[1] See Victor Mahillon, _Catalogue descriptif_, vol. ii. (Ghent,
1896), p. 353, No. 1126; and Captain C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue
of Musical Instruments_ (London, 1891), p. 62, No. 135.
[2] See N. Quellien, _Chansons et danses des Bretons_ (Paris, 1889),
p. 39, and note, where the description of the instrument is not
technical.
[3] See Le Gonidec, _Dictionnaire breton-francais_, ed. by T. Hersart
de la Villemarque; and N. Quellien, _op. cit_. p. 37, note.
[4] For examples of these see N. Quellien, _op. cit_. part ii.
BINMALEY, a town of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine
Islands, on the delta of the Agno river, about 5 m. W. of Dagupan, the
north terminus of the Manila & Dagupan railway. Pop. (1903) 16,439. It
has important fisheries, and manufactures salt, pottery, roofing (made
of nipa leaves), and nipa wine. Rice and cocoanuts are the principal
agricultural products of the town.
BINNACLE (before 18th century _bittacle_, through Span. _bitacula_, from
Lat. _habitaculum_, a little dwelling), a case on the deck of a ship,
generally in front of the steersman, in which is kept a compass, and a
light by which the compass is read at night.
BINNEY, EDWARD WILLIAM (1812-1881), English geologist, was born at
Morton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1812. He was articled to a solicitor in
Chesterfield, and in 1836 settled at Manchester. He retired soon
afterwards from legal practice and gave his chief attention to
geological pursuits. He assisted in 1838 in founding the Manchester
Geological Society, of which he was then chosen one of the honorary
secretaries; he was elected president in 1857, and again in 1865. He was
also successively secretary and president of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester. Working especially at the
Carboniferous and Permian rocks of the north of England, he studied also
the Drift deposits of Lancashire, and made himself familiar with the
geology of the country around Manchester. On the Coal Measures in
particular he became an acknowledged authority, and his _Observations on
the Structure of Fossil Plants found in the Carboniferous Strata_
(1868-1875) formed one of the monographs of the Palaeontographical
Society. His large collection of fossils was placed in Owens College. He
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1856. He died at Manchester
on the 19th of December 1881.
BINNEY, HORACE (1780-1875), American lawyer, was born in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, on the 4th of January 1780. He graduated at Harvard
College in 1797, and studied law in the office of Jared Ingersoll
(1749-1822), who had been a member of the Constitutional convention of
1787, and who from 1791 to 1800 and again from 1811 to 1816 was the
attorney-general of Pennsylvania. Admitted to the bar in Philadelphia in
1800, Binney practised with great success for half a century, and was
recognized as one of the leaders of the bar in the United States. He
served in the Pennsylvania legislature in 1806-1807, and was a Whig
member of the National House of Representatives from 1833 until 1835,
ably defending the United States Bank, and in general opposing the
policy of President Andrew Jackson. His most famous case, in which he
was unsuccessfully opposed by Daniel Webster, was the case of _Bidal v.
Girard's Executors_, which involved the disposition of the fortune of
Stephen Girard (q.v.). Binney's argument in this case greatly influenced
the interpretation of the law of charities. Binney made many public
addresses, the most noteworthy of which, entitled _Life and Character of
Chief Justice Marshall_, was published in 1835. He also published
_Leaders of the Old Bar of Philadelphia_ (1858), and an _Inquiry into
the Formation of Washington's Farewell Address_ (1859); and during the
Civil War he issued three pamphlets (1861, 1862 and 1865), discussing
the right of _habeas corpus_ under the American Constitution, and
justifying President Lincoln in his suspension of the writ.
See the _Life of Horace Binney_ (Philadelphia, 1904), by his grandson,
C.C. Binney.
BINNEY, THOMAS (1798-1874), English Congregationalist divine, was born
of Presbyterian parents at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1798, and educated at an
ordinary day school. After spending seven years in the employment of a
bookseller he entered the theological school at Wymondley, Herts, now
incorporated in New College, Hampstead. In 1829, after short pastorates
at Bedford (New Meeting) and Newport, Isle of Wight, he accepted a call
to the historic Weigh House chapel, London. Here he became very popular,
and it was found necessary to build a much larger chapel on Fish Street
Hill, to which the congregation removed in 1834. An address delivered on
the occasion of the laying of the foundation stone was published, with
an appendix containing a strong attack on the influence of the Church of
England, which gave rise to a long and bitter controversy. Throughout
his whole career Binney was a vigorous opponent of the state church
principle, but those who simply classified him as a narrow-minded
political dissenter did him injustice. His liberality of view and
breadth of ecclesiastical sympathy entitle him to rank on questions of
Nonconformity among the most distinguished of the school of Richard
Baxter; and he maintained friendly relations with many of the
dignitaries of the Established Church. He continued to discharge the
duties of the ministry until 1869, when he resigned. In 1845 he paid a
visit to Canada and the United States, and in 1857-1859 to the
Australian colonies. The university of Aberdeen conferred the LL.D.
degree on him in 1852, and he was twice chairman of the Congregational
Union of England and Wales.
Binney was the pioneer in a much-needed improvement of the forms of
service in Nonconformist churches, and gave a special impulse to
congregational psalmody by the publication of a book entitled _The
Service of Song in the House of the Lord_. Of numerous other works the
best-known is his _Is it Possible to Make the Best of Both Worlds?_ an
expansion of a lecture delivered to young men in Exeter Hall, which
attained a circulation of 30,000 copies within a year of its
publication. He wrote much devotional verse, including the well-known
hymn "Eternal Light! Eternal Light!" His last sermon was preached in
November 1873, and after some months of suffering he died on the 24th of
February 1874. Dean Stanley assisted at his funeral service in Abney
Park cemetery.
BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT, or briefly BINOCULAR,[1] an apparatus through
which objects are viewed with both eyes. In this article only those
instruments will be considered in which solid objects or _objects in
space_ are viewed; reference should be made to the article STEREOSCOPE
for the instruments in which _plane_ representations are offered to both
eyes. The natural vision is such that different central projections of
the objects are communicated to both eyes; the difference of the two
perspective representations arises from the fact that the projection
centres are laterally separated by an interval about equal to the
distance between the eyes (the inter-pupillary distance). Binocular
instruments should aid the natural spatial or stereoscopic vision, or
make it possible if the eyes fail. If the objects be so far distant
that the two perspectives formed by the naked eye are no more
distinguished from each other, recourse may be had to binocular
telescopes and range-finders; and if the objects be so small that, in
order to observe details on them, we must bring our eyes so close to the
objects that they cannot accommodate the images, recourse may be had to
binocular microscopes and magnifying glasses.
The construction of binocular instruments dates back over several
centuries, and has now been brought to great perfection. The subject of
their theory and history has been exhaustively treated by M. von Rohr,
_Die binokularen Instrumente_ (Berlin, 1907), the first publication to
present a complete account of these instruments.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
Telescope.
_Binocular Instruments for Observation only._--The first binocular
telescope, consisting of two telescopes placed side by side, was
constructed in 1608 by Johann Lipperhey, the inventor of the ordinary or
Dutch telescope. The subject was next taken up by the monks. The
Capuchin Antonius Maria Schyrlaeus (Schyrl) de Rheita (1597-1660)
described in 1645 the construction of double terrestrial telescopes.
Greater success attended the efforts of the Capuchin Cherubin d'Orleans,
who flourished at about the same time, and constructed large double
telescopes of the Dutch type of high magnification, for use in war, and
smaller instruments of lower magnification; these instruments were
provided with mechanism for adjusting to the interval between the eyes
of the observer (fig. 1). After these discoveries the subject received
no more attention until the 19th century; no improvements of these
instruments are recorded in the literature of the second half of the
18th century.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
The re-invention of the Dutch binocular telescope apparently dates from
1823, and is to be assigned to the Viennese optician, Johann Friedrich
Voigtlaender (1779-1859); but the credit of having placed these
instruments on the market probably belongs to J.P. Lemiere in Paris,
who, in 1825, took out a French patent for an improvement of the Dutch
double telescope. Lemiere's instruments were furnished with a common
focusing arrangement, and the adapting to the inter-pupillary distance
was effected by turning the two parallel telescopes round their common
axis. The development of this instrument was studied by opticians for
the remainder of the first half of the 19th century; the last
improvement apparently was made by P.G. Bardou in 1854, and by H.
Helmholtz in 1857 when he described the telestereoscope (fig. 2) with
telescopic magnification. By utilizing the telescope with
prism-inversion, devised in 1851 by Ignazio Porro (1795-1875), A.A.
Boulanger succeeded in producing a binocular of an entirely new type in
1859 (fig. 3). But he overlooked the possibility of increasing the
distance between the objectives; Camille Nachet introduced this
improvement in 1875, but his instruments did not meet with much
popularity. This was probably due to the fact that, at this time, the
manufacture of the glass for the prisms was too difficult; this was
overcome by E. Abbe, after the founding of the glass-works at Jena, who
effected, independently of his predecessors, the wider separation of the
objectives (fig. 4), and increased it in the telestereoscope (fig. 5),
or relief telescope, in a manner nearly approaching to Helmholtz's
proposal.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
Microscope.
The first binocular microscope was invented by the previously mentioned
Father Cherubin, whose instrument consisted of two inverting systems,
and consequently gave a totally wrong impression of depth, i.e.
depressions appeared as elevations, and vice versa, or, as we must say
after Charles Wheatstone, it presented a pseudoscopic impression; this
quality, however, was not recognized by the microscopists of the time.
The instrument subsequently fell into complete neglect for nearly two
centuries, to be revived in 1852 by Charles Wheatstone, who has stated
that he had previously studied the problem; the publication of his views
in his second great paper "On Binocular Vision,"[2] in the _Phil.
Trans._ for 1852, undoubtedly stimulated the investigation of this
instrument, which was carried on with zeal and success more especially
in England and the United States. In 1853 the American J.L. Riddell
(1807-1867) devised his binocular microscope, which contained the
essentials of Wheatstone's pseudoscope. F.H. Wenham, another
constructor, did not at first succeed in avoiding the pseudoscopic
effect, but, by the application of _refracting_ dividing prisms, he
subsequently arrived at orthoscopic representations and continued the
development of the different methods for producing micro-photographic
stereograms; this was effected in the first case by placing a diaphragm
over one half of the objective for each exposure, and in the second case
by a suitable direction of the illuminating pencil (fig. 6). Of greater
benefit, however, for stimulating interest in binocular microscopes, was
his invention of _reflecting_ dividing prisms (fig. 7). Other
experiments, begun by Powell and Lealand, and developed with greater
skill by Wenham, were concerned with the binocular vision of identical
images. Such an impression could not possibly be stereoscopic, and these
experiments led to the construction of a non-stereoscopic binocular
microscope. Of the other workers in this field mention may be made of
Alfred Nachet, who in 1853, and subsequently in 1863, brought forward
two forms of binocular microscope.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
The earliest stages of the development of the binocular microscope had
been always confined to those instruments with _one_ objective, in the
immediate neighbourhood of which the systems for dividing the pencil
were placed. At a later date attempts were made to separate the two
halves of the objective by modifying the eye-piece; this led to the
construction of stereoscopic eye-pieces, initiated by R.B. Tolles, E.
Abbe and A. Prazmowski. Of special importance is the work of Abbe;
although, as he himself has stated, his methods accidentally led to the
Wenham system, he certainly was far above his predecessors in his
theoretical treatment of the problem, and in the perspicuity and
clearness of his explanation. To him is also due the re-establishment of
the instruments, which Wenham had abandoned by reason of too great
technical difficulties (fig. 8). The newest form of the binocular
microscope is very similar to the oldest form in which two completely
separated tubes were employed. The inventor, H.S. Greenough, employs two
systems for setting up the image, in order to avoid the pseudoscopic
effect. After experiments in the Zeiss works, the erecting of Porro's
prisms simultaneously permitted a convenient adaptation to the
eye-distance of the observer.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
Simple microscope.
The first binocular magnifying glass or simple microscope (German,
_Lupe_) was devised by J.L. Riddell in 1853; in this instrument (fig. 9)
the pencil of light is transmitted to the eyes by means of two pairs of
parallel mirrors. Of the many different improvements mention may be made
of A. Nachet's. H. Westien made use of two Chevalier-Bruecke's simple
microscopes with their long working distances in order to form an
instrument in which the curvature of the image was not entirely avoided.
Mention may also be made of the binoculars of K. Fritzsch (formerly
Prokesch) and E. Berger.
_Binocular Instruments for Range-finding._--For measuring purposes
binocular telescopes with parallel axes are the only types employed. The
measurement is effected by adjoining to the space or interval to be
measured some means of measurement defined; for example, by a fixed
scale which extends into the space, or by a movable point
(_Wandermarke_). This instrument shows a transition to the stereoscope,
inasmuch as the scale or means of measurement is not directly observed,
but to each eye a plane representation is offered, just as in the
stereoscope; the space to be measured, on the other hand, is portrayed
in exactly the same way as in the double telescope. The method for
superposing the two spaces on one another was deduced by Sir David
Brewster in 1856, but he does not appear to have dealt with the problem
of range-finding. The problem was attacked in 1861 by A. Rollet; later,
in 1866, E. Mach published a promising idea, and finally--independently
of the researches of his predecessors--Hektor de Grousilliers, in
partnership with the Zeiss firm (E. Abbe and C. Pulfrich), constructed
the first stereoscopic range-finder suitable for practical use. (O. Hr.)