SELECTION OF SITES FOR CHINCHONA-PLANTATIONS ON THE NEILGHERRY HILLS.
The Dodabetta site--The Neddiwuttum site.
IN selecting sites for chinchona plantations in the Neilgherry hills
we had to compare the climate and other conditions of growth which
prevail in the chinchona forests and open _pajonales_ in the Andes
with any similar localities which might be found in Southern India.
For the first experimental sites, it was of course important that the
resemblance, as regards elevation, temperature, and humidity, should be
as close as possible; but there was every reason to hope that, under
cultivation, these plants, like most others, would adapt themselves to
conditions of soil and climate extending over a far more extensive area.
It was necessary to fix upon two sites in the first instance, one at
the highest point at which chinchona-plants were likely to flourish,
for the species from Loxa and others growing at great elevations,
and as an experimental plantation; and another in a lower and warmer
position for the plants of _C. succirubra_, _C. Peruviana_, _C.
micrantha_, and the tree _C. Calisaya_. The highest point at which
these plants will flourish, and the greatest exposure they will bear
without injury, are the most favourable conditions for the formation of
quinine; while, if the _sholas_ in the upper plateau of the Neilgherry
hills should prove to be adapted for their growth, their cultivation
might be indefinitely extended in a climate suitable for English
settlers.
Previous to my arrival on the hills Mr. McIvor had selected a site for
the highest plantation in a wooded ravine or _shola_ at the back of the
hills which rise above the Government gardens; and, after a careful
examination, I came to the conclusion that it was well suited for the
growth of the hardier species, and for the experimental culture of all
the kinds which have been introduced into India. It has been named the
"Dodabetta" site, from the peak, the highest point of the Neilgherries,
and 8640 feet above the sea, which rises up immediately behind it.
With regard to the species for which I considered the Dodabetta site
to be suitable, it will be well in this place to recapitulate the
circumstances under which they grow on their native mountains.
The shrub variety of _C. Calisaya_ (lat. 13° to 15° S.) flourishes
in open _pajonales_, quite exposed, at elevations from 5000 to 7000
feet above the sea, and in April and May I found the mean temperature
to be 60-1/3°, minimum 55°, and range 17°. The _C. nitida_ (lat. 10°
S.) grows at similar elevations, but we have no exact information
respecting the temperature and humidity. The varieties of _C.
Condaminea_ (lat. 4° S.) flourish at heights from 6000 to 8000 feet
above the sea, where the mean range is from 45° to 60°, in a moist
climate, and in exposed but always dry situations; and one kind,
the _C. crispa_, the seeds of which have been received in India and
Ceylon, grows in a deposit of peat, 8000 feet above the sea, in a
temperature falling as low as 27°.[417] The _C. lancifolia_ (lat. 5°
N.) is found at 7000 feet above the sea and upwards, where the annual
range is from freezing-point to 75°, in an exceedingly moist climate.
The rainy season lasts for nine months, when the constant rain is
only interrupted in the day by interchanging sun-rays and fog-clouds.
In the dry season cold clear nights follow days in which a warm sun
penetrates through the fog, which almost constantly lies on the damp
foliage of the forest.[418] Mr. Cross mentions that he saw trees of _C.
succirubra_ on his way to Loxa, growing at elevations of from 8000 to
9000 feet above the sea.
The site, in the Dodabetta ravine, slopes down from 7700 to 7600 feet
above the sea, yet, from local causes, it is several degrees warmer
than the station at Ootacamund; and the temperature agrees with that of
the species of chinchona-plants described above. The annual temperature
of the peak of Dodabetta, of Ootacamund, and of the warmer station of
Kotergherry, are given on the following page.
The Dodabetta site, being four or five degrees warmer than Ootacamund,
throughout the year, has a temperature, on the whole, somewhat warmer
than the lofty regions where the species of chinchona grow, for
the cultivation of which this position was selected. The elevation
above the sea exactly corresponds, and the amount of humidity is
about the same. The ravine is full of fine trees, with a variety of
exposures, the general aspect being north-west; a clear little stream
flows through it; and, in most parts, the soil consists of a rich
loam four or five feet deep. Outside the wooded ravine there are
tree Rhododendrons, Berberis, Gaultherias, lilies, Lycopodia, and
brake-ferns, scattered about on the grassy slopes; and the character of
the scenery and vegetation very closely resembles that of the _pajonal_
country between the valleys of Sandia and Tambopata in Caravaya, where
the shrub _Calisaya_ flourishes. The site is protected by rising
grounds from the cold northerly winds, and the colder breezes blowing
over it from ridge to ridge prevent the warm air in the ravine from
rising, so that the temperature became warmer as we ascended through
the wood, and in the highest part there were orchids and pepper-vines
hanging on the trees.
[Illustration: Observations by T. G. TAYLOR, and by Capt. OUCHTERLONY.]
The analogy between the flora of the Dodabetta ravine and of the
loftier parts of the chinchona region was another point which
influenced my decision. Within the ravine there are nine species of
chinchonaceous plants, namely--
_Hedyotis Lawsoniæ._
_Hedyotis stylosa._
_Lasianthus venulosus._
_Coffea alpestris._
_Coffea grumelioides._
_Canthium umbellatum._
_Grumilea elongata._
_Grumilea congesta._
_Psychotria bisulcata._
These are mostly ornamental pretty shrubs, from six to eight feet
high, with clusters of white or cream-coloured flowers. The other
genera of which the wood is composed are as follows:--_Vaccinium_,
_Myrsine_, _Symplocos_, _Ilex_, _Michelia_, _Sapota_, _Isonandra_,
and _Cinnamon_ among the trees; _Eugenia_, _Myrtus_, _Jasminum_,
_Osbeckia_, _Sonerila_, _Solanum_, _Viburnum_, and _Acanthus_ among
shrubs; _Lonicera_, _Passiflora_, _Rubia_, and _pepper-vines_ among the
climbers; with an undergrowth of _Lobelia_, _Begonia_, _Convolvulus_,
orchids, and ferns. The _Osbeckias_ and _Sonerilas_ represent the
melastomaceous plants, the constant companions of chinchonæ in South
America.
It was no small advantage that this excellent site for a chinchona
plantation was close to the Government gardens, and that it would thus
be under the constant supervision of Mr. McIvor. It receives a supply
of moisture during both monsoons, and is, therefore, as good a position
as could have been selected on the higher plateau of the Neilgherries,
though there are many _sholas_ which will be found equally well adapted
for the growth of the hardier chinchonas. These precious plants will,
it is to be hoped, before very long, form large plantations on all
parts of the hills, and become one of the most important products
of the Neilgherries. In the mean while Mr. McIvor, the Government
Superintendent, using the Dodabetta site as an experimental plantation,
will be enabled to demonstrate the successful results of chinchona
culture, and to raise thousands of plants for the supply of private
enterprise.
The most extensive operations must, however, necessarily be carried
on at much lower elevations, where the _C. succirubra_, the species
richest in febrifugal alkaloids, will flourish best, and where vast
unoccupied forests afford space for plantations on a large scale. A
northern aspect is the one best adapted for the vigorous growth of
trees on the Neilgherry hills, and we, therefore, proceeded to examine
the forest-covered slopes overlooking the table-lands of Wynaad and
Mysore, for a site for the lower chinchona plantation. We started from
Ootacamund early one November morning, and rode across the central
plateau of the hills, consisting of rounded grassy undulations,
intersected by wooded _sholas_. In some of the hollows the streams
had formed large swamps, where there were extensive deposits of peat.
The traveller's bungalow of Pycarrah, the first on the road towards
Wynaad, is ten miles from Ootacamund, on the banks of a river of the
same name. Several huge boulders of syenite obstruct the stream and
cause it to foam noisily round them, and the wet stones were covered
with _Podostemads_, herbaceous branched floating plants, with the habit
of liverworts. We saw several otters playing in the water, and peering
at us from behind the rocks. Six miles beyond Pycarrah is the bungalow
of Neddiwuttum, on the edge of the rapid descent into Wynaad, and the
road descends from the upland slopes through a jungle where the ferns
first appear, and maiden-hair, ceterach, and other ferns grow by the
roadside. Some garden marigolds from England had been planted near the
Neddiwuttum bungalow, and they had spread themselves in masses over the
adjacent slopes.
The tract of forest land which we came to examine is close to the
bungalow, and from the grassy hill above it there is a glorious view of
Wynaad, and of the plains of Mysore, stretching away to the horizon.
Here the mountains sink abruptly down to the Wynaad table-land, and
the Moyaar river thunders down in a long waterfall, divides Wynaad
from Mysore, and, flowing through a deep gorge to join the Bowany in
Coimbatore, eventually swells the waters of the great river Cauvery.
The land available for immediate occupation comprises about 400 acres
of uncleared forest on the mountain slopes, at an elevation from
a little over 6000 to a little under 5000 feet above the level of
the sea, and with a mean temperature about 8° warmer than that of
Ootacamund.
I selected this site for a plantation of _C. succirubra_, _C.
Calisaya_, _C. micrantha_, and the very delicate _C. Peruviana_,
because, with a good supply of water, and a deep rich soil on a base of
decomposing laterite and syenite, it had a suitable elevation above the
sea, temperature, and amount of humidity. The information we possess
on these points, with regard to the above species, is by no means
complete; but it is sufficiently exact to enable us to form a correct
opinion. Mr. Spruce gives the following details respecting the climate
of the region of _C. succirubra_, in latitude 1° 40´ S. The zone of the
"red bark" is from 2450 to 5000 feet above the sea.
Range in
Mean Min. Mean Max. Mean of Lowest Highest 24 hours.
for for Minima & ----
7 months, 7 months, Maxima, Temperature. Temperature. Entire range
1860. in 7 months,
MONTH. ° ° ° ° ° °
61-1/2 72-1/5 66-3/4 57 80-1/2 23-1/2
-----+-------+--------+---------+-----------+--------------+--------
° ° ° ° ° °
June 61-1/5 74 67-1/2 { 60-1/4 } { 77 } 12-4/5
{on the 27th.} {on the 29th.}
July 60 72-1/2 66-1/4 { 57 } { 80-1/2 } 12-1/2
{on the 11th.} {on the 27th.}
Aug. 61-1/3 74-2/3 68 { 59-3/4 } { 80-1/4 } 13-1/3
{on the 12th.} {on the 28th.}
Sept. 62-1/4 72-1/2 67-1/2 { 60 } { 80 } 10-1/4
{on the 16th.} {on the 19th.}
Oct. 62 70 66 { 60 } { 74 } 8
{on the 21st.} {on the 24th.}
Nov. 62-1/5 71 66-1/2 { 58 } { 75 } 8-4/5
{on the 29th.} {on the 30th.}
Dec. 62 71-1/2 66-3/4 .. .. 9-1/2
-------+-------+---------+-------+------------+--------------+-------
From the 1st of June to the 31st of December is the dry season in
the "red-bark" region, when the days are usually sunny in the early
morning, and mists generally begin to form as the sun declines; while
after the autumnal equinox there are heavy rains and thunder-storms. In
the wet season the early part of the day is foggy, and there is heavy
continuous rain during the afternoons and nights. In the region of _C.
Calisaya_, from 13° to 16° S. lat., and from 4000 to 6000 feet above
the sea, the dry season lasts from April to the end of August. April
and August are showery months. May is also showery, but clear in the
forenoons, and the mean temperature during the first half is 69°, mean
maximum 71-1/2°, and mean minimum 62-1/2°. June and July are hot dry
months, with little rain, a bright hot sun in the day, but cold clear
nights. In September the rains begin, increase in October, and pour
down incessantly from the beginning of November to the middle of March,
with very hot, damp days and nights. We have no detailed information
respecting the region of _C. micrantha_ and _C. Peruviana_, species
which flourish in 10° S. lat., from 4000 to 5500 feet above the sea.
From May to November the sun shines powerfully, yet heavy rains fell
from day to day in June and July 1860, and it was not until August
that the days were clear and bright. At Casapi, in this region, where
a register was kept, it rained during half the days in the year.[419]
From November to May is the rainy season, and sometimes the rain pours
down for six or seven days without intermission.[420]
The Neddiwuttum site, being about 8° or 10° warmer than Ootacamund,
has a temperature exactly similar to that of the forests where the
above species of chinchonæ flourish. Its elevation above the sea is
also the same as that of the chinchona forests. It is true that Mr.
Spruce gives the extreme upper limit of the "red-bark" region at 5000
feet; but Mr. Cross saw that species growing at an elevation of 8000
feet; and the great importance of cultivating this species at the
highest possible elevation is demonstrated by Mr. Spruce's observation
that the bark of trees growing low down and near the plains is by no
means so thick as that of trees which flourish in a loftier and more
temperate climate.[421] The Neddiwuttum site is within the limit of the
region which receives both monsoons. Though protected to some extent
from the south-west, it receives a full share of the rains during the
summer, and is also supplied with moisture by the north-east monsoon,
coming across Mysore between October and December. During the remaining
months it is visited by mists and heavy dews in the nights until
the south-west monsoon again commences in May. It will probably be
found that these species of chinchonæ will bear a much drier climate
than we at present suppose; and I have no misgivings that the amount
of humidity at Neddiwuttum will not be amply sufficient for their
successful cultivation. The only person who has visited this site since
its selection, who is capable, through personal knowledge of the South
American chinchona forests, of forming an opinion, is Mr. Cross. It is
exceedingly satisfactory to find that he not only approves of it for
the cultivation of plants of the "red-bark" species, but that, from the
superior depth and richness of the soil, he considers that they are
likely to thrive even better than in their native forests near Limon,
on the eastern slopes of Chimborazo.
In the Neddiwuttum forest, among other plants, I found the
_Hymenodictyon excelsum_,[422] wild yams, coffee-plants, cinnamon,
pepper-vines, _Andromedas_, _Osbeckias_, wild ginger, a _Balanophra_
with a scarlet flower, and abundance of orchids and ferns. On the
edge of the forest there was a little hut, merely a few branches
covered with grass, and leaning against the trunk of a tree, with
some empty honeycombs lying about. It was the habitation of a family
of Mooloo Kurumbers, a wild race who live in the forests, and run
away in great terror when any one approaches them. The establishment
of the plantation will soon make them alter their haunts from the
neighbourhood of Neddiwuttum.
The magnificent view from this point embraces a great part of Wynaad.
Far below there was a small coffee-estate, its bright green contrasting
with the more sombre hues of the surrounding forest; and more to the
left, though out of sight, is the extensive plantation which, together
with a tract of forest on the slopes of the Neilgherries, is owned by
Messrs. Ouchterlony and Campbell.
After passing the night at Pycarrah, we started next morning to examine
another site further to the eastward, and overlooking the plateau of
Mysore. We crossed several ranges of grassy hills, with streams in the
intervening valleys flowing through thickets of tree rhododendrons,
with the gorgeous crimson flowers just beginning to bloom, _Osbeckias_,
and a _Lasianthus_ with a beautiful glossy leaf. The hills were
dotted with a St. John's-wort with a bright orange flower (_Hypericum
Hookerianum_). We soon reached the edge of the plateau, overlooking
the low country, and looked down on the wide plains of Mysore, with
some Neilgherry peaks in advance of us, and a valley between, where
there was bright green cultivation, and crimson patches of amaranth,
surrounding the Badaga village of Choloor. Between the place where we
stood and the Choloor valley there were some fine patches of forest on
the steep hill-slopes; but they did not offer the same advantages as
Neddiwuttum for a first experimental chinchona plantation. This side
of the hills is drier, the soil poorer, and water is less abundant,
though it is nearer Ootacamund, and both labour and supplies are more
easily procurable. Returning to Ootacamund we rode up to a Todar-mund,
where something unusual had evidently occurred. About thirty Todars
were walking in a line through the forest glades below, and several
jackals were prowling about in the broad daylight. We afterwards heard
that a huge tiger had killed one of the Todar buffaloes that morning,
and retreated into the _shola_ on the edge of which we had just had
luncheon. They expected him to come out at sunset for his supper.
We continued our excursion to the summit of the Kalhutty peak,
overlooking the Seegoor ghaut, whence several fine tracts of
forest-land slope down; but Neddiwuttum was decidedly preferable in
every respect to all the localities which we examined on the northern
side of the Neilgherries, and to the eastward of that site. The part of
the hills on the south, towards Coonoor and Kotergherry, was out of the
question on account of the summer drought, as it is completely screened
from the south-west monsoon by the spurs from the Dodabetta peak; and
the forests towards the Sispara ghaut, being too far west to receive
moisture from the north-east monsoon, were not so good as Neddiwuttum,
at least for a first experiment.
When the success of the chinchona culture on the 400 acres of the
Neddiwuttum plantation is fully established, the experiment may then
be extended to the east and west, both by Government and through
private enterprise; and these precious barks may be expected to yield
remunerative profits to European speculators, while they will at the
same time confer an inestimable blessing on the native population.
Everything, however, depends upon the method which is adopted for the
cultivation of the chinchona-plants in the experimental plantations;
and, in a future chapter, I propose to give a detailed account of the
course of events, as regards the chinchona-plants on the Neilgherry
hills, up to the latest date.