LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
There are two languages spoken in Hayti, French and Creole. French is
the language of public life and of literature, whilst Creole is the
language of home and of the people. President Geffrard, among other
eccentricities, used to extol the Creole as the softest and most
expressive of languages, and his countrymen are unanimously of his
opinion; but no Frenchman can accept as a language this uncouth jargon
of corrupt French in an African form.
No doubt, African languages, like those of other savages, are very
simple in their construction, and the negroes imported into Hayti
learned French words and affixed them to the forms of their own
dialects. Mr. J. J. Thomas of Trinidad has published a very painstaking
grammar of the Creole language as spoken in that island. I gather from
it that this patois is much the same as that spoken in Hayti; but in
our colony it holds the position of the Saxon in the Norman period, and
interpreters are required in our law-courts to explain the language of
the people. It shows also that in the French colonies of Martinique and
Guadaloupe, as in our French-speaking colonies, wherever the negroes
attempt to speak French, they do so in the same way that the Creole is
spoken in Hayti. I may add that the patois of the inhabitants of the
interior is so corrupt and African, that those who can converse freely
with the negroes of the coast are often puzzled when they visit the
mountains, and require an interpreter.
As this Creole language is spoken by about a million and a half
of people in the different islands of the West Indies, it merits
the attention which Mr. Thomas has bestowed upon it; and I would
refer those curious on the subject to this elaborate work, in which
everything possible is done to raise the status of a patois which
remains still, in my opinion, but an uncouth jargon.
There is naturally no Creole literature, but there are many songs and
proverbs, some of which may serve to show the kind of language spoken
by the Haytians.
The only songs which I can quote are written by persons familiar with
the French language, and therefore do not sufficiently represent the
pure Creole. The proverbs, however, are genuine, and are therefore the
reflex of popular ideas.
Moreau de St. Méry, who lived in Hayti during the latter part of last
century, quotes a song written about the year 1750, which, though often
reprinted, I will insert here, with a translation made by a Creole some
years later. St. Méry has all Geffrard’s admiration for the Creole
language, and thinks that the inarticulate sounds, which cannot be
rendered on paper, are the most admirable part of the language of the
Haytians, and perhaps it may be so:--
CREOLE. FRENCH.
Lisette quitté la plaine, Lisette tu fuis la plaine,
Mon perdi bonheur à moué, Mon bonheur s’est envolé,
Gié à moin semblé fontaine, Mes pleurs en doubles fontaines
Dipi mon pas miré toué. Sur tous tes pas out coulé.
La jour quand mon coupé canne, Le jour moissonnant la canne
Mon songé zamour à moué, Je rêve à tes doux appas,
La nuit quand mon dans cabane Un songe dans ma cabane
Dans dromi mon quimbé toué. La nuit te met dans mes bras.
Si to allé à la ville Tu trouveras à la ville
Ta trouvé geine candio, Plus d’un jeune freluquet,
Qui gagné pour trompé fille Leur bouche avec art distille
Bouche doux passé sirop. Un miel doux mais plein d’apprêt.
To va crér yo bin sincère Tu croiras leur cœur sincère,
Pendant quior yo coquin ho, Leur cœur ne veut que tromper:
C’est serpent qui contrefaire Le serpent sait contrefaire
Crié rat, pour tromper yo. Le rat qu’il veut dévorer.
Dipi mon perdi Lisette, Mes pas loin de ma Lisette
Mon pas souchié Calenda, S’éloignent du Calenda,
Mon quitté bram bram sonnette, Et ma ceinture à sonnette
Mon pas batte bamboula. Languit sur mon bamboula.
Quand mon contré lant’ négresse Mon œil de toute autre belle
Mon pas gagné gié pour li, N’aperçoit plus le souris,
Mon pas souchié travail pièce Le travail en vain m’appelle
Tout qui chose à moin mourri. Mes sens sont anéantis.
Mon maigre tant com ’guon souche, Je péris comme la souche,
Jambe à moin tant comme roseau, Ma jambe n’est qu’un roseau,
Mangé na pas doux dans bouche, Nul mets ne plaît à ma bouche,
Tafia même c’est comme dyo. La liqueur se change en eau.
Quand mon songé toué Lisette, Quand je songe à toi, Lisette,
Dyo toujours dans gié moin, Mes yeux s’inondent de pleurs,
Magner moin vini trop bête Ma raison, lente et distraite,
A force chagrin magné moin. Cède en tout à mes douleurs.
Liset’ mon tardé nouvelle, Mais est-il bien vrai, ma belle,
To compté bintôt tourné, Dans pen tu dois revenir:
Vini donc toujours fidèle, Ah! reviens toujours fidèle,
Miré bon, passé tandé. Croire est moins doux que sentir.
N’a pas tardé davantage, Ne tarde pas d’avantage,
To fair moin assez chagrin, C’est pour moi trop de chagrin,
Mon tant com ’zozo dans cage, Viens retirer de sa cage
Quand yo fair li mouri faim. L’oiseau consumé de faim.
It will readily be remarked that every word is a corruption of a French
one, and as no standard of spelling can exist in what may be called an
unwritten language, every writer has a distinct system of representing
Creole sounds. The seductive beauty of this language can only be for
the initiated, as the beauty of the native women is rarely remarked
except by those who have made a long voyage, and have almost forgotten
what beauty is. The versified translation of the song does not give an
exact idea of the construction of the Creole sentence, I may therefore
insert one verse with an interlined literal translation:--
Lisette, quitté la plaine,
_Lisette, quitta la plaine,_
Mon perdi bonheur à moué,
_Je perdis mon bonheur,_
Gié à moin semblé fontaine
_Mes yeux semblaient une fontaine_
Dipi mon pas miré toué.
_Depuis je ne te vois pas._
La jour quand mon coupé canne
_Le jour quand je coupe la canne_
Mon songé zamour à moué;
_Je pense à mes amours;_
La nuit quand mon dans cabane
_La nuit quand je suis dans ma cabane_
Dans dromi mon quimbé toué.
_Dans un songe je te tiens._
It is very difficult to find any very definite rules of grammar in this
song--
Lisette quitté (Lisette has left or left), Past.
Mon coupé canne (I cut the cane), Present.
Si to allé (if thou shouldst go), Subjunctive.
Ta trouvé (thou wilt find), Future.
Qui gagné (who possess), Present.
Absolutely the same form is preserved in all tenses and moods, and in
conversation various expedients are adopted to render the meaning clear.
A. M. L’Hérison, a Haytian, has written a song, which is quoted in Mr.
Thomas’s grammar, and as it represents the _cultivated_ Creole of the
present day, it is worth while inserting it:--
BADINEZ BIEN AVEC MACAQUE.
Grand ’maman moïn dit: nans Guinée
Grand mouché rassemblé youn jour
Toute pêpe li contré nan tournée
Et pis li parlé sans détour:
Quand zôt allez foncer nan raque
Connain coûment grand moune agi
Badinez bien avec Macaque,
Mais na pas magnié queue à li
Grand ’maman moïn, dit moïn bon qui chose
Lô li prend bon coup malavoume.
Li dit moin you ça, “Mourose,”
Nan tout ’grand zaffaires faut dit “Houme”
Mais peut-on flanqué moin youn claque
On pilôt terminer ainsi;
Badinez bien avec Macaque
Mais na pas magnié queue à li.
To get the true ring of popular Creole it is necessary to examine
their proverbs. M. J. J. Audain, a well-known Haytian, whose first
literary efforts brought him into trouble, has published a collection
which is very complete.[19] As Hayti becomes older as a nation and
loses its French element, we may have a distinct Creole literature.
There are many proverbs in M. Audain’s collection that would be quite
incomprehensible to an untravelled Frenchman:--
16. Soufflé fatras pou ou bonais d’lo.
17. Bonais d’lo, ranne couie.
124. Quand digdale vernis piquée, cale basse vide douée pringa corps li.
The following are easy enough to understand:--
174. Bouré empile pas allé avec piti figu.
(Too much hair does not suit a little face.)
60. Gé ouait, bouche pé.
(The eyes see, the mouth speaks.)
73. Chique pas jaimain respecté pié grand mouché.
(Jiggers never respect the feet of the gentry.)
Some are so simple that they do not require translation, as--
Moune qui rond pas capable vini carré zafaire mouton, pas zafaire
cabrite.
Calle pouésson, pas l’agent.
Toute bois cé bois, main mapon pas cajou.
Cé soulier qui connain si chanssons gangnain trou.
Quand ravette fait dause li pas janmain invité poule.
Pas janmain couri deux chimins à la fois.
Toute pouésson mangé moune, cé requin seul qui pôté blâme.
La fimée pas janmain lévée sans difé.
M. Audain’s collection contains one thousand and eleven proverbs; they
are constantly quoted by the people, who interlard their conversations
with them as much as ever Sancho Panza did. When speaking of a very
talkative person, they say, “Bouche li pas gagné dimanche” (his mouth
has no Sunday or day of rest).
It is scarcely necessary to multiply specimens of Creole proverbs or
translations. The former certainly convey a better idea of the language
spoken by the negroes than the latter, though, as written, it is much
more easily understood than when it is spoken. The negroes appear often
to clip their sentences, and leave it to the intelligence of the hearer
to divine their meaning.
Official documents are always written in French, more or less correct;
it is therefore unnecessary to refer particularly to them; but I may
remark that they have a set stock of phrases which are constantly
repeated. I will, however, quote a short official letter which amused
us.
A Haytian had committed, or was supposed to have committed, a crime,
and instead of being arrested and tried, he was ordered to be banished.
The letter addressed to him was as follows:--
LIBERTÉ, ÉGALITÉ, FRATERNITÉ.
RÉPUBLIQUE D’HAÏTI.
No. 392. QUARTIER-GÉNÉRAL DE PORT-AU-PRINCE,
_Le 30 Avril 1867,
An 64ᵉ de l’Independance_.
Le Général de Division, Chef d’éxécution de la volonté du peuple
souvrain, et de ses résolutions, et Vice-Président du Governement
Provisoire,
AU CITOYEN JULES C----.
MONSIEUR,--Dès la présente reçue, vous aurez à chercher une occasion
pour les plages étrangères, afin que vous partiez du pays qui a reconnu
en vous l’homme qui cherche à pervertir la société haïtienne.--Je vous
salue.
(Signed) V. CHEVALIER, G.
This Monsieur Chevalier had been educated in France, and was shrewdly
suspected of having had a hand in drawing up the _Acte de déchéance_
launched by the revolutionary committee of St. Marc in 1867 against
President Geffrard. Amongst the different articles are the following:--
“Attendu que le Général F. Geffrard assassine et empoisonne les
citoyens les plus éminents d’Haïti: attendu qu’il entretient à
l’étranger un très grand nombre d’espions et d’empoisonneurs _à un
prix exorbitant_: attendu que toutes les écoles de filles de la
république, notamment celles de Port-au-Prince, ont pour maîtresses
des femmes d’une vie dissolue, afin de faire de ces établissements des
maisons de séduction à son profit,” &c., &c.
A Frenchman inquired, “Etait-il indispensable pour incriminer Geffrard
sur ce dernier chapître de faire tort à toutes les demoiselles du pays?”
Among the most remarkable works published in Port-au-Prince may be
noticed the History of Hayti by Thomas Madiou (clear mulatto). As
it was written in the republic by a Haytian for Haytians, it may be
judged from that point of view. I have read it with great care and
with considerable interest, and some of the descriptions have been
much admired, as the detailed account of the attacks of the French
on the Crête-à-Pierrot. As an historical production it is a work
of considerable value and merit, for although full of prejudiced
statements, and with a strong leaning against foreigners, there is,
as far as local politics are concerned, an apparent desire to be
impartial. This, however, is not the general opinion. St. Rémy, in his
Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture, speaking of Madiou’s history, says, “Du
reste qu’il soit dit en passant que tout le livre de Monsieur Madiou
n’est qu’un tissu de faits érronés et de fausses appréciations.” The
French condemn it as a false account of the war of independence, and
resent the implied defence of Dessalines’ massacres. His partiality
may be proved by his asserting that the French Governor Blanchelande
was the instigator of the black insurrection. Madiou wrote his history
whilst in Hayti, and after searching for materials among the old
survivors of the war, whose prejudices were still warm. No doubt he was
influenced by them, but the industry shown is undoubted. The friends
and admirers of Toussaint had, however, a right to complain of the
evident wish to depreciate the qualities of almost the only black
Haytian who rose above mediocrity.
Occasionally M. Madiou’s style is very extravagant, as in the
description of a battle (see below[20]) which took place between the
coloured men of Jacmel and their black antagonists. Never was there
such desperate fighting since the days when--
“For Witherington needs must I wayle,
As one in doleful dumps,
For when his legs were smitten off,
He fought upon his stumps.”
M. Madiou is a mulatto, who has played a prominent part in the history
of his country, and his leanings are evidently in favour of his own
colour, and, as I have observed, he is severe on Toussaint L’Ouverture
for his endeavours to crush the attempts at independent command made by
Rigaud.
Another work of inestimable value for the students of Haytian history
is the one written by M. Beaubrun-Ardouin (fair mulatto). It is
entitled “Études sur l’Histoire d’Haïti.” M. Ardouin attempted to
collect in this work all the documents that could illustrate the
history of his country, and, at the time of his death, ten volumes
had already been published. He was for many years Haytian Minister
in Paris, which gave him full opportunities for examining the French
archives. I only knew him slightly; he was evidently a man of talent
and industry, but as he was justly credited with a prejudice against
the whites, he was generally avoided by them.
A Monsieur St. Rémy of Les Cayes wrote a Life of Toussaint, which is
but a poor production, and is full of prejudice and virulence against
both black and white.
A Frenchman, M. Edgar la Selve, has published a work called “L’Histoire
de la Littérature Haïtienne.” It is a volume of some interest,
containing as it does a collection of poetry written by natives, but it
is considered to be inferior in point of style and extravagant in its
appreciations. When you find M. La Selve ranking the crude productions
of a rude school with the writings of the most distinguished among
ancient and modern authors, one may readily feel that this work is an
offering to the vanity of acquaintances.
It is to be regretted that a person like M. La Selve should have
undertaken this task, as, instead of real criticism, which might have
proved of value, he puffs up the vanity and presumption of Haytian
writers by such observations as the following:--“Rapelle l’invotion
de Pindare”--“La grande éloquence et la magnificence des images”--“Sa
plume magique”--“La délicatesse de Charles Dovalle combinée avec la
grâce de Lamartine”--“Le nom modestement glorieux”--“Esprit vraiment
prodigieux et universel”--“Trois génies supérieurs”--“Cet autre
Augustin Thierry”--“Comparer aux dialogues de Platon.”
What more could be said of the best classics? No wonder this work was
unable to command any attention.
In the collection of poetry, it will be noticed that although there are
some very pretty verses, there are none of any remarkable merit. It is
not a special literature; there is seldom much local colouring: it is
rather a reflection of French productions where Lamartine holds the
place of honour.
It has been remarked by a French critic that the further we recede
from the time of the Declaration of Independence the worse the poetry.
The expressions become less exact, the phraseology common, the style
incorrect, with less cadence in the verses. The versification is seldom
accurate throughout any of these poems. It is but another proof of what
I have elsewhere stated, that Hayti is in a state of decay.
I may mention a few pieces that have struck a French friend as being
among the best. I prefer his judgment to my own, as I am one of those
who believe that no one can appreciate fully the poetry of another
nation; but as, in this case, my own opinion agrees with that of my
friend, I can take the responsibility of the judgment.
Coriolan Ardouin (mulatto) has written a very charming piece called
“Alaïda,” beginning thus:--
“Sur la natte de jonc qu’aucun souci ne ronge,
Ses petits bras croisés sur un cœur de cinq ans,
Alaïda someille, heureuse, et pas un songe
Qui tourmente ses jeunes sens.”
There is no local colour in this sonnet beyond, perhaps, the _natte de
jonc_. Only in the tropics are children to be seen sleeping on mats.
Dupré has written a patriotic hymn which might pass muster among
many others of the same kind. It closes with the following ferocious
sentiment:--
“Si, quelque jour, sur tes rives
Osent venir nos tyrans,
Que leurs hordes fugitives
Servent d’engrais à nos champs.”
Pierre Faubert (mulatto) has written several pieces which might be
quoted:--
LA NEGRESSE.
Le suis fier de te dire, O négresse, je t’aime,
Et la noir couleur me plaît, sais-tu pourquoi?
C’est que nobles vertus, chaste cœur, beauté même
Sont ce qui charme enfin, le ciel a mis en toi.
These lines might have been addressed to the pretty negress of
Pétionville of whom I have elsewhere spoken.
Another, “Aux Haïtiens,” is an appeal to union among blacks and
coloured.
There is a pretty song by Milscent (mulatto), in the style of Béranger,
commencing:--
“J’entends en mainte occasion
Prêcher contre l’ambition;
Mon âme en est ravie--(_bis_.)
Mais ceux qui nous parlent si bien
Regorgent d’honneurs et de biens
Cela me contrarie”--(_bis_.)
Ignace Nau (mulatto) contributes a very attractive piece called “Le
‘Ttchit’ et l’Orage:”--
“Voici, voici l’orage,
Là bas dans le nuage;
Voici le vent, le vent
Tourbillonnant au champ,
Et disant au feuillage
Repliez votre ombrage.
Au lac, à ses bambous,
‘Roulez, agitez vous.’
Au parfum ses délices
‘Refermez vos calices;’
Au palmier haut dans l’air,
‘Gardez-vous de l’éclair.’
Pauvre tchit égaré, chétif oiseau des champs!
Le mont a disparu sous les rideaux de pluie.
Hâte-toi, cher oiseau; viens t’abriter du temps,
Déjà l’eau du lac est ternie.”
And many more verses equally good.
Perhaps the most poetic piece in the collection is that written by
a Haïtienne, Virginie Sampeur, “L’Abandonnée,” which I will quote
entire:--
“Ah! si vous étiez mort, de mon âme meurtrie,
ferais une tombe, où, retraite chérie,
Mes larmes couleraient lentement, sans remords:
Que votre image en moi resterait radieuse.
Ah! si vous étiez mort.[21]
Je ferai de mon cœur l’urne mélancolique
Conservant du passé la suave rélique,
Comme ces coffres d’or qui gardent les parfumes;
Je ferais de mon âme une riche chapelle
Où toujours brillerait la dernière étincelle
De mes espoirs défunts.
Ah! si vous étiez mort, votre éternel silence
Moins âpre qu’en ce jour aurait son éloquence,
Car ce ne serait plus le cruel abandon.
Je dirais, il est mort, mais il sait bien m’entendre;
Et peut-être en mourant n’a-t-il peut se defendre
De murmurer:--Pardon.
Mais vous n’êtes pas mort! Oh! douleur sans mesure,
Regret qui fait jaillir le sang de ma blessure:
Je ne puis m’empêcher, moi, de me souvenir,
Même quand vous restez devant mes larmes vraies
Sec et froid, sans donner à mes profondes plaies
L’aumône d’un soupir.
Ingrat! vous vivez donc, quand tout me dit vengeance!
Mais je n’écoute pas! à defaut d’espérance
Une fantôme d’idole est mon unique port,
Illusion, folie, ou vain rêve de femme,
Je vous aimerais tant, si vous n’étiez qu’un âme.
Ah! que n’êtes vous mort.”
There is something superior in the tone and sentiment of this piece,
the only one of the author that M. La Selve publishes. I may notice
that Virginie Sampeur is a lady of colour. As she is still living,
I will only add that her poem tells her own story. As a rule, these
Haytian poets express fairly well all tender sentiments, but they are
wanting in a careful literary education, and they have not a very exact
appreciation of the genius of the French language.
In miscellaneous literature there are many publications of merit. Emile
Nau wrote an interesting book called “Histoire de Casiques,” although a
critic might fail to discover in it “une mine immense d’érudition.” It
is seldom that a Haytian writer dedicates himself to anything useful,
so that the efforts of Eugène Nau to bring superior agriculture into
vogue have a double merit. He is best known for his two productions,
“L’influence de l’Agriculture sur la Civilisation des Peuples” and
his “Flore Indienne.” I knew Eugène Nau very well. He was married to
a very charming woman, a sister of Auguste Elie, and no one who has
passed a few days at their estate in the plains of Cul-de-Sac will ever
forget the pleasant gaiety that reigned in that house. Civil war has,
however, devastated that portion of the country, and I fear that even
the inexhaustible spirits of Eugène Nau will scarcely be able to bear
him through such accumulated misfortunes. The small diplomatic corps
were ever welcome guests at Digneron, and I recall with pleasure the
evenings spent there with my French and Spanish colleagues. He had
a fund of intelligence and good sense; and his steady advocacy of a
metallic currency did honour to his perspicacity.
As might have been anticipated, the black portion of the population has
shown no literary aptitudes. Occasionally an Edmond Paul has written
a political essay which has fallen flat, or a Salomon has indited a
vigorous defence of his policy; but, as a rule, the coloured portion of
the population has produced the historians and poets of Hayti.