny were transferred to Japan.
Yet though Japan received no indemnity and little in the way of
material acquisitions of any kind, she came out of the war with a
prestige that no one was likely to question, and has since ranked among
the great Powers of the world. And she has added considerably to her
territory by the annexation of Korea, in which there was no one to
question her right.
Since the events here described Japan has entered the concert of the
nations by an alliance with Great Britain for mutual defense in case of
either Power being attacked in the East. And this treaty bore fruit in
1914 when Japan, as an ally of Great Britain, took part in the war
between the great Powers of Europe by attacking Kiaochou, a district
and fortress held by Germany on the northern coast of China.
This was in accordance with the Japanese theory of “the Orient for the
Orientals” and its dislike of European aggression upon the Asiatic
coast. Japan went farther than this, taking possession of all the
islands held by Germany in the North Pacific—afterwards handed over to
Australia for administration—those in the South Pacific being at the
same time occupied by expeditions from New Zealand and Australia. In
this way the great European war was to a minor extent transferred to
the waters and lands of the Far East.